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Old age is a social construction. Different societies have different interpretations of old age from beginning to end; and therefore, the elderly are treated differently everywhere. Cross-cultural comparisons of the status of elderly people show some discrepancy between societies.

Victor (1987) suggests that the status of the elderly depends on several factors, including the nature of social organisation – where elderly people are viewed as a burden because they are no longer able to easily follow the nomadic lifestyle .

Some societies feel that the elderly are unwanted and can even have them killed. Some societies see them as independent and hard working. Some societies see them as valuable and respected. Kagan's (1987) study found that in a Columbian village, the elderly were both economically and socially active in the community and were physically well enough too. In North American and Western societies, the elderly that have control over a lot of economic resources have a high social status - inferring the idea that the key to the elderly having high status and respect in some societies lies in the economic control and resources they have. Cultural perspectives also play a role in the elderly's status.

Among the Sherbo in Sierra Leone, the status of the elderly increases as they become more incoherent as it is believed that they communicating with their ancestors. In other communities, those who age are also respected and valued as it is believed that they are closer to the afterlife. In Western societies, the status of being elderly has drastically evolved over the past century. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, many U.S. households were home to multigenerational families, and the status and wisdom of elders was valued. They offered wisdom and support to their children and often helped raise their grandchildren. However, in modern industrial societies, the status and social position of the elderly is arguably dissimilar, although social position in modern societies is not simply a function of age but is complicated by concepts of class and gender. Elderly men may have greater social status than elderly women. These ideas reflect a symbolic annihilation of the elderly, through which their social position is degraded by ‘making them different’.

Modernisation theory suggests that the lower social position of the elderly in industrial societies is depicted by the fact that they are a distinctive status group.  As societies modernise, the status of elders decreases and they are increasingly likely to experience social exclusion due to being ‘underemployed, untrained in the latest technologies and separated from family/community networks’. (Cowgill 1974)

Abrams (2005) argues that ‘age prejudice between the generations’ is more common than sex or race discrimination, something that holds true across both gender and ethnic boundaries. However, Kiemo (2004) argues that social and economic change does not have a profound impact, which makes it difficult to see the elderly in a different social group. Additionally, Meadows (2003) argued that job performance does not decline with age. It is further supported that the control over economic resources is the prominent cause of the lower status of the elderly, and is not due to the fact that they are simply old but instead because it is the younger age group that has control over the economic resources. The political economy theory links age with work. Townsend (1986) argued that the elderly are progressively eliminated from the workplace.

Postmodernists focus on two arguments regarding life choices: The decline of social position of the elderly is not inevitable and irreversible AND  that although certain age milestones still exist, the meaning of age to post-modern societies is increasingly fluid, people do not confine themselves to categorisable behaviours as Gretzky (1996) suggested concepts of age no longer have a privileged position. Post-modernists also argue that ideas pertaining to age-relating characteristics are distinguished based on culture and location. Traditional ideologies of age slowly fade because of cultural globalisation. People are perpetually being exposed to different ideas and steadily individually from their own notion of age.

Disengagement Theory:

It suggests that as people biologically age they perpetually disengage themselves from social relationships both intentionally and un-unintentionally. The older a person, the more the likelihood of family and friends disengaging through death, predominantly making it a two-way process.

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Activity Theory:

It focuses on how people learn and choose to play age-related roles. From this position, disengagement occurs continually as people make decisions through their age. People leave and form new groups, known as "active re-engagement".

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Social Generational Theory:

It examines the impact of biological ageing processes on a persons self-perception and identity. It particularly suggests that behavioural choices are accustomed by values that do not change along with the industrialisation and development. The elderly become immigrants in their time - Dowd (1986). They remain trapped in their original identity, unable to change to the new norms after having gotten used to their originally formed identities.

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Debates about the social position of the elderly in different societies

Old age is a social construction as societies associate different starts, meanings, status and significance to the elderly in different ways.

