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Understanding the Major Leadership Theories

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Understanding the Major Leadership Theories

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Why Do Some People Become Great Leaders?

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Why do certain people become great leaders? Leadership theories seek to answer this question and usually fit into one of eight basic types.

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Boats and boating--Equipment and supplies

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School counselors are uniquely equipped to bridge the gaps between administration, teachers, parents, and students. As the demands placed on everyone in a school community increase, it's vital that we view and include school counselors as part of our leadership teams. Let's make sure we recognize all they do and put their strengths to work for our students! Here are 11 ways school counselors serve as leaders in your building.

1. School counselors recognize and showcase diversity.

In many buildings, school counselors are considered the "heart" of the school. They help create an inclusive environment that is respectful, welcoming, kind, and open to all.

2. School counselors develop community partnerships.

Counseling staff work collaboratively with universities, community colleges, technical schools, local unions, military reps, and apprentice programs to provide a variety of opportunities for students. They are especially vital in ensuring underserved and first-generation students have access to and the tools to reach all possible post-high school options.

3. School counselors help during difficult situations.

Strengths such as listening, reflecting, and high emotional intelligence make school counselors valuable allies when trying to get buy-in from staff or the greater community on difficult issues. Counselors foster a culture of change via strong lines of communication and valuing input from all parties involved.

4. School counselors maintain strong home-school connections.

Counselors tend to be the liaison for parents when it comes to communicating with the school. This leadership role is especially important when assisting families who are not familiar with the school setting or have issues trusting staff.

5. School counselors maximize educational success.

School counselors can help to maximize the educational attainment of all students by providing students with mental health services (school or community-based) and developmental guidance that takes a proactive approach in helping students set and reach academic goals.

6. School counselors lead staff trainings.

Administrators who use their counseling staff (rather than outside contractors) to lead building-wide trainings can save a lot of money and gain quicker buy-in from staff. School counselors are experts on topics such as student engagement, positive discipline, suicide/self-harm, students-as-leaders, peer mentoring programs, and academic/social interventions for low-performing students.

7. School counselors protect and advocate for disadvantaged students.

Counselors identify and amend policies and practices that negatively impact disadvantaged students and advocate for equitable services for all students.

8. School counselors use expertise to bring data to life.

Like administrators, counselors are trained in data collection and analysis. They are skilled at using this information to drive decisions about placement, intervention, and overall student health and wellbeing.

9. School counselors mediate difficult situations between parents/students and staff.

Counselors are consistently looking for ways to support the relationship between school staff and parents. Acting as a mediator when one or both parties are upset about a situation is a critical way in which school counselors serve as leaders.

10. School counselors organize and lead crisis response.

Counselors are on the front lines after a tragedy has happened in a school or community. Staff, students, parents, and community members look to the counselors for guidance and support immediately following an event. Because of their training in emotional/mental, the counseling staff is critical in advocating for and teaching self-care to staff, parents, and students during a crisis.

11. School counselors empower and inspire.

School counselors inherently believe in people and work tirelessly to communicate that. By being visible and accessible at all times, their calming, caring, and encouraging presence helps support and empower staff in the building.

School counselors serve as leaders in many ways and we need to value their perspectives and strengths. They are vital to building positive learning environments in which students thrive.
Join our Facebook group Principal Life for more conversation about and insights into the challenges of school leadership.

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11 Ways Your School Counselors Serve as Leaders - WeAreTeachers

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School counselors are uniquely equipped to bridge the gaps between administration, teachers, parents, and students. As the demands placed on everyone in a school community increase, it's vital that we view and include school counselors as part of our leadership teams. Let's make sure we recognize all they do and put their strengths to work for our students!

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BEING A DOER ISN'T ENOUGH FOR SCHOOL COUNSELORS. STUDENT NEEDS DEMAND SCHOOL COUNSELORS MOVE BEYOND REACTING TO LEADING. Are school counselors doers or

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Daniel Goleman - Emotional Intelligence in Leadership

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The more that you, as a leader, manage each of these areas, the higher your emotional intelligence. So, let's look at each element in more detail and examine how you can grow as a leader.

