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Hinduism is perhaps the oldest continuing religion in the world, with sacred texts estimated to date back to 3000 B.C. Many of its traditions have lasted for eons, with origins lost in time. A Hindu wedding, one of the most sacred of rites, incorporates many of these timeless rituals and customs. In ages past, these traditions and rituals would extend over several days, but in today's hectic society, such a schedule is difficult to accommodate. Today, many of these traditions are performed the night before and the day of the wedding ceremony. The Hindu ceremony centers not just on the bride, but celebrates the coming together of two families. To illustrate this theme, many customs involve both families.

Hinduism has at its core the Vedas, the spiritual scriptures that are the heart of India's culture. The Vedas divide life into four distinct stages, or ashrams: studentship (brahmacharya ashram), householder (grahstha ashram), retirement (vanprastha ashram), and self-realization (sanyas ashram). Marriage, considered a samskara, or sacrament, is the transition from studentship to householder, and as such it forms the very foundation for the remaining two stages of life. Three-quarters of human life, then, depends on the success of marriage.

The Hindu wedding takes place inside a canopy called a mandap. The bride is sometimes painted in elaborate mendhi or henna designs covering her hands and feet before the ceremonies begin. The following ceremonies are meant to honor the couple's love and ensure the success of their marriage by invoking the blessings of various deities and joining the families in celebration.

Ganesh Poojan
Some Hindu ceremonies begin with an invocation to Lord Ganesh, or Ganesha, the Hindu god of wisdom and salvation. Ganesha is depicted as having an elephant's head. By invoking him, he removes any obstacles from the wedding ceremony. The ceremony may then be performed without hindrances. The Ganesh Poojan is performed anywhere from a few days to the night before the wedding.

Arrival of the Vara Yatra
As the groom and his party, together called the vara yatra, arrive at the ceremony site amidst much singing and dancing, the bride's parents, family and friends greet them with akshat (a kind of rice), tilak (a dot on the forehead), arati (a plate carrying a lighted lamp), and a garland.

Grahashanti
Before the wedding begins, the nine planets are invoked by name in a ceremony called grahashanti (peace with the planets). Blessings are received from each planet for the new couple's life together.

Kanyadan
The bride is often led to the mandap by a brother or uncle, where the groom waits with the bride's parents. The bride's parents offer their daughter in marriage in a pious and solemn ritual called kanyadan. They wash the feet of the bride and groom with milk and water, purifying them for their new life together. The bride and groom hold their hands open, and the father of the bride holds his open palm over their hands. The mother of the bride then pours water over her husband's hand, which subsequently falls on the hands of the bride and groom.

Hastamilap
This ceremony centers on the joining of the bride and groom's hands. The bride's right hand is placed on the right hand of the groom. Their hands are then tied together with a cotton thread wound several times, while the priest recites holy verses. Although a single thread can be easily broken, a thread wound many times creates an unbreakable bond; thus, the thread acts as a metaphor for the new marriage, bringing the couple together in an unbreakable bond.

The Wedding Ceremony
The bride and groom are next seated in front of a holy fire, or agni, as a priest recites various mantras from the Holy Scriptures. In Hinduism, fire is regarded as a purifier and a sustainer of life. In a ritual called mangalfera, the bride and groom walk around the fire four times (each a symbol of the four ashrams of life), praying and exchanging vows of duty, love, fidelity, and respect. The priest directs family members to make offerings into the fire. At the end of the ceremony, in a ritual called saptapadi, the bride and groom take seven vows, sealing the marriage forever. These vows are traditionally spoken in Sanskrit, and are one of the most ancient aspects of the Hindu ceremony. The vows validate the marriage; no ceremony is complete without them.

Dhruvadarshan
At the conclusion of the ceremony, the priest directs the newlyweds' eyes to the pole star, which remains steadfast in the sky though the stars around it move across the sky. So shall their new marriage be steadfast, though others may change around them.

There are additional ceremonies, such as bidhai and vadhupravesh, that center on leaving the ceremony site and welcoming the bride to the groom's home. And certain regions and sects have their own variations on the basic Hindu ceremony. Jain, Punjabi, Marathi, Gujarati, Tamil, Kashmiri, and Bengali ceremonies will all have their own unique customs that make Hindu weddings so special. And other Hindu-dominated regions, such as the island of Bali in Indonesia, have their own customs as well. For a religion as ancient and rich as Hinduism, its customs are as countless as they are timeless.

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Hinduism is perhaps the oldest continuing religion in the world, with sacred texts estimated to date back to 3000 B.C. Many of its traditions have lasted for eons, with origins lost in time.

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Weddings are a celebration of love and commitment, and can also be a celebration of the couple's religion and culture. One such ceremony that you might not be so familiar with? A Hindu wedding ceremony. Whether you're invited as a guest, attending as a member of the wedding party, or are simply curious, there are a few of the Hindu wedding rituals and traditions you should expect to see.

1. The Wedding Date is Determined in the Stars

Before the wedding, an auspicious time (known as the muhurta) is fixed for the event. Using the bride and groom's dates of birth, astrologists calculate the position of planets and stars to reflect the celestial union of the couple. During the ceremony, the gautra of both bride and groom (going back at least three generations) are announced. A gautra is the ancestral lineage or the ancestor's original clan (this is not related to caste or religion). In Hindu law, marriages should not take place within the same clan.

2. There's a Pre-Party Called the Sangeet a Few Days Before the Wedding

Prior to the actual the wedding, there's a pre-party called the sangeet where family comes together to sing, dance and revel in the joy of the upcoming union. Family members even give performances! The bride's family sings a traditional folk song to the groom's family to welcome them. The sangeet, which translates to "sung together," takes place a a few the mehendi ceremony that kicks off the wedding itself.

3. The Bride's Hands and Feet Are Adorned with Henna Paint During a Mehendi Ceremony

During the mehendi ceremony, which also takes place in Muslim weddings, henna is used to apply intricate designs to the bride's hands and feet. The mehndi ceremony usually takes place one day before the marriage will be held, as the application can take hours.

4. The Couple Weds Under a Mandap

The wedding mandap is a temporary structure constructed for the purpose of the marriage ceremony. It may appear on an elevated platform, and is decorated with anything from flowers and greenery to fabric and crystals.

5. A Fire Burns in the Center of the Mandap

In the center of the mandap, or wedding altar, a fire is kindled. A Hindu marriage is a sacrament, not a contract. To signify the viability of the ceremony, fire is kept as a witness and offerings are made. The bride's brother gives three fistfuls of puffed rice to the bride as a wish for his sister's happy marriage. Each time, the bride offers the rice to the fire. This offering is known as a homam.

6. The Couple Exchanges Floral Garlands During the Jai Mala

This is the part of the ceremony during which the bride and groom exchange floral garlands. This expresses the desire of the couple to marry each other. In the U.S., the ring ceremony usually follows.

7. The Father of the Bride Pours Water Through the Bride's Hand As He Gives Her Away

The moment the father gives the bride away is known as the kanyadaan. In the Hindu tradition, no man can claim a woman until she is offered. During the ceremony, the father of the bride places his daughter's hands into the groom's hands as a gesture of giving her away. The father of the bride may also pour water into the bride's hand, which will flow through her fingers and into the hand of her groom.

8. The Bride and Groom's Garments are Tied Together as They Circle a Fire

The saptapadi is an important ritual in North Indian Hindu weddings. During the saptapadi, the bride and groom have their garments tied together. In South India, the couple walks seven steps together to signify their friendship. In North Indian tradition, they make seven circles around a ceremonial fire, each round signifying a specific blessing they request of the gods. The main significance of saptapadi is establishing friendship, which is the basis of a Hindu marriage.

8. Red Powder is Applied to the Bride's Hair, Signifying She is Married

Sindoor, a red-orange powder, is applied to the part of a woman's hair, symbolizes her new status as a married woman and is applied to her hair during the ceremony.

9. The Bride Wears a Red Dress

The bride's garments will also be red (also the case for Muslim brides). In Indian culture, red symbolizes the rising sun, prosperity and fertility.

10. Hindu Wedding Rituals Begin with a Prayer to Ganesha

The ceremony begins with a prayer to Ganesha, the god of beginnings and good fortune and the remover of obstacles. Salutations are offered so that Ganesha may pave the way for the couple's married life.

11. Cords Are Tied to the Wrists of the Bride and Groom During Raksha Bandhan

Cords are tied to the wrists of both the bride and the groom. Marriage is considered to be an arduous stage in life, and the cords are meant as protection.

12. The Groom Adorns the Bride with a Necklace Called the Mangala Sutra

The groom places a necklace of black and gold beads on the bride. Traditionally, Lakshmi, the Hindu goddess of wealth, fortune and prosperity, is invoked in the mangala sutra and the bride is said to receive blessings throughout her marriage.
See more:
* This Couple Hosted Both a Hindu and Christian Ceremony in Just One Day
* A Vibrant Indian Wedding Outside of Detroit
* 8 Tips for Planning a Multicultural Wedding

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12 Hindu Wedding Ceremony Rituals and Traditions, Explained

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Weddings are a celebration of love and commitment, and can also be a celebration of the couple's religion and culture. One such ceremony that you might not be so familiar with? A Hindu wedding ceremony.

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CultureGrams Online Database: Subscriber Area Only

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Mehndi (or Hina) is the application of henna (Hindustani: हेना- حنا- urdu) as a temporary form of skin decoration, most popular in South Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, and Somaliland, as well as expatriate communities from these areas. It is typically employed for celebrations and special occasions, particularly weddings. Henna designs are usually drawn on the hands and feet, where the color will be darkest because the skin contains higher levels of keratin. The leaves of the henna plant contain a red-orange dye molecule, lawsone, which has an affinity for bonding with protein, and has been used to dye skin, hair, fingernails, leather, silk, and wool. Henna leaves are usually dried and ground into a powder, which is mixed into a paste and applied using a variety of techniques. The henna pasted is usually left on the skin for eight hours; after it is removed, the pattern continues to darken for approximately three days.