These differences can be found in:

Social markers - compulsory retirement in industrial societies

Interpretations of their social position

There are still qualitative variations in these groups. Modern societies such as the United Kingdom and the United States have differences in the relationship between the elderly and other social groups.

Victor in 1987 argues that the position of elderly people is based on a number of factors, including: the natural existence of a social organisation – where elderly people are viewed as burdensome because they are no longer able to follow the nomadic lifestyle easily.

There are also different views where -

Many cultures find that they (the elderly)  live off their hard work - this includes the Western society  Whereas other  societies view them as useful and hold them to a highly respectable account.  Research by Kagan (1987) showed that elderly people in South America (Columbia) were both socially and economically involved in the society and often physically healthy.

Management of social resources is another aspect. Social resources may be linked to information, expertise and economic resources. Societies such as Europe and America, who respect economic wealth value the Elderly who have such means, making their social status important. Societies like American Indian tribes value the elderly for their knowledge and give them a higher status - typically the elder men.

The elements of spiritual beliefs about the afterlife is another contributing factor to the social position of the elderly.  For other cultures, elders are more respected as they are assumed to have a spiritual future. The more incoherent an individual is, for example, among the Sherbro of Sierra Leone, their status improves as it is assumed that they are speaking directly to their forefathers.

The position of the elderly is unique in contemporary industrial societies, and its status becomes particularly challenging to recognize as categorizing them is no longer only dependent on their age but  factors such as their class and gender also play a role. Old and wealthy have a higher rank which is quite far from the old and poor. Older men are generally better off than older women. While the elderly are viewed as a societal problem in general, they are actually a burden on both the younger generation who have to provide for them and the future generation whose resources they are using up. They are also labelled as ill (both mentally and physically), forgetful and unattractive (physically and sexually).

The role of the elderly is debated in different theories. The theory of modernization suggests that the lower social status of elderly people in industrial societies is because they are a distinctive status group.

A status group is a social group sharing similar levels of status and often similar lifestyles or occupations.

Avramov and Maskova 2003 note that the modernisation theory has successfully identified ‘changes in society that are likely to reduce the status of the older people’ such as them being ‘underemployed, untrained in the latest technology and separated from family or communication networks’ as suggested by Cowgill. Abrams 2005 notes how ‘age prejudice between generations is more common than sex or race discrimination’.

Kiemo suggests that there is no uniform impact of social and economic changes, which means it is difficult to view elderly in modern societies as a distinctive stratum. Meadows states that there is little proof to endorse the myth that aged people are declining in job efficiency as they grow older. There is evidence, however, that the commitment and preparation of older workers is lower in comparison to younger employees.But when they are provided with training Meadows suggests that they are able to perform at the same level as their younger colleagues.

Another influencing factor is the control over social resources. In this sense they do not have a lower social position because of their age but rather due to the distribution of control over resources given to each age group.The political economy theory links age to work  and the lower status occurs due to their ‘progressive removal from the workplace’ as argued by Townsend 1986 who highlights the concept of compulsory retirement. Hockey and James claim that involuntary retirement of the elderly contributes to societal resources being denied for them, such as earned income. While Turner 1989 suggests a variation called the exchange theory that suggests the marginalisation of different age groups being related to a general failure to control a variety of social resources not just those relating to work.

Postmodern explanations focus on two arguments about life choices.

1 - The declining social position of the elderly is not inevitable and irreversible

2 - While age markers exist the meaning of age in postmodern societies are flexible

People do not have to follow strict age-based groups. "Age concepts no longer have a 'privileged position'' Grusky says. We need to understand how and why older people choose to construct and represent their identities.

Modernisation theories on the other hand represent old age as a ‘master status’ which defines how others see ‘the elderly’ and interpret their behaviour as either appropriate or inappropriate. Whereas postmodernists argue that ideologies regarding age related characteristics and statuses differ greatly in contemporary societies as traditional ideas and associations are broken down as a result of cultural globalisation as people are continuously exposed to varying ideas and lifestyles relating to age.