Emotional Intelligence in Leadership

1. Self-awareness

If you're self-aware, you always know how you feel, and you know how your emotions and your actions can affect the people around you. Being self-aware when you're in a leadership position also means having a clear picture of your strengths and weaknesses, and it means behaving with humility.

So, what can you do to improve your self-awareness?

Keep a journal. Journals help you improve your self-awareness. If you spend just a few minutes each day writing down your thoughts, this can move you to a higher degree of self-awareness.

2. Self-regulation

Leaders who regulate themselves effectively rarely verbally attack others, make rushed or emotional decisions, stereotype people, or compromise their values. Self-regulation is all about staying in control.

This element of emotional intelligence, according to Goleman, also covers a leader's flexibility and commitment to personal accountability.

So, how can you improve your ability to self-regulate?

Hold yourself accountable. If you tend to blame others when something goes wrong, stop. Make a commitment to admit to your mistakes and to face the consequences, whatever they are. You'll probably sleep better at night, and you'll quickly earn the respect of those around you.

Practice being calm. The next time you're in a challenging situation, be very aware of how you act. Do you relieve your stress by shouting at someone else? Practice deep-breathing exercises to calm yourself. Also, try to write down all of the negative things you want to say, and then rip it up and throw it away. Expressing these emotions on paper (and not showing them to anyone!) is better than speaking them aloud to your team. What's more, this helps you challenge your reactions to ensure that they're fair!

3. Motivation

Self-motivated leaders work consistently toward their goals, and they have extremely high standards for the quality of their work.

How can you improve your motivation?

Re-examine why you're doing your job. It's easy to forget what you really love about your career. So, take some time to remember why you wanted this job. If you're unhappy in your role and you're struggling to remember why you wanted it, try the Five Whys technique to find the root of the problem. Starting at the root often helps you look at your situation in a new way. And make sure that your goal statements are fresh and energizing. For more on this, see our article on Goal Setting.

4. Empathy

For leaders, having empathy is critical to managing a successful team or organization. Leaders with empathy have the ability to put themselves in someone else's situation. They help develop the people on their team, challenge others who are acting unfairly, give constructive feedback, and listen to those who need it.

If you want to earn the respect and loyalty of your team, then show them you care by being empathic.

How can you improve your empathy?

Respond to feelings. You ask your assistant to work late - again. And although he agrees, you can hear the disappointment in his voice. So, respond by addressing his feelings. Tell him you appreciate how willing he is to work extra hours, and that you're just as frustrated about working late. If possible, figure out a way for future late nights to be less of an issue (for example, give him Monday mornings off).

5. Social Skills

Leaders who do well in the social skills element of emotional intelligence are great communicators. They're just as open to hearing bad news as good news, and they're experts at getting their team to support them and be excited about a new mission or project.

Leaders who have good social skills are also good at managing change and resolving conflicts diplomatically. They're rarely satisfied with leaving things as they are, but they don't sit back and make everyone else do the work: they set an example with their own behavior.

So, how can you build social skills?

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Emotional Intelligence in Leadership - Learning How to Be More Aware

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Relating to others is vital in today's workplace. Learn how to build your emotional intelligence (EI) with this article.

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When most people imagine intelligence, they picture a mathematician solving equations, a novelist writing great works of literature or a philosopher expounding on wise principles.

But brilliance takes many forms, not least of which is the ability to comprehend and manage emotions. Known as emotional intelligence, this trait is often overlooked, yet crucial for success as a business leader.

Here's what having emotional intelligence provides you with:
Acute Awareness
One of the defining features of emotional intelligence is the ability to comprehend the effects of your feelings. This is crucial for making sound, objective decisions when your pride and self-esteem are at stake. All leaders must face situations where their emotions make a decision seem better than it is.

If you previously expressed support for a certain strategy, for example, your pride will be tied up with that strategy, making it harder to recognize if it isn't working. Leaders who have emotional intelligence are more likely to realize when pride and other emotions are influencing their thinking, allowing them to make more rational, impartial choices.
Impact Interpretation
In addition to reigning in your own feelings, emotional intelligence makes it easier to anticipate and respond to others' sentiments. As much as we may want for it to be objective, business is an emotional experience.