Henna has been used to adorn young women's bodies as part of social and holiday celebrations since the late Bronze Age in the eastern Mediterranean. The Night of the Henna, a ceremony during which henna is applied to the hands and feet of a bride-to-be, and often to other members of the wedding party, was celebrated by most groups in the areas where henna grew naturally: Jews, Muslims, Hindus, Christians, and Zoroastrians, among others, all celebrated marriages by adorning the bride, and often the groom, with henna. Henna was regarded as having "Barakah," blessings, and was applied for luck as well as joy and beauty. Henna body art has experienced a recent renaissance due to improvements in cultivation, processing, and the diasporas of people from traditional henna-using regions. Talented contemporary henna artists can command high fees for their work. Women in countries where women are discouraged from working outside the home can find socially acceptable, lucrative work doing mehndi.

Origins of Mehndi

The word "henna" comes from the Arabic name Hina for Lawsonia inermis. In the Bible's Song of Songs and Song of Solomon, henna is referred to as Camphire. In the Indian subcontinent, there are many variant words such as Mehndi in North India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. In Arabic-speaking countries in North Africa and the Middle East the Arabic word is "hina." In Telugu (India, Malaysia, U.S.), it is known as "Gorintaaku." In Tamil (South India, Singapore, Malaysia, Sri Lanka) it is called "Marudhaani" and is used as ground fresh leaves rather than as dried powder. It is used in various festivals and celebrations and used by women and children. It is left on overnight and will last one month or more depending on the plant and how well it was ground and how long it is left on. The different words for henna in ancient languages suggest that henna may have had more than one point of origin.

It is known that henna has been in use as a cosmetic, as well as for its supposed healing properties, for at least 5,000 years, but a long history of migration and cultural interaction has made it difficult to determine with absolute certainty where the tradition began. Some scholars claim that the earliest documentations of henna use are found in ancient Indian texts and images, indicating that mehndi as an art-form may have originated in ancient India. Others claim that the practice of ornamenting the body with henna was taken to India by the Moguls in the twelfth century C.E., centuries after it had been in use in the Middle East and North Africa. Another theory is that the tradition of mehndi originated in North Africa and the Middle Eastern countries during ancient times. Henna is also known to have been used in ancient Egypt, to stain the fingers and toes of the Pharaohs prior to mummification. Another possibility is that the similar use of henna for skin decoration arose independently and perhaps simultaneously in these regions.

It is theorized that dots of henna were first applied to the palms of the hands as a means of cooling down the body. Early users of henna began to add lines and other shapes to the single dot on the palm, eventually developing the elaborate designs used today.

Henna, Lawsonia inermis, also known as Henne, Al-Khanna, Al-henna, Jamaica Mignonette, Mendee, Egyptian Privet, and Smooth Lawsonia, is a small shrub found in the hot climates of India, Pakistan, Malaysia, Persia, Syria, Egypt, Morocco, Sudan, and other North African, Asian, and Middle Eastern countries. It produces a red-orange dye molecule, lawsone, which has an affinity for bonding with protein, and thus has been used to dye skin, hair, fingernails, leather, silk, and wool. Lawsone is primarily concentrated in the leaves, and is in the highest levels in the petioles of the leaf. The leaves, flowers, and twigs are ground into a fine powder, then mixed with hot water. Various shades are obtainable by mixing with the leaves of other plants, such as indigo. Tea, coffee, cloves, tamarind, lemon, sugar, and various oils are also used to enhance the color and longevity of design.

Products sold as "black henna" or "neutral henna" are not made from henna, but may be derived from indigo (in the plant Indigofera tinctoria) or cassia, and may contain unlisted dyes and chemicals.

Henna is commercially cultivated in western India, Pakistan, Morocco, Yemen, Iran, Sudan, and Libya. Presently the Pali district of Rajasthan is the most heavily cultivated henna production area in India, with over one hundred henna processors operating in Sojat City.

Traditions of Henna use

Henna has been used to adorn young women's bodies as part of social and holiday celebrations since the late Bronze Age in the eastern Mediterranean. The earliest text mentioning henna in the context of marriage and fertility celebrations comes from the Ugaritic legend of Baal and Anath, which has references to women marking themselves with henna in preparation to meet their husbands, and Anath adorning herself with henna to celebrate a victory over the enemies of Baal. Wall paintings excavated at Akrotiri (dating prior to the eruption of Thera in 1680 B.C.E.) show women with markings consistent with henna on their nails, palms and soles, in a tableau consistent with the henna bridal description from Ugarit. Many statuettes of young women dating between 1500 and 500 B.C.E. along the Mediterranean coastline have raised hands with markings consistent with henna. This early connection between young, fertile women and henna seems to be the origin of the Night of the Henna, which is now celebrated world-wide.

The Night of the Henna, a ceremony during which henna is applied to the hands and feet of a bride-to-be, and often to other members of the wedding party, was celebrated by most groups in the areas where henna grew naturally: Jews, Muslims, Hindus, Christians, and Zoroastrians, among others, all celebrated marriages by adorning the bride, and often the groom, with henna. Henna was regarded as having "Barakah," blessings, and was applied for luck as well as joy and beauty. Brides typically had the most henna, and the most complex patterns, to express their great joy, and their desire for luck. Some bridal traditions were very complex, such as those in Yemen, where the Jewish bridal henna process took four or five days to complete, with multiple applications and resist work.

A bride whose family is not wealthy wears her mehndi in place of ornate gold jewelery. It is said that when a bride has mehndi done for her wedding, the darker the design, the more her mother-in-law loves her. A good deeply-colored design is a sign of good luck for the marital couple. It is common for the names of the bride and groom to be hidden in the mehndi design; and the wedding-night cannot commence until the groom has found the names. A bride is not expected to perform any housework until her wedding mehndi has faded (and it is jokingly reputed that some lazy brides may secretly re-do their henna designs to prolong their leisure).

The patterns of mehndi are typically quite intricate and predominantly applied to brides before wedding ceremonies. However, traditions in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sudan sometimes expect bridegrooms to be painted as well. In Rajasthan (north-west India), where mehndi is a very ancient folk art, the grooms are given designs that are often as elaborate as those for brides. In Kerala (south India), henna is known as mylanchi and is commonly used by the Mappila (Muslim) community during weddings and festivals.

In Arabic and Persian speaking countries, such as Morocco, henna is applied for any special occasion. It is done during the seventh month of pregnancy, after having the baby, weddings, engagements, family get-together, as well as many other celebrations. Across the henna-growing region, Purim, Eid, Diwali, Karva Chauth, Passover, Nawruwz, Mawlid, and most saints' days were celebrated with the application of some henna. Favorite horses, donkeys, and salukis had their hooves, paws, and tails hennaed. Battle victories, births, circumcision, birthdays, Zar, as well as weddings, usually included some henna as part of the celebration. When there was joy, there was henna, as long as henna was available. Henna has many traditional and commercial uses, the most common being as a dye for hair, skin and fingernails, as a dye and preservative for leather and cloth, and as an anti-fungal. Henna was used as a hair dye in Indian court records around 400 C.E., in Rome during the Roman Empire, and in Spain during Convivienca. It was listed in the medical texts of the Ebers Papyrus (Sixteenth century B.C.E. Egypt) and by Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya as a medicinal herb. In Morocco, wool is dyed and ornamented with henna, as are drum heads and other leather goods. Henna will repel some insect pests and mildew.

The United States Food and Drug Administration has not approved henna for direct application to the skin. It is unconditionally approved as a hair dye, and can only be imported for that purpose. Henna imported into the USA which appears to be for use as body art is subject to seizure, and it is illegal to use henna for body art in the U.S., though prosecution is rare.

Preparation and application of Henna

Henna body art is made by applying henna paste to the skin: The lawsone in the paste migrates into the outermost layer of the skin and makes a red-brown stain. Whole, unbroken henna leaves will not stain the skin; henna will not stain skin until the lawsone molecules are released from the henna leaf. Fresh henna leaves will stain the skin within moments if they are smashed with a mildly acidic liquid, but it is difficult to form intricate patterns from coarse crushed leaves. Henna leaves are usually dried, ground, and sifted into a fine powder which can be worked into a paste that can used to make intricate body art. Commercially available henna powder is made by drying the henna leaves and milling them to powder, then the powder is sifted. Henna can be bought at a store in a plastic or paper cones. The powder is mixed with lemon juice, strong tea, or other mildly acidic liquids. Adding essential oils with high levels of "terps," monoterpene alcohols such as tea tree, eucalyptus, cajeput, or lavender, will improve skin stain characteristics. The henna mix must rest for six to twelve hours so that the leaf cellulose is dissolved, making the lawsone available to stain the skin. It is then mixed to a toothpaste consistency and applied using a number of techniques, including resist techniques, shading techniques, and thicker paste techniques. Henna paste is usually applied to the skin using a plastic cone or a paint brush, but sometimes a small metal-tipped jacquard bottle used for silk painting (a jac bottle) is used.

Once applied to the skin, lawsone molecules gradually migrate from the henna paste into the outer layer of the skin. Though henna's lawsone will stain the skin within minutes, the longer the paste is left on the skin, the more lawsone will migrate. Henna paste will yield as much dye as the skin can easily absorb in less than eight hours. The paste tends to crack and fall off the skin during this time, so it is often sealed down by dabbing a sugar/lemon mix over the dried paste, or simply adding some form of sugar to the paste. This also increases the intensity of the color. The painted area is often wrapped with tissue, plastic, or medical tape to lock in body heat, creating a more intense color on the skin. The wrap is worn overnight and then removed.

When the paste has fallen off the skin or been removed by scraping, the stain will be orange, but should darken over the following three days to a reddish brown. The final color can last anywhere from two weeks to several months depending on the quality of the paste. Soles and palms have the thickest layer of skin and so take up the most lawsone, and take it to the greatest depth, so that the palms of the hands and bottoms of the feet will have the darkest and most long-lasting stains. Steaming or warming the henna pattern will darken the stain, either during the time the paste is still on the skin, or after the paste has been removed. Chlorinated water and soaps may spoil the darkening process: alkaline may hasten the darkening process. After the stain reaches its peak color it will appear to fade. The henna stain is not actually fading, the skin is exfoliating; the lower, less stained cells, rise to the surface, until all stained cells are shed.