While ageist ideas still exist they are balanced by ideas that reinvent elderly statuses in a few ways. These include the fragmentation of elderly identities (the old and very old), changing patterns of consumption and leisure and different interpretations of ‘being old’ (elders refusing to follow the stereotypes and social identities. This view suggests that chronological age is less significant that social age.

There are 3 further theories that suggest changing social positions are the result of a combination of pressures both from ‘above’ where the society constructs elders’ identities and status as well as from ‘below’ where they themselves construct their identities and status.

1. Disengagement theory suggests that as individuals biologically age they disengage from social relationships both consciously (gradual withdrawal from extended social networks such as their workplace) and subconsciously. DIsengagement is therefore a two way process where individuals disengage from their involvement with society and society disengages from the individual as human interaction with the elderly takes place on fewer occasions.

2. Activity theory looks at how people choose and learn to participate in age related roles. In this view disengagement is a continuous process that occurs as people tend to make varying choices about their behaviour and the groups they belong to. This is also inclusive of ‘active re-engagements’ in social interactions as people leave their previous groups to join or develop others.

3. Social generational theory highlights the impact of biological ageing on individual self perceptions and identities. This theory also suggests that behavioural choices are conditioned by values that do not adapt to technological and social changes. Dowd 1986 shines light on the phrase that the elderly become ‘immigrants in time’ as their life experiences are associated with values, norms and customs of the past which makes them lose their social status. Cultural separation is therefore reflected in a social distance between those ‘from the past’ which is declining and those ‘in the present’ which is on the rise.

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Social position of the elderly in different societies 

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Social position of the elderly in different societies 

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Jana 12 A

Like childhood and adulthood, similarly old age is also socially constructed. Different societies interpret the start, meaning, significance and status of old age in different ways.  Modern societies such as the USA and the U.K. demonstrate differences in the relationship between the elderly and other social categories.

Victor in 1987 suggests that the status if the elderly depends upon a range of factors, which include: natural of social organization- where the elderly people are seen as a burden as they are no longer able to easily follow the nomadic lifestyle, this is illustrated in the nomadic societies.
The elderly are often neglected or ignored and barely given attention to and may be even killed once they start to become a hindrance. While in settled societies, the elderly’s knowledge and skills maybe considered Alia led to the family group or society as a whole. This is supported by Kagans study in 1980: a study of Columbian village, where the elderly people remained socially and economically active as far as physically possible.

The status of the elderly is higher in societies that value the knowledge and skills they posses. For example in American Indian tribes elderly males are valued for their skills of leadership.

In modern industrial societies, the status and social position of the elderly is arguably different, elderly men have greater social status than elderly women. However, in general, the elderly are represented as social problems , a burden on the young.

There are several different theories about the position of the elderly.

The modernization theory, suggests that the lower social position of the elderly in industrial societies is explained by the fact they are a distinctive status group.
Avramov and Maskova argue that modernization theory has successfully identified “changes in society that are likely to reduce the status of older people’, such as those suggested by Cowgill: the elderly as underemployed, untrained in the latest technologies and separated from family or community networks.

There are three further theories or ideas which focus upon pressure from above , how societies construct elderly identities and status, and from below , how the elderly themselves construct their identities and statuses:

Disengagement theory suggests that when people biologically age they disconnect or disengage from the society and social networks and relationships  consciously and subconsciously. As well as the young interact with the elderly on a fewer occasions.

Activity theory focuses on how people learn to make different choices on their position or role in the society, which results in active reengagements in social interactions as people choose to leave or join and develop within other groups.

Social generational theory, examines the impact of biological processes in the individuals perception of themselves. It explains that behavioural choices are conditioned by values that fail to adapt to social and technological changes. According to Dowd’s phrase, the elderly become ‘immigrants in time’. So in conclusion, it explains that elderly people loose their status because they’re not able to connect with the current generations as they are stuck to their norms and values they gained in the past.

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Old age is also socially constructed. Different societies interpret the start, meaning, significance and status of old age in different ways. There’s great disparity between societies, it can be seen with the pre-industrial and industrial societies. There are also comparative differences within these categories. Modern societies such as the UK and the USA have differences in the relationship between the elderly and other social categories.