Bad news from work can shock or dismay your employees, while good news may make them unreasonably optimistic. Emotional intelligence means you can tell ahead of time how others will react and develop a strategy to keep them grounded.
Mental Health Management
Those with emotional intelligence have an easier time assessing the emotional and psychological state of their employees. This makes it easier to determine if someone is suffering from:

* Anxiety

* Depression

* Grief

* Trauma

* Eating disorders

By recognizing threats to your employees' mental health, you can provide them with the support and professional resources they need to recover. Not only is this good for their health but it promotes a more harmonious, productive workplace.
Cultivated Communication
Leaders with emotional intelligence have an improved ability to gauge others' responses to their words and actions. This makes it easier for you to tell if your employees really understand what you are saying or are confused but unwilling to say so. You can then refine your messages accordingly, developing reliable ways of communicating with everyone who works for you.

Emotional intelligence also makes it easier for you to listen to what other people are saying clearly and without judgment, ensuring that others can always give you the information you need.
Helpful Humor
Never underestimate the value of humor in business. A good joke or clever play on words can cheer up dismayed employees, win over skeptical customers and draw positive attention to your brand. If you have emotional intelligence, it will be easier to tell what people will find funny. You can also determine in which situations humor will be appropriate, finding the proper balance between serious work and lightheartedness.

While intelligence is important, emotional intelligence is a key to success in leadership and in being able to relate to others. When dealing with others, truly try to place yourself in their situation. It will help you choose the best method to solve problems and achieve your goals.

How has emotional intelligence helped you to make sound and informed decisions?

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Council Post: Why Emotional Intelligence Is Indispensable For Leaders

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When most people imagine intelligence, they picture a mathematician solving equations, a novelist writing great works of literature or a philosopher expounding on wise principles. But brilliance takes many forms, not least of which is the ability to comprehend and manage emotions.

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Research by the respected Center for Creative Leadership (CCL) in the U.S. found that the primary causes of executive derailment involve deficiencies in emotional competence. Each year, CCL serves more than 20,000 individuals and 2,000 organizations, including more than 80 of the Fortune 100 companies. It says the three main reasons for failure are difficulty in handling change, inability to work well in a team, and poor interpersonal relations.

International search firm Egon Zehnder International analyzed 515 senior executives and discovered that those who were strongest in emotional intelligence were more likely to succeed than those strongest in either IQ or relevant previous experience. Research that has been done on the relationship between emotional intelligence (EQ) and IQ has shown only a weak correlation between the two.

The Carnegie Institute of Technology carried out research that showed that 85% of our financial success was due to skills in "human engineering", personality, and ability to communicate, negotiate, and lead. They found that only 15% was due to technical ability. In other words people skills or skills highly related to emotional intelligence were crucial skills. Nobel Prize winning Israeli-American psychologist Daniel Kahneman found that people would rather do business with a person they like and trust rather than someone they don't, even if that that person is offering a better product at a lower price.

People would rather do business with a person they like and trust rather than someone they don't, even if that that person is offering a better product at a lower price.

To test out his findings, think of the last time you purchased a major item, a home, automobile, or large appliance where you had to dealings with a salesperson. Was the person someone who you liked and trusted? In my talks, I have found that whenever I asked that question, inevitably the entire audience answered that, yes, the person they bought a large item from was someone they liked and trusted. This theory about why salespeople with the right people skills do better than those who lack them is borne out by a study carried out by the Hay/McBer Research and Innovation Group in 1997. In a study carried out in a large national insurance company in 1997, they found that sales agents weak in emotional areas such as self-confidence, initiative, and empathy sold policies with an average premium of $54,000, while those strong in 5 of 8 emotional competencies sold policies on the average worth $114,000.

Much of the research that has been done on emotional intelligence has been at the executive leadership level. The higher up the organization, the more crucial emotional intelligence abilities are as the impacts are greater and felt throughout the entire organization. There have been some studies, however, that show impacts at all levels.

The higher up the organization the more crucial emotional intelligence abilities are as the impacts are greater and felt throughout the entire organization.