The style of mehndi varies from country to country, spanning different cultures and religious traditions, and making it possible to recognize cultural distinctions. Three main traditions can be distinguished, aside from the modern use of henna as a temporary tattoo. Generally, Arabic (Middle-Eastern) mehndi features large, floral patterns on hands and feet, while Indian (Asian) mendhi uses fine lines, lacy, floral and paisley patterns covering entire hands, forearms, feet and shins; and African mehndi art is large and bold, with geometrically patterned angles. African mehndi patterns often use black henna (potentially very toxic) while Asian and Middle Eastern mehndi is usually reddish brown (or orange). It is also a common custom in many countries to step into the mehndi, or simply apply the paste without creating a pattern in order to cool, protect or treat the skin (sometimes referred to as a "henna-shoe").

While much of the tradition and symbolism around the use of mehndi has been lost over the generations, in many places, henna is thought to hold special medicinal or even magical properties. It is used to help heal skin diseases, condition and color the hair, as well as prevent thinning hair, and to cool the skin to reduce swelling in hot climates. It is made into a beverage to heal headaches and stomach pain. Newly purchased homes in Morocco often have their doors painted with henna to wish for prosperity and chase away evil. Henna is used as a protection against the "evil eye." The foreheads of bulls, milk cows, and horses are sometimes decorated with henna for their protection. Tombstones in graveyards are sometimes washed with henna to please the spirits. While much of the symbolism of mehndi designs is being lost, some symbols remain popular, such as the peacock, which is the national bird of India, the lotus flower, and an elephant with a raised trunk, which is a symbol of good luck.

Though henna has been used for body art and hair dye since the Bronze Age, henna body art has experienced a recent renaissance due to improvements in cultivation, processing, and the diasporas of people from traditional henna using regions. The fashion of "Bridal Mehndi" in Northern Libya and in North Indian diasporas is currently growing in complexity and elaboration, with innovations in glitter, gilding, and fine-line work. Recent technological innovations in grinding, sifting, temperature control, and packaging henna, as well as government encouragement for henna cultivation, have improved dye content and artistic potential for henna.

Though traditional henna artists belonged to the Nai caste in India, and low-ranking barbering castes in other countries, talented contemporary henna artists can command high fees for their work. Women in countries where women are discouraged from working outside the home can find socially acceptable, lucrative work doing mehndi. Morocco, Mauritania, Yemen, Libya, Somalia, Sudan, as well as India and many other countries have thriving women's henna businesses. These businesses are often open all night for Eids, Diwali, and Karva Chauth, and many women may work as a team for large weddings, where hundreds of guests will be decorated with henna in addition to the bride and groom.

Popularity in the West

Mehndi decorations became fashionable in the West in the late 1990s, where they are sometimes called "henna tattoos." This term is not accurate, because tattoos are defined as permanent surgical insertion of pigments underneath the skin, as opposed to pigments resting on the surface. Mehndi, as a temporary, pain-free body decoration alternative to tattooing, is worn as a fashion accessory by both men and women. A number of Western musicians and Hollywood personalities have been seen sporting mehndi patterns, including actress Demi Moore, Gwen Stefani, Madonna, Nell McAndrew, Liv Tyler, "The Artist formerly known as Prince," and Drew Barrymore. Mehndi has been featured in a number of Western magazines including Vanity Fair, Harper's Bazaar, Wedding Bells, People, and Cosmopolitan.

Health effects

Chemical and allergic reactions

Allergic reactions to natural henna are rare. The onset of a reaction to natural henna occurs within a few hours, with symptoms including itching, shortness of breath, and/or tightness in the chest. Some people have an allergic reaction to an essential oil used to "terp" the mix, and others are allergic to lemon juice often used to mix henna. Lawsone, the dye molecule in henna, can cause hemolytic oxidation in people who have G6PD deficiency, an inherited enzyme deficiency. A large application of henna to a child with G6PD deficiency (such as on the scalp, palms and soles) may cause severe hemolytic crisis and may be fatal. Pre-mixed henna body art pastes may have ingredients added to darken stain, or to alter stain color. The FDA considers these to be adulterants and therefore illegal for use on skin. Some pastes have been found to include silver nitrate, carmine, pyrogallol, disperse orange dye, and chromium, which can cause allergic reactions, chronic inflammatory reactions, or late-onset allergic reactions to hairdressing products and textile dyes.

Black Henna

"Black Henna" is a misnomer arising from imports of plant-based hair dyes into the West in the late nineteenth century. Partly fermented, dried indigo was called "black henna" because it could be used in combination with henna to dye hair black. This gave rise to the belief that there was such a thing as "black henna" which could dye skin black. Indigo will not dye skin black.

In the 1990s, henna artists in Africa, India, the Arabian Peninsula and the West began to experiment with para-phenylenediamine (PPD)-based black hair dye, applying it as a thick paste as they would apply henna, in an effort to find something that would quickly make jet black temporary body art. PPD can cause severe allergic reactions, with blistering, intense itching, permanent scarring, and permanent chemical sensitivities. Estimates of allergic reactions range between 3 percent and 15 percent of people applying black henna to their skin. The use of true henna does not cause these injuries. Henna boosted with PPD can cause life long health damage. Once a person is sensitized to PPD, the use of synthetic hair dye can be life threatening. Para-phenylenediamine "black henna" use is widespread, particularly in tourist areas where customers want a quick result and there is a demand for body art that emulates "tribal tattoos."

1. ↑ E. Brauer, The Jews of Kurdistan (Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 1993).

2. ↑ P.K. Roy, M. Singh, & P. Tewari, Composition of Henna Powder, Quality Parameters and Changing Trends in its Usage. Henna, Cultivation, Improvement and Trade (Jodhpur, India: Central Arid Zone Research Institute).

3. ↑ Maureen Jones, What is Mehndi? EveryDay Mehndi. Retrieved December 13, 2007.

4. ↑ M. Singh, S.K. Jindal, Z.D. Kavia, B.L. Jangid, & Khem Chand, Traditional Methods of Cultivation and Processing of Henna, Henna, Cultivation, Improvement and Trade.

5. ↑ Johannes C. De Moor, The Seasonal Pattern in the Ugaritic Myth of Ba'lu According to the Version of Ilimilku (Neukirchen-Vluyn, Germany: Verlag Butzon & Berker Kevelaer).

6. ↑ C. Doumas, The Wall-Paintings of Thera (Athens, Greece: The Thera Foundation, 1992).

7. ↑ A. Hammoudi, The Victim and Its Masks, an Essay on Sacrifice and Masquerade in the Maghrib (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1993).

8. ↑ J. Saksena, Art of Rajasthan, Henna and Floor Decorations (Delhi, India: Sundeep Prakashan).

9. ↑ E. Westermarck, Ritual and Belief in Morocco (London, UK: Macmillan and Company, Limited).

10. ↑ A. Bosoglu, F. Birdane, and H. Solmaz The Effect of Henna (Folium Lawsonia) Paste in Ringworm in Calves, Indian Veterinary Journal 75, January.

11. ↑ J. Auboyer, J. (1965). Daily Life in Ancient India from 200 B.C.E. to 700 C.E. London: Phoenix Press.

12. ↑ Richard Fletcher, Moorish Spain (University of California Press, 2006, ISBN 978-0520248403R).

13. ↑ Cyril P. Bryan, Ancient Egyptian Medicine: The Papyrus Ebers (Ares Publishers, Inc., 1974, ISBN 978-0890050040).

14. ↑ I.Q. Al-Jawziyya, translation by P. Johnstone, Medicine of the Prophet (Cambridge, UK: The Islamic Texts Society, 1998).

15. ↑ FDA, Temporary Tattoos and Henna/Mehndi. Retrieved December 13, 2007.

16. ↑ P.K. Roy, M. Singh, & P. Tewari, Composition of Henna Powder, Quality Parameters and Changing Trends in its Usage, Henna, Cultivation, Improvement and Trade: 39-40.

17. ↑ A. Tauzin, Le Henne' art des femmes de Mauritanie (Paris, France: Unesco, Ibis Press Editions, 1998).

18. ↑ P. Raupp, J. Ali Hassan, M. V. Arughese, B. Kristiansson, Henna causes life threatening hemolysis in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, Archives of Disease in Childhood 85 (5): 411-412.

19. ↑ C. Van den Klybus, M.A. Morren, A. Goossens, Walking Difficulties Due to an Allergic Reaction to a Temporary Tattoo, Contact Dermatitis 53 (3): 180-181.

20. ↑ M. Stante, S. Giorgini, & T. Lotti, Allergic Contact Dermatitis from Henna Temporary Tattoo, Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology & Venereology 20 (4): 484-486.

21. ↑ P. Jung, G. Sesztak-Greinecker, F. Wantke, M. Götz, R. Jarisch, & W. Hemmer, A painful experience: black henna tattoo causing severe, bullous contact dermatitis, Contact Dermatitis, Blackwell Publishing Limited 54 (4): 219-220.

22. ↑ Henna Page, Life long damage from black henna. Retrieved December 13, 2007.

23. ↑ H. Sosted, J.D. Johansen, K. Andersen, and T. Menné. Severe allergic hair dye reactions in 8 children, Contact Dermatitis, Blackwell Publishing Limited 54 (2): 87-91.