Victor says the status of elderly depends on a number of factors. Such as the nature of social organization(elderly are considered a burden when they are no longer able to easily follow the lifestyle such as the nomads). When the social organization is like that, the elderly may even be killed.

In more settled societies the elderly are valued for their knowledge. In Kagan’s study of a Colombian village found that the elderly still maintained status and contributed economically and socially as much as they physically could.

Another factor is the control of social resources. Social resources could relate to knowledge and skills but also could relate to economic resources. Societies that value knowledge such as American Indian tribes, the elderly have higher status, generally elder men in those societies have high status. Societies that value economic resources such as Europe and America, value the elderly that have those resources so that would be the key to their status.

Cultural attitudes to the afterlife is another factor. In some societies, the elderly are more valued as it is believed that they are closer to the afterlife so they are more spiritual. For example, among the Sherbro of Sierra Leone, the more incoherent a person becomes, their status increases as it is believed they are directly speaking to their ancestors.

In modern industrial societies the position of the elderly is different, it has also become more difficult to understand their position. It is not only determined by age nut also class and gender. Being old and wealthy has a very different status than being old and poor. Elderly men also have a higher status than elderly women. Although in general elderly people are presented as a social problem, simply a burden.

There are different theories about the position of the elderly. The modernization theory suggests that the lower social position of the elderly in industrial societies comes from the fact that they are a distinctive status group.

Avramov and Maskova argue that, ”modernization theory has successfully identified changes in society that are likely to reduce the status of older people”. This is suggested by Cowgill, “the elderly as underemployed, untrained in the latest technologies and separated from family/community networks”.

Abrams argues that, “age prejudice between the generations is more common than sex or race discrimination”.

Although it can be argued that age boundaries have become less distinct in recent times. Kiemo suggests that, “social and economic changes do not have uniform impact, which makes it difficult to see the elderly as a distinctive stratum in modern societies in any but the broadest sense. Meadows notes that the stigma in which elderly people deteriorate in job performance as they age is not true, there isn’t any evidence that supports that. Although there is evidence that elderly people get less investment and training when compared to their younger counterparts. When they do, they perform at the same level as the young ones.

Another explanation is based on control over social resources. In this way the social position of the elderly isn’t derived as a result of their age. They don’t have a lower social position because they are old but because different age groups control different amounts of social resources. Hockey and James argue that elderly people getting removed from the workplace(through forced retirement) leads to them being denied social resources such as an earned income.

From the postmodernist view, it focuses on 2 arguments about life choices. The first is that the declining position of the elderly isn’t inevitable and irreversible. The second is that age markers still exist but have more fluid meanings. People aren’t forced into rigid categories based on age. Grusky suggests, “concepts of age no loner have a privileged position. We must seek to understand how and why elderly exercise a range of choices over how their identities are constructed and represented.”

Modernization theory represent old age as this master status but in contrast postmodernists argue that ideas about age related characteristics are broken down because of cultural globalization. People are being exposed to different ideas elating to age and lifestyles. Although ageist ideas remain, it’s combated by ideas that reinvent the elderly status such as:

·         the fragmentation of elderly identities

·         changing patterns of consumption and leisure

·         different interpretations of being old

There are 3 further ideas which focus on pressure from above(how society views elder people) and from below(how elderly people view themselves).

·         Disengagement theory suggests that as one biologically age, they disengage from society. This could be consciously or subconsciously. It’s from 2 aspects, the person disengaging from society and society disengaging from them.

·         Activity theory focuses on how people learn and choose their roles. Disengagement is a continuous process as people make different choices about their behavior and the groups, they choose to engage with, re-engagement happens too.

·         Social generational theory examines the impact of biological ageing processes in the individual’s perception of themselves. It says that behavioral choices are impacted by values one has that can’t adapt to societal and technological changes. So, it explains that the reason elderly people lose status is because their norms and values are rooted in the past.