For example, a study by McClelland in 1999 showed that after supervisors in a manufacturing plant received training in emotional competencies such as how to listen better, lost-time accidents decreased by 50% and grievances went down from 15 per year to three. The plant itself exceeded productivity goals by $250,000.

The same principles apply in all areas of life, whether at work or in relationships. Everyone wants to work with people who are easy to get along with, supportive, likeable, and can be trusted. We want to be beside people that do not get upset easily and can keep their composure when things do not work out according to plan.

Self-awareness. The first thing that is essential for any degree of emotional intelligence is self-awareness. People with a high degree of self-awareness have a solid understanding of their own emotions, their strengths, weaknesses, and what drives them. Neither overly critical nor unrealistically hopeful, these people are honest with themselves and others. These people recognize how their feelings impact them, other people around them, and their performance at work. They have a good understanding of their values and goals and where they are going in life. They are confident as well as aware of their limitations and less likely to set themselves up for failure.

We can recognize self-aware people by their willingness to talk about themselves in a frank, non-defensive manner. A good interview question is to ask about a time that the interviewee got carried away by their emotions and did something they later regretted. The self-aware person will be open and frank with their answers. Self-deprecating humor is a good indicator of someone who has good self-awareness. Red flags are people who stall or try to avoid the question, seem irritated, or frustrated by the question.

Ability To Self-Regulate Emotions. We all have emotions which drive us and there is nothing we can do to avoid them. People who are good at self-regulation, however, are able to manage their emotions so that they do not control their words and actions. While they feel bad moods and impulses as much as anyone else, they do not act upon them. People who act upon their negative feelings create havoc, disruptions, and lasting bad feelings all around them. We feel before we think and people who constantly react from an emotional state never wait long enough to allow their thoughts to override their emotions.

People who self-regulate have the ability to wait until their emotions pass, allowing them to respond from a place of reason, rather than simply reacting to feelings. The signs of someone who is good at self-regulation are reflection, thoughtfulness, comfort with ambiguity, change, and not having all the answers. In an interview, look for people who take a little time to reflect and think before they answer.

Empathy. Empathy is another important aspect to look for when hiring. Someone who has empathy will have an awareness of the feelings of others and consider those feelings in their words and actions. This does not mean that they will tiptoe around or be unwilling to make tough decisions for fear of hurting someone's feelings. It simply means that they are aware of, and take into consideration the impact on others. They are willing to share their own worries and concerns and openly acknowledge other's emotions. A good way to look for empathy in an interview is to ask a candidate about a situation where a co-worker was angry with them and how they dealt with it. Look for a willingness to understand the source of the co-workers anger, even though they may not agree with the reasons for it.

Social skills. Social skill is another area of emotional intelligence that is highly important in the workplace. To have good social skills requires a high level of the other skills aforementioned as well as the ability to relate and find common ground with a wide range of people. It goes beyond just friendliness and the ability to get along with others.

People with social skills are excellent team players as they have the ability to move an agenda along and keep focus while at the same time remaining aware of the emotional climate of the group and possess the ability to respond to it. These people are excellent at making connections, networking, and bringing people together to work on projects. They are able to bring their emotional intelligence skills into play in a larger arena. To look for social skills in an interview, ask questions related to projects and difficulties encountered around varying agendas, temperaments, and getting people to buy in.

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Why Emotionally Intelligent People Are More Successful

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Research by the respected Center for Creative Leadership (CCL) in the U.S. found that the primary causes of executive derailment involve deficiencies in emotional competence. Each year, CCL serves more than 20,000 individuals and 2,000 organizations, including more than 80 of the Fortune 100 companies.

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Unpacking My Own Levels of Emotional Intelligence

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Unpacking My Own Levels of Emotional Intelligence

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Learning how to be a good leader can greatly impact the success of your team, your organization and yourself.

To be an effective leader, you must understand your own motivations, strengths and weaknesses.

Great leaders connect with their team by facilitating open communication, encouraging employee growth and development, and giving and receiving feedback.

Anyone can sit in a corner office and delegate tasks, but there is more to effective leadership than that. Effective leaders have major impacts on not only the team members they manage, but also their company as a whole. Employees who work under great leaders tend to be happier, more productive and more connected to their organization - and this has a ripple effect that reaches your business's bottom line.