References

al-Jawziyya, Ibn Qayyim. Medicine of the Prophet. Islamic Texts Society, 1998. ISBN 978-0946621224

Beukel, Dorine van den. Traditional Mehndi Designs a Treasury of Henna Body Art. Boston: Shambhala, 2000. ISBN 978-1570625589

Brauer, Eric. The Jews of Kurdistan. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 1993. ISBN 978-0814323922

Bryan, Cyril P. Ancient Egyptian Medicine: The Papyrus Ebers. Ares Publishers, Inc., 1974. ISBN 978-0890050040

Doumas, Christos. The Wall-Paintings of Thera. Athens, Greece: The Thera Foundation, 1992. ISBN 978-9602202746

Fabius, Carine. Mehndi the Art of Henna Body Painting. New York: Three Rivers Press, 1998. ISBN 9780609803196

Fletcher, Richard. Moorish Spain. University of California Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0520248403

Hammoudi, Abdellah. The Victim and Its Masks, an Essay on Sacrifice and Masquerade in the Maghrib. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1993. ISBN 978-0226315263

Mirza, Zaynab. Mehndi Body Painting. London: Carlton Books, 2007. ISBN 978-1847320308

Noble, Marty. Mehndi Designs Traditional Henna Body Art. Dover pictorial archive series. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, 2004. ISBN 978-0486438603

Roome, Loretta. Mehndi the Timeless Art of Henna Painting. New York: St. Martin's Griffin, 1998. ISBN 978-0312187439

Saksena, Jogendra. Art of Rajasthan. Delhi, India: Sundeep Prakashan, 1979. ASIN B0096S5U3O

Westermarck, Edward. Marriage Ceremonies in Morocco. London, UK: Macmillan and Company, Ltd., 1914. ASIN B008GN02ME

Westermarck, Edward. Ritual and Belief in Morocco. London, UK: Macmillan and Company, Ltd., 1926. ASIN B001O3B92K

External Links

All links retrieved September 14, 2018.

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Mehndi (or Hina) is the application of henna (Hindustani: हेना- حنا- urdu) as a temporary form of skin decoration, most popular in South Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, and Somaliland, as well as expatriate communities from these areas. It is typically employed for celebrations and special occasions, particularly weddings.

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Image Credit: YouTube

Mehndi is yet another traditional yet exciting pre wedding ceremony. In Indian weddings, a lot of emphasis is given on customs and rituals and the same is reflected in the Mehndi ceremony before marriage. Mehendi ceremony has become such an integral part of the wedding ceremony that it cannot be imagined without it. Furthermore, Mehndi is one of the sixteen adornments of the bride and her beauty is incomplete without it. Mehndi ceremony usually takes place just before marriage. According to the ritual, the bride does not step out of the house after this ceremony. Mehndi ceremony is essentially organized by the family of the bride and is usually a private affair which takes place in the presence of friends, relatives and family members. However, the scale of the ceremony depends upon individual choice. Some people celebrate it with great pomp and show.
Historical Background
Mehndi is one of the oldest forms of body art conceived by man. The Hindi and Arabic word Mehendi is derived from a Sanskrit word 'mendhika' which referred to the henna plant itself. Reference to uses of henna can be traced back to the Bronze ages. In the bible, henna is referred to a Camphire. In and around the Indian subcontinent, henna has been used as a cosmetic even before Vedic ages. India is considered as the source from where the body art traditions with henna spread to different parts of the world like Egypt, Asia Minor and the Middle East. References of henna during the mummification process of Pharaohs as well as anecdotes of the famous queen Cleopatra using henna to paint her body are well-known in history. Prophet Muhammad is known to use henna paste to color his graying beard and was known to advocate use of henna to others as well. Use of henna is considered immensely auspicious in many traditions around the world, especially within Hindus, who would consider Mehndi part of the customary 16 adornments or Solah Shringaar.

Image Credit: http://www.fashionlady.in/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/mehendi-ceremony-mumbai.jpg
Henna
Henna (Botanical name: Lawsonia inermis) is a small shrub-like plant, found in tropical climates of Indian sub-continent, Malaysia, Africa, Middle Eastern countries. The leaves and branches produce a red-orange dye known as Lawsone that is responsible for imparting the characteristic color when bound with protein molecules of the upper skin layer. The plant is commercially cultivated in Rajasthan, Punjab, Gujarat and parts of Madhya Pradesh.
Preparation of Henna Paste
Traditionally, the Mehndi paste is made from dried powdered henna leaves. The leaves are dried in sun, ground and sieved to obtain a fine mossy green powder, which is then combined with water, lemon juice, drops of eucalyptus oil, and mixed till a smooth paste is obtained. The paste is soaked overnight for maximum infusion and then poured inside a plastic cone. Smaller cones are preferred as it affords easier application.
Application
The tips of the cones are cut according to the preferred thickness of the lines needed. The cones are squeezed lightly to ensure smooth, continuous flow of Mehndi. Application is generally started from forearms, gradually moving down the hand, ending in the fingertips.

Image Credit: momentaryawe.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/mehndi.jpg
Design Trends
Gone are the days when certain aunties and sisters were in demand around the neighborhood for their expertise in Mehndi designs. Now Mehndi ceremony centers around professional Mehendi artist who specializes in the latest trends in henna art. Traditional Indian designs include peacock motifs, floral designs, bride/groom replicas and other elements that cover every inch of the hand, forearms, feet and calves. The fingertips are generally covered in thick layers of henna paste. The idea is to adorn the bride's body in imitation of expensive Jewelry. For those who are minimalists, they can choose Arabic designs where the Mehndi motifs are generally applied to one side of the hand and feet and do not extend to forearms or calves. Floral and paisley motifs dominate this style and the designs are generally curvy with lots of emphasis on vines. Indo-Arabic style of Mehndi fuses these two design trends into a classy, artistic genre. Latest trends in bridal henna designs is incorporation of colors in between henna motifs, addition of stones and blings, inclusion of glitters or metallic dusts. Geometric patterns and white henna designs are also in vogue today.

Image Credit: theweddinglovestory.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/designing-mehndi-to-brides.jpg
Aftercare
The henna needs to be kept on for a minimum of 4 hours for deep and uniform color. The longer the paste is kept, the deeper will be the color. The color actually intensifies depending on one's body heat, so the henna-painted body parts can be wrapped in plastic wraps or foils to seal in the body heat. A mixture of lemon juice and sugar should be applied on the designs with a brush or light cloth at 1 hour intervals so that the dried Mehndi does not fall off and stays put ensuring better color. Another way to ensure better color development is to dry roast some cloves on a tawa and letting the hands soak up the smoke. The Mehendi should never be removed by water after it has dried and should be done by simply rubbing the hands together as the dried bits come off easily.
The Ritual
The Mehendi Ceremony generally takes place the day before the wedding, in the morning. The bride and the groom's family observe this ritual separately at their own residences. It is traditionally a women centric ceremony with the men of the family generally not participating. The outfits preferred for the ceremony are simple, in light colors, nothing too flashy. The venues are decked up with flowers and colorful draperies. The bride wears a light yellow or light green colored Lehenga or Salwar Kameez with short sleeves preferably and the groom wears Kurta Pajama also in light colors. It is not compulsory for the groom to wear Mehendi, but a little bit is applied on his hands and feet in simple dots or small designs. The ceremony also involves application of oil on the groom's hair. The henna for the bride's ceremony has to arrive from the groom's side along with some other gifts like fruits, dry fruits and sweets. Women of the house assemble and the Mehndi is either applied by one of the bride's relative or nowadays by professional Mehendi artists. Designs are more elaborate and depending on what the bride prefers, the henna is applied on the front and back of her palm, forearm, till above the elbows, and on the feet till below the knee. Elderly ladies sing traditional Mehendi songs with dholaks and other musical instruments. Women relatives of the bride also get Mehendi applied to their hands, although the designs are not as elaborate as the bridal Mehendi.
Popular Beliefs
The Mehendi ceremony contains within itself a host of traditional beliefs that are handed down the generations. Traditionally, somewhere within the intricate bridal Mehendi, the groom's initial is included. In post marriage ceremonies, the groom has to look and find it out. This facilitates a nice ice-breaker for the newly wedded couple especially in case of an arranged marriage. It is also said that the darker the color of the Mehendi, the more love the bride will receive at her in-laws and especially from her husband. The longevity of the color of Mehendi has special significance as well. In older days when arranged marriages were predominant, the bride retaining her Mehendi while visiting her parents' house after the wedding signaled her mother that the in-laws were considerate and caring.
Significance
Use of Mehendi in a pre-wedding ritual is not just cosmetic but has deep underlying scientific reasons behind it. Henna is known for its cooling properties and is supposed to calm the bride's nerves when applied to her hands and feet.

Indian weddings comprise of a host of pre and post wedding rituals that extend the happy occasion through days before and after the actual wedding day. These colorful events bring the whole family together, even from far off places. The immediate and extended families, friends and neighbors get together to celebrate the union through various time-tested rituals throughout a span of several days. The Mehendi Ceremony is one such event that is an indispensible part of the wedding celebrations. Mehendi Ceremony generally refers to application of a henna paste in elaborate intricate designs on the bride's hands and feet. An immensely colorful event, with lots of singing and dance performances involved, the Mehendi ceremony officially kicks off the wedding festivities in full gear.

This ritual is not only part of Hindu weddings in Northern and Eastern India but also a part of the wedding rituals among Indian Muslims. The ceremony is observed in countries adjoining India like Pakistan and Nepal, as well as in several Arab countries in the Middle East.

Although, the ritual was predominantly observed in parts of northern India, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Punjab, the trend has gained popularity all over India. More and more cultures are embracing the idea of Mehendi Ceremony as a pre-wedding ritual mainly due to the aesthetics involved. The ceremony has become a symbol of grandeur, fun and festivities, and excuse for some major pre-wedding girl bonding.

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Image Credit: YouTube Mehndi is yet another traditional yet exciting pre wedding ceremony. In Indian weddings, a lot of emphasis is given on customs and rituals and the same is reflected in the Mehndi ceremony before marriage. Mehendi ceremony has become such an integral part of the wedding ceremony that it cannot be imagined without it.

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Indian tradition holds that a town or village without a temple is uninhabitable. The Mandir is not primarily considered a place for communal worship but the home of God, or the particular Deity. Temple activities thus revolve around the sacred image(s) installed upon the altar.