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INTRODUCTION:
- Old age is a social construction like all other age groups.
- Different societies have different interpretations of old age; from start to finish.
- Different societies treat people of old age differently.
- This is especially shown when discussing modern and pre-modern societies.
- Victor (1987) suggests that the status of the elderly depends on a multitude of factors.
- The primary factor was the nature of the society.
- Some societies feel that the elderly are a hindrance and can even have them killed.
- Some societies see them as living off of their hard work. (West)
- Some societies see them as valuable and hold them to a very high respectable regard.
- Kagan's (1987) study found that in South America (Columbia), the elderly were both economically and socially active in the community and were physically capable as well.
- In North American and Western societies, the elderly that have control over a lot of economic resources have a high social status.
- Concluding that the key to the elderly having high status and respect in some societies lies in the economic control and resources they have.
- Cultural attitudes also play a role in the elderly's status.
- Among the people of Sherbo in Sierra Leone, the elderly that begin to communicate incoherently are given high regard as it is believed that they communicating with their ancestors.
- In other communities, those who age are also respected and valued as it is believed that they are closer to the afterlife.
- In the United States, the experience of being elderly has changed greatly over the past century. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, many U.S. households were home to multigenerational families, and the experiences and wisdom of elders were respected. They offered wisdom and support to their children and often helped raise their grandchildren (Sweetser 1984).

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THEORIES PERTAINING TO THE ELDERLY IN SOCIETY:
- Modernization theory (Cowgill and Holmes 1972) suggests that the primary cause of the elderly losing power and influence in society are the is the rapid industrialization and development of technology.
- As societies modernize, the status of elders decreases and they are increasingly likely to experience social exclusion.
-  Before industrialization, strong social norms bound the younger generation to care for the older.
- Now, as societies industrialize, the nuclear family replaces the extended family. Societies become increasingly individualistic, and norms regarding the care of older people change.
- In an individualistic industrial society, caring for an elderly relative is seen as a voluntary obligation that may be ignored without fear of negative reactions or social sanctions.
- However, Kiemo (2004) argues that social and economic change does not have a uniform impact, which makes it difficult to see the elderly in a different social group.
- Furthermore to support this view; Meadows (2003) argued that job performance does not decline with age.
- It is further explained again that the control over economic resources is the primary cause of the lower status of the elderly, that it is not because they are old but rather because it is the younger age group that has control over the economic resources.
- The political economy theory relates age to work. Townsend (1986) argued that they are progressively removed from the workplace.
- Postmodernists focus on two arguments regarding life choices: The first is that the declining social position of the elderly is not inevitable and irreversible.
- The second is that although certain age markers still exist, the meaning of age to post-modern societies is increasingly flexible, people do not restrict themselves to categorizable behaviours as Gretzky (1996) suggested concepts of age no longer have a privileged position.
- Post-modernists also argue that ideas regarding age-relating characteristics differ based on culture and location.
- Traditional notions of age slowly break down due to cultural globalisation.
- People are constantly being exposed to unique ideas and slowly individually form their own notion of age.
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DISENGAGEMENT THEORY:
- It suggests that as people biologically age they slowly disengage themselves from social relationships both knowingly and un-knowingly.
- The older a person, the more the likelihood of family and friends disengages through death, making it a two-way process.
________________________________________________________________________________

ACTIVITY THEORY:
- It focuses on how people learn and choose to play age-related roles.
- From this position, disengagement is enabled as people make decisions through their age.
- People leave and form new groups, known as "active re-engagement".
_______________________________________________________________________________

SOCIAL GENERATIONAL THEORY:
- It examines the impact of again on a persons self-perception and identity.
- It particularly suggests that behavioural choices are conditioned by values that do not change along with the industrialisation and development.
- The elderly become immigrants in their time. Dowd (1986)
- They remain trapped in their original identity, unable to change to the new norms after having gotten used to their originally formed identities.
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JIDA 12A

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Dear students.. Pls complete your task about elders here