"I think a great leader is one who makes those around them better," Dana Brownlee, founder of Professionalism Matters, told Business News Daily. "There are many litmus tests for a great leader, but I really look to those around them: Are they growing, becoming better leaders themselves, motivated, etc.?"

If you look around and see that your team members have become disengaged or stagnant in their work, it may be time to reassess and reform your strategies. According to Brownlee, the following behaviors are signs that you may have a poor leadership strategy:

No one on your team has criticized one of your ideas in the past month.

You spend more time planning your own career progression than that of your team members.

You haven't had at least three completely non-work-related conversations with a team member weekly.

Different team members would provide different answers if asked your top three priorities for the year.

Team members are afraid to fail.

A recent study by the Center for Creative Leadership showed that roughly 38% to more than half of new leaders fail within their first 18 months. Leaders can avoid becoming part of this staggering statistic by incorporating good leadership strategies that motivate their team members to accomplish their goals.

We spoke with CEOs, directors and leadership experts to learn what those leadership strategies are and how you can incorporate them.

1. Engage in honest, open communication.

One of the most important elements of effective leadership is creating an open line of communication with your team members. Sanjay Patoliya, the founder and director of Teclogiq, said that your own honesty and transparency should serve as an example for your team members.

"When you are responsible for a team of people, it is important to be straightforward," he said. "Your company and its employees are a reflection of yourself, and if you make honest and ethical behavior as a key value, your team will follow."

Brownlee added that great leaders are able to customize their interactions and communication styles to suit each situation and team member, based on individual preferences. "This means they take the time to figure out which communication mode is preferred by each team member - e.g., are they a text person, email, phone, or face-to-face? They're also great listeners and are authentically interested in other people."

Displaying active communication skills and transparency can build trust among your team and improve overall morale. Ruslan Fazlyev, CEO and founder of e-commerce solutions provider Ecwid, said that in all your communications, it's important to be genuine above all else.

"There are many leadership styles; there's no right and wrong," he said. "But there's genuine, and there's fake. There's no following to fake leadership."

2. Connect with your team members.

Leading a group of people requires a mutual sense of trust and understanding between the leader and their team members. To achieve this, leaders should learn to connect.

Terry "Starbucker" St. Marie, a leadership writer and consultant, said that being a "more human" leader requires positivity, purpose, empathy, compassion, humility and love. These key traits will put you on the road to genuine connections with the members of your team.

"Building a real, personal connection with your teammates is vital to developing the shared trust necessary to build a strong culture of accountability and exceptional performance," St. Marie said. "With that culture in place, the team can achieve a successful business, a happy team and a fulfilled leader."

To build a connection with each of your team members, focus on getting to know their personality, interests, strengths, weaknesses, hobbies and preferences. This can give you insight into their goals and motivations.

Patoliya said that successful leaders allow their teams to develop autonomy and add value according to their own personal strengths. "Being able to recognize the strengths of individuals within their team, and allowing them to be responsible and accountable, not only increases employees' confidence in themselves and their leader, but also increases their performance."

3. Encourage personal and professional growth.

Acting as your team's cheerleader is an important part of being an effective leader. You should be invested in their success and growth.

Keri Ohlrich, the CEO of HR consulting company Abbracci Group, said that leaders should set aside a budget, if only a small one, to dedicate to the growth of their employees.

"With options as varied as on-demand, virtual [and] in-person options, there's ample opportunity to continue learning new skills or further developing existing ones," she said. "Empower your employees to take the time to learn and infuse that in the work they do."

In addition to investing in your employees' growth financially, you should invest emotionally. John Rampton, founder and CEO of Calendar, said that great leaders empower their employees to grow by giving them challenging opportunities and guiding them as needed.

"To motivate and inspire employees, leadership strategy is about empowering others to do their best and take on new challenges," he said. "Employees like challenges and feeling the satisfaction of overcoming them. Whether it's a tough client, a difficult sale, a hard situation or whatever the case, it's always good to let them take on these challenges."