An appointed priest, or team of priests, normally perform the puja. One of the main functions of the temple is to create an atmosphere surcharged with spirituality and hence temples are often built on holy sites. During quieter periods the temple provides opportunity for peaceful reflection. At other times, it is a bustle of noise and activity.

Temples vary considerably in size, beginning with tiny outdoor shrines and humble village mandirs. The larger temples are elaborate and often the centre of an ashram (place of spiritual culture) with a large number of brahmana priests living within or nearby. The temple of Balaji in Tirupati ( South India) is reckoned to be the largest, with a total staff of over 6,000.

There are a number of architectural styles, but the chief ones are North Indian (Nagara) and the South Indian (Dravida). Details for temple construction are laid out in certain scriptures such as the Vastu-shastra and the Shilpa-shastra (see Shruti: The Four Vedas). To help build a temple (e.g. through offering financial support) is still considered an act of piety.

In the UK, the first temples tended to be converted public buildings, such as school halls and churches. They often have an orange flag flying from the roof. Now there are an increasing number of purpose-built mandirs, in both modern and traditional styles (or a combination of both.) Temples in Britain, unlike those in India, often double up as community centres where Hindus can meet and organise social, cultural, and charitable events. Throughout the UK, there are now about 150 temples featuring regular worship.

Temples vary considerably, but the diagram here show some of the important features of traditional buildings in North India. Buildings in the South or outside of India are often quite different.
Main External Features

An orange flag

Spires above the shrine (mainly in the north)

Gopurams - tall gateways (in the south)

Intricate carvings, usually of various deities

Tanks for bathing (especially in the south)

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Indian tradition holds that a town or village without a temple is uninhabitable. The Mandir is not primarily considered a place for communal worship but the home of God, or the particular Deity. Temple activities thus revolve around the sacred image(s) installed upon the altar.

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Hinduism: Sacred Spaces and Places | URI

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It is also very common for Hindus to worship at a home shrine, often as a whole family. There might be a statue or just a picture of the god or goddess. The shrine also contains things which represent the five senses.

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Rudraksha Puja Temple-Home Altar,Hindu Pooja/Puja Items,Pooja Item from India/HINDU POOJA SUPPLIES/ONLINE SAMAGRI

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Hindu Puja Items Online, Puja vessels, Pooja kits. Entire range of Rudraksha Hindu Pooja/Puja supplies including puja ingredients, deity pictures, rudraksha pooja samagri, how to do hindu poojas & set up puja altar. Blessed Rudraksha Puja item from India

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Enter the Access ID and Passcode provided by your school to access Britannica School.

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Kids learn about Raksha Bandhan. The history and facts about this holiday that celebrates the love of siblings and brother and sister.

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The festival of Rakhi, is just a couple of days away and families everywhere are preparing for the special day. Most of us are reminded of last minute gift shopping after glancing at a Rakhi special television ad that most popular brands launch during this time of the year. But to begin with Rakhi is not at all about gifts and sweets although like most Indian festivals, they form a part of the celebration. Rakhi signifies something very special; it is a celebration of love and brotherhood.

One can celebrate Rakhi, even if they do not have any siblings or cousins, by tying the 'knot of protection' on the wrists of their close friends, who then become honorary siblings for life. This being such a sweet ritual, with its roots in history and tradition has found its way into the secular world with several iterations, however still signifying the same relationship of lifelong friendship and support.

When it is Celebrated?

In India, the Rakhi ceremony takes place in the holy Hindu month of Shravan, on a full moon day. It usually falls in the English month of August in the middle of Indian monsoons. This year it will be celebrate on 26th Aug 2018.

How Is Rakshabandhan Celebrated?

Preparations start much ahead of the auspicious day, as it is a day for family and almost all the family members gather to celebrate and have fun. It is customary for everyone to buy new clothes to be worn on the special day. Once, it is time for the ritual, sisters and brothers sit facing each other. Then the sisters' tie the 'Rakhi' which may be a simple silk thread or one decorated with large amulets and trinkets on the wrists of their brothers.

This is followed by the Arti, which includes a special Indian 'thali' (plate) usually made of bronze or copper and used in special occasions, topped with a 'diya' which is a special scared holder that has cotton balls and oil or ghee and the cotton is lit on fire. The thali also includes sweets, holy red paste with vermillion sandal wood paste and others and a few sprigs of grass. This arrangement is quintessential to most Artis in India and signifies all that is holy in nature to the Hindus. Their symbolic meanings are rooted in the community's love and respect for their natural surroundings which forms a major part of Hinduism.

While performing the arti, the sister takes this thali and meticulously rotates it in front of her brother, while praying for his longevity, protection and success. The arti is followed by putting a red 'tilak' on the brother's forehead, which is yet another sacred symbol of the culture.

This marks the end of the rituals, which is then followed by both siblings feeding each other sweets. The day is marked by the entire family having together and enjoying each others' company. For those separated by distance, it is customary for sisters to send the 'Rakhi' threads well in advance to their brothers via post with well-wishing cards that cite good wishes.

Rakhi In Different Religions And Cultures

The festival of Rakhi mainly has its roots in Hinduism. But having a deep meaning of friendship and bond it has made its way into the secular world as a symbolic gesture of love and brotherhood amongst different communities. Rakhi has surpassed the boundaries of religious doctrines and has evolved into an all encompassing ceremony for all who cherish love and brotherhood in their lives.

Jainism and Sikhism are two religious that have been derived from Hinduism; both the communities also have the custom of Rakhi in their own iterations. In Jainism, the priests give Rakhi to their devotees, while in Sikhism Rakhi is celebrated in similar essence and is called as 'Rakhardi' or 'Rakhari'.

Origins In The Puranas

Like most religious ceremonies, Rakhi also has its origins in various Hindu mythological stories. Some early texts refer to Rakhi being celebrated by Lord Indra the God of Thunder and his wife Sachi. The story depicts that a fierce battle ensued between the gods and the demons and the demon king Bali couldn't be defeated. Seeing such a bloody battle, Indra's wife Sachi prayed to Lord Vishnu who gave her a holy cotton thread. This she tied on the wrist of her husband Lord Indra, who then emerged victorious in the battle.

On another slightly different account found in Vishnu Puaranas, it is said that Lord Vishnu after winning the 3 worlds had made a vow to the demon King Bali to reside by his side. But his wife Goddess Laxmi wanted to return to their holy abode Vaikuntha, so she tied a Rakhi around the wrist of King Bali and made him her brother. When he obliged to give her a gift for this gesture, she asked him to free her husband from the vow so that they could return to Vaikuntha, to which Bali agreed.

There are other accounts of the ceremony of Rakhi being performed by mythological characters of Hinduism, the Mahabharata depicts Draupadi tying Rakhi on Lord Krishna's arm while her mother-in-law Kunti, tied Rakhi on the arms of her grandson Abhimanyu before the battle of Kurukshetra.

Meaning Of Rakhi - In The Modern Context

Rakhi is much more than an auspicious holiday for Indians; it has a deep special meaning tied to its delicate thread, which is a sweet metaphor for most loving friendships and relationships of the world. Just like the 'Rakhi' thread that requires delicate handling and can still be strong when tied with determination, such is the love and brotherhood between those that celebrate this special day. Relationships also require constant care and protection from both ends to maintain the strong knot that offers protection.
Happy Rakhshabandhan to all!!!
Also Read : Why India is the Ultimate Destination for Culture Holiday

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About Raksha Bandhan Festival- The Celebration Of Siblinghood In India

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The festival of Rakhi, is just a couple of days away and families everywhere are preparing for the special day. Most of us are reminded of last minute gift shopping after glancing at a Rakhi special television ad that most popular brands launch during this time of the year.

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Rakhi Traditions & Customs : Raksha-Bandhan.com

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Rakhi traditions, rakhi customs, tradition of raksha bandhan, raksha bandhan rituals, traditional raksha bandhan, ceremony of raksha bandhan, rituals on raksha bandhan.

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Word document download: FCT-0303

Within the Hindu tradition there is no clear distinction between prayer, the chanting of mantras and the singing of songs and hymns.

A mantra is a standard phrase consisting of a number of syllables. It is often chanted repetitively a fixed number of times.

At the beginning of each mantra there is usually a seed (bija) mantra, such as 'aim', 'hrim' etc. The most common seed mantra is aum (om).

The mantra and symbol aum is associated with the primeval sound of creation. Some relate it to the sound of Krishna's flute or the ancient Gayatri mantra. It consists of three sounds - A, U, and M - which represent the three stages of awareness - wakefulness, dreaming and deep sleep. The total sound represents the fourth state - the soul's original spiritual awareness.

Mantras are usually chanted to invoke the favour and blessings of a particular deity.

Mantras can also be used for healing - or for ill intent, such as cursing.

According to tradition, the ancient warrior class would charge their arrows with mantra, thus invoking celestial weapons normally used by the residents of the heavenly realms. In the Mahabharata, we hear of weapons associated with various deities. The Agni weapon would produce great heat, the Varuna weapon torrents of water and the Vayu weapon could invoke a hurricane to destroy the enemy.

In many parts of rural India, physicians can still cure snakebites simply through using herbs and mantras.

Mantras are employed in meditation, mainly in two ways:
(a) through chanting quietly or silently on beads (this is called japa).
(b) chanting loudly, very often congregationally, to musical accompaniment (this is often called kirtan, glorification.

Prayers are of two main kinds:
(1) The offering of one's own heartfelt prayers in a spontaneous fashion.
(2) The recitation of standard prayers. These are often from the ancient Vedic texts or more recent vernacular literature.

There are standard ways of offering prayer. It should at least consist of:
(1) Some form of glorification.
(2) Asking for a benediction (though not always selfish or material).

As with most forms of worship, prayer is usually preceded by the ritual washing of one's hands and mouth.

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Word document download: FCT-0303 Within the Hindu tradition there is no clear distinction between prayer, the chanting of mantras and the singing of songs and hymns. A mantra is a standard phrase consisting of a number of syllables. It is often chanted repetitively a fixed number of times.