When leaders believe in their employees and give them the opportunity to learn and grow, they might be surprised how much they can accomplish. Don't be afraid to delegate tasks and encourage freedom and creativity.

4. Keep a positive attitude.

As much as leaders wish their team's day-to-day operations could run smoothly all the time, they're bound to run into the occasional obstacle. Whether it's a minor miscommunication or a major error, the way you handle a negative situation says a lot about your leadership skills.

Robert Mann, author of The Measure of a Leader (iUniverse, 2013), recommended focusing on the good in any set of circumstances. "Look at three positive things about a problem before you identify what makes it dissatisfying. The more you look at the positives in a problem, the more positively people react with one another."

In his research, Mann has found that after individuals point out things they're happy with in a problematic situation, they don't feel so strongly about the problem and are better able to think clearly and solve it. The same is true when a leader needs to improve their strategy. If you or a team member notices a particular course of action you've taken that just isn't working, figure out some things you've done in the past that have worked.

Patoliya added that focusing on solutions, rather than problems, can help your team maintain positive engagement. "A positive environment is more likely to create a more engaged and productive workforce. By displaying enthusiasm and confidence, a good leader will see the impact that they can have in their working environment."

5. Teach employees instead of giving orders.

An effective leader knows how to show others what is required, rather than simply telling them. Luke Iorio, president and CEO of the Institute for Professional Excellence in Coaching (iPEC), said leaders should coach their team members toward a more collaborative, committed work environment - without coaxing them.

"[If you are] controlling people to do certain things in certain ways, you're not going to get the level of engagement that you're looking for," he said. "Coaching is about helping the people you lead recognize the choices they have in front of them. People will [then] take a great deal of ownership over the direction of the project."

As opposed to simply barking orders at team members, Rampton said that good leaders should encourage growth by teaching. "People wouldn't grow if leaders never taught them anything. Leaders need to be teaching so they can grow new leaders to take their place."

6. Set clear employee goals and expectations.

Setting clear goals and employee expectations for your team is key to employee success. When setting these objectives, encourage employee questions and feedback. Including them in the process can increase engagement.

Amish Shah, president of ALTR Created Diamonds, said that good leaders will also explain the company vision and how team member goals fit into that equation.

"For a leader to motivate and inspire, they need to keep their team in the know about their vision," he said. "This helps employees understand the end result they're working towards as a unit. When goals are clearly set, everyone can track progress and identify achievements in a tangible manner."

Ohlrich also stressed the importance of explaining how these goals impact the organization as a whole. She said that, regardless of seniority level, every employee should be able to articulate how the work they do supports the success of the company.

Don't let team member goals go static. Periodically revisit goals to modify or rearrange them as needed. This will let your team members know that you are present and aware of what they are working on.

7. Give direct feedback about performance.

Taso Du Val, CEO and founder of the Toptal freelance talent network, said direct, honest feedback - even if it's criticism - is the best way to guide your team in the right direction. You also need to know exactly where your business is headed so you can give them the right advice.

"If you're not direct, people won't know what you truly think about them and their work, and they will never be able to improve," Du Val said. "If you don't know the precise direction your company is headed, no matter how much you've communicated to your employees and leadership team regarding their individual performance, they will flounder when it comes to making decisions and taking actions. Once those basic principles are in place, deadlines, regular product plans, performance reviews, structure and processes can easily be put into place."

In addition to providing constructive feedback and performance reviews, highlight employee accomplishments. If a team member does something great, let them know. Celebrate their wins and thank them for their hard work.

"Positive recognition will create an environment of productivity," said Shah. "Acknowledging successes by outlining how it impacts the business, rather than with vague pats on the back, is not only encouraging but also helps a person work better in the long run."

8. Ask for feedback on your leadership.

Your team members aren't the only ones who can benefit from honest feedback. A true self-assessment of your leadership can be difficult, so mentors, fellow professionals and even your own staff are invaluable in evaluating your effectiveness. According to St. Marie, talking to friends and peers can give you necessary perspective on your leadership style and approach.

Leadership coaching can also help you discover areas where you need improvement. A professional who helps you develop a plan to achieve your leadership goals can be more motivational than books and seminars alone.