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Indian Hindu holy men, or Sadhus, run into the water at the start of the Maha Kumbh Mela in Allahabad (AP)

A sea of humanity assembled on the river bank as people waited patiently for their turn to step into the water. Men in underpants, women in saris and children - naked and clothed - chanted from Hindu scriptures as they walked into the icy-cold water.

The bathing process was initiated by religious heads of different Hindu monasteries who reached the bathing points, called ghats, riding silver chariots. Some were carried on silver palanquins, accompanied by marching bands. Applause rose from tens of thousands of pilgrims waiting behind barricades as the religious heads set off the ceremony.

(Daniel Berehulak/Getty Images)

The heads of the monasteries threw flowers on the devotees as they shouted "har har gangey," or Long Live Ganges.

The biggest spectacle was that of the Naga sadhus, or ascetics, who raced to the river wearing only marigold garlands in a cacophony of religious chants.

About 50,000 policemen have been deployed to keep order at the festival, fearing everything from terrorist attacks to the ever-present danger of stampedes of pilgrims. Several squads policemen on horseback regulated the flow of pilgrims to and from the bathing ghats.

(REUTERS/Ahmad Masood)

According to Hindu mythology, the Kumbh Mela celebrates the victory of gods over demons in a furious battle over a nectar that would give them immortality. As one of the gods fled with a pitcher of the nectar across the skies, it spilled on four Indian towns - Allahabad, Nasik, Ujjain and Haridwar.

The Kumbh Mela is organised four times every 12 years in those towns. Hindus believe that sins accumulated in past and current lives require them to continue the cycle of death and rebirth until they are cleansed. If they bathe at Ganges on the most auspicious day of the festival, believers say they can rid themselves of their sins.

(AP Photo/Kevin Frayer)

Tens of thousands of pilgrims slept the night on the vast festival grounds in more than 1 million tents - green, blue, and brown - erected all over, while many huddled together under trees. Some 20,000 makeshift lavatories have been have been erected, while 10,000 sweepers have been deployed to keep this makeshift tent town clean.

Source: AP

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Millions of Hindus plunge into Ganges River in India to wash away their sins

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Indian Hindu holy men, or Sadhus, run into the water at the start of the Maha Kumbh Mela in Allahabad (AP) A sea of humanity assembled on the river bank as people waited patiently for their turn to step into the water.

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Shivering and blue-lipped but smiling, Niraj Shukla emerged from the Ganges River this week, flanked by his parents and millions of other people, feeling renewed.

"The water is very cold, but once you have a bath - it's sort of a miracle, you know?" said Shukla, a 32-year-old engineer who lives in India's capital New Delhi.

The Shukla family were among the first of what's expected to be 150 million pilgrims all taking a dip in India's holy river through March 4 as part of the Kumbh Mela, a Hindu religious festival billed as the world's largest gathering of human beings at one event.

It happens every 12 years, its dates fixed according to the alignment of the stars and planets. This year is a half-Kumbh - six years since the last one - but it's nevertheless expected to be the biggest so far. The government officials and religious authorities who organize the event estimate that 15 million people showed up on Tuesday, the opening day.

For the 2019 event, some 200 miles of new roads were built to ferry pilgrims from all corners of India. They also come by train, or by boat down the Ganges, carrying their belongings in bundles balanced on their heads. Pilgrims sleep in a vast tent city at the river's edge, where temperatures slide toward freezing at night.

Rich and poor, tourists and ascetic monks, all squat side by side, chanting mantras.

They include naked dreadlocked holy men, Hindu priests draped in orange sarongs and garlands of marigolds, families with infants, foreign backpackers on spiritual journeys - and Shukla and his parents, who hail from the host city, Allahabad.

Shukla returns home whenever his hometown hosts the Kumbh. This is his third.

The bathing spot is at the confluence of three rivers: the Ganges, the Yamuna - two of India's biggest rivers - and the Saraswati, a mythical river which the faithful believe flows underground. A dip in the waters is said to be restorative, with the power to cleanse sin.

"You have work, you have tensions, you've committed some wrongdoings - you know these things deep down inside. Now you come over here, you take a dip, you feel that, 'I am in the company of some holy people - some saints,'" Shukla explains. "And then you step inside this holy water, and you feel inside that you have cleansed yourself."

Some people even drink the water, believing it to be curative, though scientists caution them not to. The Ganges and Yamuna rivers are already polluted from industry and sewage. With 120 million people bathing in them over the course of seven weeks, pollution levels spike from all those human beings.

It's as if the entire populations of California, Texas, Florida and New York all decided to go swimming in the same spot together.

There have been fires and stampedes in past years. But repeat visitors say this year's Kumbh appears orderly so far. Organizers say 30,000 police and security forces are on hand - plus 122,000 portable toilets and 20,000 trash cans. The budget of nearly $600 million - the most expensive Kumbh ever - is split between the state government of Uttar Pradesh and India's central government, both of which are currently governed by Hindu nationalists.

Four Indian cities rotate in hosting the Kumbh. They are all said to be located where Hindu lore says the gods accidentally dribbled holy nectar, or elixir, down from the heavens. Kumbh means "pot," a reference to the vessel holding the elixir; Mela means "fair" or "festival."

"There was a tussle between the devil and the gods. Some drops of elixir - amrit, we call it in Hindi - dropped at four places in India: Allahabad, Nashik, Ujjain and Haridwar," explains Gitanjali Verma, 28, another local who was attending her first Kumbh.

"It was a magical experience," she said after watching the first batch of Hindu holy men dunk in the river at sunrise. "It's just the faith, and the total purity of the heart and mind, which bring people here."

The crowd also includes foreign tourists.

"I'm an atheist, but because of this it's changing my point of view a little bit," says Spaniard Santiago Merodio, 42, who tacked a trip to the Kumbh onto the end of his India vacation, after attending a yoga retreat. "I'm searching for something [spiritually]."

This is the first year the city of Allahabad is hosting the Kumbh under its new name - Prayagraj. Hindu nationalists who govern Uttar Pradesh last year officially renamed the city to refer to an area of land at the confluence of the rivers where Kumbh takes place. The new name carries more significance to India's majority Hindus than the name Allahabad, which had been coined by a Muslim king during the centuries when northern India was ruled by the Mughals.

Another new twist to this year's Kumbh: huge billboards of Prime Minister Narendra Modi, who's running for re-election this spring. Many of these pilgrims are part of his Hindu nationalist voter base.

"We have to give credit to the ruling party, [Modi's BJP]. The elections are coming. If that means they install more toilets and organize this Kumbh in a more orderly way, that's great," Shukla says.

After their dip in the Ganges, he and his parents buy some grain and donate it to a Hindu monk who blesses them, chants a mantra and smears a fragrant paste called tilak on their foreheads as part of a Hindu ritual.

"I was shivering and trembling, but the moment I stepped into the water, I was just good," Shukla says. "Now I am going back to my home as a new person."

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Welcome To The World's Largest Gathering Of Humans

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Shivering and blue-lipped but smiling, Niraj Shukla emerged from the Ganges River this week, flanked by his parents and millions of other people, feeling renewed. "The water is very cold, but once you have a bath - it's sort of a miracle, you know?" said Shukla, a 32-year-old engineer who lives in India's capital New Delhi.

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A kaleidoscopic cloud hangs over India, where revellers mark the arrival of spring by throwing powdered dye with abandon, spraying water, and flooding the streets for raucous fun. Holi may be traditionally Hindu, but everyone is equal during this holiday. Color hides all class lines, the caste system disappears, and foreigners join the locals.

Underneath the dancing and colorful chaos lies unique culture and deeply rooted tradition. Here's what you need to know about Holi.

Starts Early

The colorful party makes up just one part of Holi. The night before on Holika Dahan, Hindus light dung and wood in a symbolic effigy to commemorate the demise of Holika. People throw the famed, colored powder on Rangwali Holi, the second day of the festival and most famous. People prepare much earlier by purchasing the powder and kids excitedly practice their aim. Certain groups focus more on the solemn, religious aspects: In the Braj region of India, for example, Holi celebrations stretch for 16 days.

Good Triumphs Over Evil

Holi gets its name from Holika, the demoness sister of evil King Hiranyakashyap in Hindu mythology. As the story goes, the villainous king tried to forbid his son Prahlad from worshiping one of the Hindu gods, Vishnu, but Prahlad persisted despite his father. So the king ordered Prahlad and Holika (who was immune to fire) to sit on a pyre, a wooden structure for burning a body as part of a funeral or execution. When the flames struck, Holika burnt to death in spite of her immunity to fire, and miraculously Prahlad prevailed because he called on the help of Lord Vishnu. So Holi celebrations serve as a reminder of the triumph of good over evil, reflecting the Hindu belief that faith and devotion leads to salvation that can be attained by everyone who believes.

Getting Stuffed

Families across India lovingly prepare gujiya, a dumpling-like sweet that filled with dried fruits and nuts spiced with cardamom. Countless variations exist, but common fillings include pistachios, cashews, coconut, and raisins, which everyone enjoys during fiery Holika Dahan.

Toasting With Cannabis Milk

Some people toast Holi with a bhang- a milky beverage mixed with a paste of the buds and leaves of cannabis grown high in the Himalayas. Consumed for 3,000 years, this weed milkshake connects through mythology to the powerful monk god Shiva-and sold in government-run bhang shops.

Legend holds that as a child, Krishna felt jealous of his beloved sister Radha's fair skin, much lighter than his own blue face. When he complained to his mother Yashoda, she teasingly replied for Krishna to paint Radha's face whatever color he chose, so he did. So the flying multihued pigments, called gulal, remind of the story of Krishna.

Natural Roots, Modernized

Back in the day, gulal was made from flowers, spices, and other natural materials like the brilliant Indian Coral Tree and the Flame of the Forest plants, offering medicinal properties and benefits for the skin. Synthetic dyes became common in the mid-19th century, offering higher profits. Today, most gulal used during Holi is synthetic from China, although the Indian government promotes national products and return to plant-based dyes. In 2012, around 200 people were admitted to a Mumbai hospital suffering from color poisoning.