"Coaching allows leaders to make the connection and apply [changes] in a real-life setting," Iorio said. "You need time to integrate, process and reflect, and unless you go through those steps, you won't have sustainable change."

Fazlyev agreed, noting that your team can give you critical insight into what's working, what's not working and what obstructions you must overcome to achieve success.

9. Be open to new ideas.

Good leaders have the emotional intelligence to understand and accept that change is inevitable. Instead of trying to maintain a status quo just for the sake of consistency, embrace change and innovation. Be open to new ideas and alternative ways of thinking. Everyone brings a unique perspective to the table, and that is something to take advantage of, not discourage.

"When you're open to hearing the thoughts of the talent around you is when you truly embrace every possibility and potential," said Shah. "See things through till the end. Understand that there will be errors along the way, but if something doesn't work, try to figure out why and how before scrapping it."

When solving a problem, encourage team members to provide their insights. When employees feel like they can openly bring new ideas to the table, true innovation, engagement and success can prevail.

10. Understand your own motivation.

If a person in a leadership position views their role as "just a job," it's going to show. To be an effective leader, you need the right motivation. Is it the money or the prestige you care about, or do you sincerely want to inspire people to do their best?

St. Marie advised leaders to really ask themselves why they want to lead. "I look at leadership as an honor and a vocation. If, in your heart, you feel leadership is your destiny and how you'll make a difference in this world, then you are certainly starting from the right place."

In addition to what motivates you, Ohlrich said it is important to know what decreases your energy. "Knowing your strengths and weaknesses help you diversify your team and get a well-rounded portfolio of skills. It helps you not hire carbon copies of yourself and surround yourself with others who are not like you."

Your leadership style plays a role in how you interact with employees and should be evaluated as well. There are nine different leadership styles, and the best leaders are able to adapt each style to their situations and employees. If you are currently in a leadership role and aren't sure where you stand on some of these qualities, you can take a quick leadership self-assessment quiz from the Leading With Courage Academy to assess your leadership abilities.

Remember that being a good leader takes time. Although some individuals are naturally inclined to have good leadership skills, it is something anyone can learn and improve upon. With hard work, dedication and strategic planning, you can lead your team to success.
Additional reporting by Nicole Fallon and Shannon Gausepohl. Some source interviews were conducted for a previous version of this article.

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How to Be a Good Leader - businessnewsdaily.com

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Be an effective leader by facilitating open communication, encouraging employee growth and success, setting team goals, and giving performance feedback.

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Every workplace, no matter the size, can benefit from having a solid foundation of leadership. A strong leader can make a large difference in how a company operates and how the members of a team work together toward the same goal. With strong leadership, a workforce can expect employees to be happy and fulfilled by their work, and for there to be a level of trust among coworkers. In this article, we discuss what strong leadership is, its benefits, the qualities of strong leadership and how you can become a stronger leader.

What is strong leadership?

Strong leadership is when you can encourage, motivate, inspire and challenge your team to produce their best work. Strong leadership connects a team together through a common purpose and builds relationships in the workplace that allow for effective communication, more creativity and better problem-solving skills.

Read more: How To Become a Successful Team Leader

Benefits of strong leadership

How leadership operates is one of the most important parts of any business. Here are just some benefits of having strong leadership in the workplace:

Increased productivity

Under strong leadership, employees are more likely to take pride in their work because they realize how important their role is and want to be a valuable member of the team. They may even produce work with fewer errors. Employees take on the opportunity to help their teammates to meet a due date or fine-tune a project for a client.

More trust and confidence among employees

Strong leaders help to develop a workplace culture where employees can rely on each other and trust that everyone is performing their job as they should. Employees trust each other, can approach each other for support and have confidence that everyone in the group is working toward the same goal. Employees also have the confidence that their leader will be there for them should they have any issues or need help to complete a task.

Ability to thrive through adversity

In any workplace, it's normal to experience unexpected, stressful or confusing situations that can include anything from an upset customer to the company going through a merger. However, with strong leadership in place, the team has the resources to pivot, accounting for any changes and coming up with viable solutions. Because strong leaders communicate company news, it may be easier for employees to understand the direction a company is going and how they play a part in its success.