Meaningful Colors

Much more than painting a pretty picture, the colors hold special significance. Red dye symbolizes love, fertility, and matrimony. Blue represents Krishna while green stands for new beginnings.

Cleaning Up

To preempt disaster, Hindus are advised to moisturize hair and skin well to help prevent the gulal from staining. Clothes typically do not survive.

Joining the Fun

Holi expands well beyond the Indian continent. Hindus celebrate in Bangladesh and Pakistan, plus other countries with large diaspora populations like Suriname, South Africa, and Malaysia. The United Kingdom and the United states also hold parties, concerts, and events across the country, making it possible for many to join the festivities.

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9 Things to Know About Holi, India's Most Colorful Festival

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A kaleidoscopic cloud hangs over India, where revellers mark the arrival of spring by throwing powdered dye with abandon, spraying water, and flooding the streets for raucous fun. Holi may be traditionally Hindu, but everyone is equal during this holiday. Color hides all class lines, the caste system disappears, and foreigners join the locals.

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The River Ganges is important in its own right. Some Hindus believe that it flowed from to humans. Sometimes the river is represented in female form because many Hindus refer to it as 'mother Gangaa' or 'she'.

There are various locations along the River Ganges which can attract millions of pilgrims. Many Hindus believe water (known as 'Gangaa jal') from anywhere on the River Ganges is purifying and holy.

The 55-day takes place every 12 years at the union of the rivers , and the , which is no longer visible. The most recent Kumbh Mela took place in 2013 and 120 million pilgrims attended.
BBC NEWS, RETRIEVED 2013
People enter the Ganges in order to purify themselves. Many pilgrims also take home small containers of water from there to give to friends and family who are not able to attend.

Some Hindus visit the Gangotri Temple in the Himalayas. It is situated near the source of the River Ganges, where the water is believed to be purest.

Nature and importance

Many pilgrimage sites are situated near to the River Ganges and reflect how important it is to Hindus.

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Pilgrimage - Revision 2 - GCSE Religious Studies - BBC Bitesize

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The River Ganges is important in its own right. Some Hindus believe that it flowed from to humans. Sometimes the river is represented in female form because many Hindus refer to it as 'mother Gangaa' or 'she'.

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is probably the most well-known and popular Hindu festival. The word 'Divali' translates as 'full of light' and Divali is known as the festival of lights because of this.

The festival celebrates the victory of good over evil, light over darkness and knowledge over ignorance, although the legends that go with the festival differ in the following ways:

in Northern India, celebrates Prince Rama's return after defeating the demon Ravana

in some parts of India, the festival honours , the goddess of wealth

in Nepal, Divali commemorates the victory of Lord Krishna over the demon king Narakasura

in Bengal, it is associated with , the goddess of time and death

Traditional lamps are small clay pots filled with or oil, containing a cotton wick. Many Hindus light a diva as an act of daily worship.

Many Hindu homes, shops and public places are decorated for Divali. Lights are the main feature, eg fairy lights and candles, as well as traditional diva.

Colourful patterns called can be seen on the doorsteps of homes to welcome visitors and good fortune in the shape of Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth. Some Hindus will leave the windows and doors of their houses open so that Lakshmi can enter and grant good fortune.

Many Hindus start the new business year at Divali. Some also celebrate the Hindu New Year on the day after Divali.

The festival is often prepared for and celebrated by:

cleaning the home

putting up decorations

cooking feast food, particularly Indian sweets and puddings

re-telling Divali stories through drama, song, dance and art

wearing new clothes

exchanging gifts and cards

firework displays

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Festivals - Revision 1 - GCSE Religious Studies - BBC Bitesize

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
is probably the most well-known and popular Hindu festival. The word 'Divali' translates as 'full of light' and Divali is known as the festival of lights because of this.

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is probably the most well-known and popular Hindu festival. The word 'Divali' translates as 'full of light' and Divali is known as the festival of lights because of this.

The festival celebrates the victory of good over evil, light over darkness and knowledge over ignorance, although the legends that go with the festival differ in the following ways:

in Northern India, celebrates Prince Rama's return after defeating the demon Ravana

in some parts of India, the festival honours , the goddess of wealth

in Nepal, Divali commemorates the victory of Lord Krishna over the demon king Narakasura

in Bengal, it is associated with , the goddess of time and death

Traditional lamps are small clay pots filled with or oil, containing a cotton wick. Many Hindus light a diva as an act of daily worship.

Many Hindu homes, shops and public places are decorated for Divali. Lights are the main feature, eg fairy lights and candles, as well as traditional diva.

Colourful patterns called can be seen on the doorsteps of homes to welcome visitors and good fortune in the shape of Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth. Some Hindus will leave the windows and doors of their houses open so that Lakshmi can enter and grant good fortune.

Many Hindus start the new business year at Divali. Some also celebrate the Hindu New Year on the day after Divali.

The festival is often prepared for and celebrated by:

cleaning the home

putting up decorations

cooking feast food, particularly Indian sweets and puddings

re-telling Divali stories through drama, song, dance and art

wearing new clothes

exchanging gifts and cards

firework displays

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Festivals - Revision 1 - GCSE Religious Studies - BBC Bitesize

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
is probably the most well-known and popular Hindu festival. The word 'Divali' translates as 'full of light' and Divali is known as the festival of lights because of this.

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In a community mandir , the shrine, where the murti are kept, is the central and most important part. There is often a tower, which signifies the presence of the murti.

Some community mandir are dedicated to a particular Hindu god or goddess, whose murti takes pride of place and is the main focus of worship.

Generally there are three main traditions within Hinduism:

People are asked to remove their shoes and sometimes to wash their hands before entering the mandir, as it is considered respectful to be clean before God. There may be singing of bhajans and sometimes a learned scholar may read aloud or explain passage from the Bhagavad Gita or the Devi Mahatmyam .

A special type of puja called yajna (or havan) is the ritual of the sacred fire found in the Vedas . The priest recites mantra from the Vedas as ghee is poured into the fire. Rice, coconut and other foods are offered as a sacrifice to the fire god Agni , and placed in the flames.

Some Hindus have yajna/havan to wish for special blessings, eg as part of a wedding ceremony or when they are moving into a new home.

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Worship - Revision 2 - GCSE Religious Studies - BBC Bitesize

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In a community mandir , the shrine, where the murti are kept, is the central and most important part. There is often a tower, which signifies the presence of the murti. Some community mandir are dedicated to a particular Hindu god or goddess, whose murti takes pride of place and is the main focus of worship.

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Common to virtually all Hindus are certain beliefs, including, but not limited to, the following:

a belief in many gods, which are seen as manifestations of a single unity. These deities are linked to universal and natural processes.

a preference for one deity while not excluding or disbelieving others

a belief in the universal law of cause and effect (karma) and reincarnation

a belief in the possibility of liberation and release (moksha) by which the endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara) can be resolved

Hinduism is bound to the hierarchical structure of the caste system, a categorization of members of society into defined social classes. An individual's position in the caste system is thought to be a reflection of accumulated merit in past lives (karma).

Observance of the dharma, or behavior consistent with one's caste and status, is discussed in many early philosophical texts. Not every religious practice can be undertaken by all members of society. Similarly, different activities are considered appropriate for different stages of life, with study and raising families necessary for early stages, and reflection and renunciation goals of later years. A religious life need not be spiritual to the exclusion of worldly pleasures or rewards, such as the pursuit of material success and (legitimate) pleasure, depending on one's position in life. Hindus believe in the importance of the observation of appropriate behavior, including numerous rituals, and the ultimate goal of moksha, the release or liberation from the endless cycle of birth.

Moksha is the ultimate spiritual goal of Hinduism. How does one pursue moksha? The goal is to reach a point where you detach yourself from the feelings and perceptions that tie you to the world, leading to the realization of the ultimate unity of things-the soul (atman) connected with the universal (Brahman). To get to this point, one can pursue various paths: the way of knowledge, the way of appropriate actions or works, or the way of devotion to God.

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Beliefs of Hinduism (article) | India | Khan Academy

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Learn for free about math, art, computer programming, economics, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, finance, history, and more. Khan Academy is a nonprofit with the mission of providing a free, world-class education for anyone, anywhere.

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Hinduism for kids doing their homework. Hinduism is the world's third most popular religion, with around 900 million followers.

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Varna

Varna

An important idea that developed in classical Hinduism is that dharma refers especially to a person's responsibility regarding class ( varna) and stage of life ( ashrama). This is called varnashrama-dharma. In Hindu history the highest class, the Brahmins, adhered to this doctrine. The class system is a model or ideal of social order that first occurs in the oldest Hindu text, the Rig Veda and the present-day caste (jati) system may be rooted in this. The four classes are:

Brahmans or Brahmins - the intellectuals and the priestly class who perform religious rituals

Kshatriya (nobles or warriors) - who traditionally had power

Vaishyas (commoners or merchants) - ordinary people who produce, farm, trade and earn a living

Shudras (workers) - who traditionally served the higher classes, including labourers, artists, musicians, and clerks

People in the top three classes are known as 'twice born' because they have been born from the womb and secondly through initiation in which boys receive a sacred thread as a symbol of their high status. Although usually considered an initiation for males it must be noted that there are examples of exceptions to this rule, where females receive this initiation.

The twice born traditionally could go through four stages of life or ashramas. The ashrama system is as follows:

Brahmacarya - 'celibate student' stage in which males learned the Veda

grihastha - 'householder' in which the twice born male can experience the human purposes (purushartha) of responsibility, wealth, and sexual pleasure

Vanaprastha - 'hermit' or 'wilderness dweller' in which the twice born male retires from life in the world to take up pilgrimage and religious observances along with his wife

Samnyasa - 'renunciation' in which the twice born gives up the world, takes on a saffron robe or, in some sects, goes naked, with a bowl and a staff to seek moksha (liberation) or develop devotion

Correct action in accordance with dharma is also understood as service to humanity and to God. The idea of what has become known as sanatana dharma can be traced back to the puranas. Those who adhere to this idea, addressing one's eternal dharma or constitution, claim that it transcends other mundane dharmas - that it is the para dharma, the ultimate dharma. It is often associated with bhakti movements, who propose that we are all eternal servants of a personal Deity, thus advocating each act, word, and deed to be acts of devotion. In the 19th Century the concept of sanatana dharma was used by some groups to advocate a unified view of Hinduism.

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Brahman and God

Brahman

Brahman is a Sanskrit word which refers to a transcendent power beyond the universe. As such, it is sometimes translated as 'God' although the two concepts are not identical. Brahman is the power which upholds and supports everything. According to some Hindus this power is identified with the self ( atman) while others regard it as distinct from the self.

Most Hindus agree that Brahman pervades everything although they do not worship Brahman. Some Hindus regard a particular deity or deities as manifestations of Brahman.

God

Most Hindus believe in God but what this means varies in different traditions. The Sanskrit words Bhagavan and Ishvara mean 'Lord' or 'God' and indicate an absolute reality who creates, sustains and destroys the universe over and over again. It is too simplistic to define Hinduism as belief in many gods or 'polytheism'. Most Hindus believe in a Supreme God, whose qualities and forms are represented by the multitude of deities which emanate from him. God, being unlimited, can have unlimited forms and expressions.

God can be approached in a number of ways and a devoted person can relate to God as a majestic king, as a parent figure, as a friend, as a child, as a beautiful woman, or even as a ferocious Goddess. Each person can relate to God in a particular form, the ishta devata or desired form of God. Thus, one person might be drawn towards Shiva, another towards Krishna, and another towards Kali. Many Hindus believe that all the different deities are aspects of a single, transcendent power.

In the history of Hinduism, God is conceptualised in different ways, as an all knowing and all pervading spirit, as the creator and force within all beings, their 'inner controller' ( antaryamin) and as wholly transcendent. There are two main ideas about Bhagavan or Ishvara:

1. Bhagavan is an impersonal energy. Ultimately God is beyond language and anything that can be said about God cannot capture the reality. Followers of the Advaita Vedanta tradition (based on the teachings of Adi Shankara) maintain that the soul and God are ultimately identical and liberation is achieved once this has been realised. This teaching is called non-dualism or advaita because it claims there is no distinction between the soul and the ultimate reality.

2. Bhagavan is a person. God can be understood as a supreme person with qualities of love and compassion towards creatures. On this theistic view the soul remains distinct from the Lord even in liberation. The supreme Lord expresses himself through the many gods and goddesses. The theologian Ramanuja (also in the wider Vedanta tradition as Shankara) makes a distinction between the essence of God and his energies. We can know the energies of God but not his essence. Devotion (bhakti) is the best way to understand God in this teaching.

For convenience Hindus are often classified into the three most popular Hindu denominations, called paramparas in Sanskrit. These paramparas are defined by their attraction to a particular form of God (called ishta or devata):

Vaishnavas focus on Vishnu and his incarnations (avatara, avatars). The Vaishanavas believe that God incarnates into the world in different forms such as Krishna and Rama in order to restore dharma. This is considered to be the most popular Hindu denomination.

Shaivas focus on Shiva, particularly in his form of the linga although other forms such as the dancing Shiva are also worshipped. The Shaiva Siddhanta tradition believes that Shiva performs five acts of creation, maintenance, destruction, concealing himself, revealing himself through grace.

Shaktas focus on the Goddess in her gentle forms such as Lakshmi, Parvati, and Sarasvati, or in her ferocious forms such as Durga and Kali.

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This article explains the Hindu concepts of Atman, Dharma, Varna, Karma, Samsara, Purushartha, Moksha, Brahman, Bhagavan and Ishvara.

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Dharma is a Sanskrit word originally meaning order or solidity or normality. It comes from an earlier Indo-European (Yamnaya) word meaning firm, solid, like wood or a tree. Hindus later on used it to mean something like "law" or "duty" - it's the laws of nature that keep order in the universe, like Greek " nomos ". But, like Greek "nomos", dharma is also the laws of the gods and of people, that tell us how to behave, upright like a tree.

People sometimes think of dharma as being related to the Chinese idea of the Tao - the Way, that is the right way. The more you live in accordance with your dharma, the quicker you stop being reborn and get to nirvana.

In Hindu thought, people had different dharma depending on who they were. People were supposed to know their place and behave according to whether they were boys or girls, their caste and their stage in life - children had different dharma from their parents, for example. So the idea of dharma was one of the main ways of convincing people to put up with the oppression of women and the oppression of the caste system and slavery. But it was also a way for people to feel that they knew who they were and what they should do - for people to feel centered in the world.

The Bhagavad Gita is a section of the Indian epic The Mahabharata where the god Krishna explains dharma to the prince Arjuna. Arjuna doesn't want to fight and kill people in a battle, but Krishna tells him that it is his dharma, and finally Arjuna agrees to fight.

Bibliography and further reading about Hinduism:

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Dharma is a Sanskrit word originally meaning order or solidity or normality. It comes from an earlier Indo-European (Yamnaya) word meaning firm, solid, like wood or a tree. Hindus later on used it to mean something like "law" or "duty" - it's the laws of nature that keep order in the universe, like Greek "nomos".

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What is karma?

Karma is the Sanskrit word for "action" or "doing something." It comes from an earlier Indo-European word meaning "to make" or "to do".

Hinduism and karma

Karma was a central idea in the Indian religion of Hinduism. People thought that whenever you did anything, it affected your future life, and especially your reincarnation. (Compare this to Taoist or Zen Buddhist ideas in China.)

How did karma work?

According to Hindu ideas of karma, if you did something good for other living creatures, you got good karma. This would help you in the future. For instance, if you helped a friend to understand the assignment, you would pile up some good karma. That might make sure the teacher asked you only questions to which you knew the answers.

On the other hand, if you did something bad, like killing a spider, you would get bad karma. Maybe when you fell down you would scrape your knee. Americans sometimes say, "What goes around comes around."

Buddhism and karma

In Hinduism, people saw your karma as something given to you by the gods. The gods decided everything that happened. In Buddhism, though, the gods were left out of it, and karma just happened naturally: good deeds lead to good results, just as apple seeds lead to apple trees.

In fact, the whole idea of karma - that it matters whether you are good or bad - may not go back much before the beginnings of Buddhism, maybe about 500 BC. Karma may be an idea that came to India from other cultures. It might have come from Chinese Taoists or Buddhists. They were beginning to visit India at this time as the Silk Road got started.

Karma in the Bhagavad Gita

The Bhagavad Gita, probably written sometime around 300 BC, is mostly a long discussion of dharma and karma between Krishna and the prince Arjuna.

So what is karma? Did this article answer your questions? Let us know in the comments!

Bibliography and further reading about Hinduism:

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Karma is the Sanskrit word for "action" or "doing something." It comes from an earlier Indo-European word meaning "to make" or "to do". Karma was a central idea in the Indian religion of Hinduism. People thought that whenever you did anything, it affected your future life, and especially your reincarnation.

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Hinduism is notable for its emphasis on home worship. Most Hindus have a shrine at home. For some this will be a few pictures on a shelf in the living room or kitchen. Others, particularly the more wealthy, will dedicate a whole room to worship and meditation.

The shrine will contain images of the family's chosen deity, either as a framed picture or in the form of a murti. Worship is often a scaled-down version of the elaborate puja performed in the mandir and performed by the ladies of the household, early in the mornings. Children may also be taught their tradition by actively involving them in such worship.

In some homes, all food is offered to the deities before eating. In order to keep the home pure and sanctified, Hindu people usually do not wear shoes inside. Some will also avoid other habits they consider unclean, such as smoking and drinking, eating meat, and having dogs and cats inside the house. Most Hindus consider it essential to bathe at least once a day, especially before worship.

Glossary terms

Kula-deva - the traditional family deity
Ishta-deva - the specific deity a person chooses to worship

Quote

At home, all our food is offered to God. My Mum puts a little of each dish into stainless steel bowls on a tray. Then she puts it on the shrine and says some prayers while ringing the bell. Afterwards we all say a prayer before eating.

(Subhadra, aged 11)

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Hinduism is notable for its emphasis on home worship. Most Hindus have a shrine at home. For some this will be a few pictures on a shelf in the living room or kitchen. Others, particularly the more wealthy, will dedicate a whole room to worship and meditation.

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Hannah Dallas 22031065 Strengths of worship in the home A major part of Hinduism is the idea of letting go of all earthy possessions and focusing on a true love of God. They want to make God feel like a family member in the house so by having a shrine there, it is inviting God

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A mandir has many internal features, which one can fully appreciate only by visiting. Below we list what we might experience on entering a temple. Some mandirs have fewer facilities, and others far more. The more elaborate are often part of an entire complex that includes residential quarters, guest rooms, and educational facilities.

Racks for shoes (sometimes manned in larger temples)

The fragrance of incense

Main hall (temple room)

Bell to ring upon entry - to announce one's arrival to the deity

Pictures/posters of saints, deities, and associated stories

Hindu symbols

Musical instruments - including drums, cymbals, harmonium

Sacred books - for reading and giving lectures

Main shrine (at the front); often many smaller shrines, usually to the sides

Donation box before the shrine

Murtis within the shrine areas

Charanamrita (holy water in a bowl near the altar)

Prasada, sacred food, handed to worshippers at the altar, or as they leave

Priest or priests

Kitchen and dining area

Auditorium for music, drama, dance, and other cultural performances

Shop selling religious artifacts, books, and other religious souvenirs.

The temple administrative office

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A mandir has many internal features, which one can fully appreciate only by visiting. Below we list what we might experience on entering a temple. Some mandirs have fewer facilities, and others far more. The more elaborate are often part of an entire complex that includes residential quarters, guest rooms, and educational facilities.