Company growth

Because a strong leader forms a team where everyone is celebrated for their skills and occupies appropriate roles for their experience levels and what they enjoy doing, a company can thrive. A strong leader has a vision and works with their team to see it come to fruition. They'll be better able to attract top talent and build processes that support the company mission and goals, both of which help grow the organization.

Increased morale

A strong leader inspires their employees individually and as a group. This leads to increased morale, lower employee turnover and a positive workplace culture. Employees will be happy going to work and take pride in what they do.

Qualities and characteristics of strong leadership

There are certain characteristics of strong leadership. Here is what you can expect from strong leaders:

Accountability: A strong leader holds themselves, each team member and the team as a collective accountable for their actions. This inspires employees to do the same, resulting in higher-quality work. To hold the team accountable, strong leaders understand that they must equip their team with the tools to do their job effectively and efficiently.

How to become a stronger leader

If you want to realize all the benefits of strong leadership, it's important to learn how to become a strong leader. Here are just some items to consider if you want to grow in your leadership role:

Get to know your team

If you want to become a stronger leader, it's important to get to know the people who you'll be leading. The process of getting to know them may involve planning outings with team-building activities that emphasize working together, or you may want to schedule one-on-one time to chat with each member of the team. Some leaders select many ways to connect with members of their team. No matter which path you choose, explore how you can learn more about everyone who works alongside you.

Consider asking them about their goals, aspirations at work, their needs and their wants. Show that you're committed to helping them achieve everything they're hoping for. Through having these meetings, you'll come to understand what motivates each person and you'll be better able to lead them as a result.

Admit to mistakes

Everybody makes mistakes, including leaders. Employees want to see that their leader isn't afraid to admit that they have made an error. If you've messed up a report or made a poor decision about the direction to take a project, think about addressing it with the team so they can see that, despite holding yourself to a high standard, you are also subject to human error. This shows your employees that you know mistakes happen and if they have one, you'll be by their side to correct it with them.

Read more: Steps To Take After Making Mistakes at Work

Honesty is one of the qualities that employees value the most in their leader. Once someone on your team feels that you're honest, deeming you trustworthy is soon to follow. It's important for your employees to know that you operate with integrity and that you want to inspire them to do the same. You can display your honesty in a number of ways, including being open to giving an employee constructive feedback on their performance, keeping the team abreast of company news and admitting when you just don't have all the answers.

Communicate with your team

Strong leaders rarely sit in their offices with the door closed all day. Instead, you're likely to see them among their team, working alongside them to finish a project on time or brainstorm solutions to problems. Establish an open line of communication where you can ask how a task is going and an employee feels comfortable using your open-door policy if they need to. The communication you offer to your team should inspire them, motivate them and let them know that you know and appreciate their value.

Effective communication isn't just one-sided - listening is part of it, too. To communicate with your team, listen to what they have to say, ask questions, look them in the eyes and empathize with a stressful situation they may have come to you with. Also, take the time to observe how members of your team speak to each other.

Read more: Q&A: Why Is Communication Important?

You can also become a strong leader by having some fun at work. There may be tight deadlines, upset customers or a failed marketing campaign, but with the right culture, the team has the resources to take most setbacks in stride. When the team can laugh together and enjoy each other's company, it's easier and more fulfilling to work together, and you would have earned some respect as being a leader that employees actually want to follow.

Provide coaching and training

Employees appreciate having a leader who values the work they do and wants to invest in them. One way to do that is by actively providing coaching where you discuss their job performance and provide helpful feedback on how they can get to the next level. Consider establishing a peer-to-peer coaching program so employees can learn from their coworkers.

Also, if there are conferences, webinars, panel discussions or networking events specific to your industry, think about offering your employees the opportunity to attend. Consider not only letting them go to relevant events but encouraging them to attend training that focuses on a topic that is complementary to their current work tasks. This will show that you have faith in their abilities to grow their responsibilities and learn a new tool or process.

Encourage your team

By encouraging your team, you are creating a supportive work environment that employees will appreciate. Most everyone wants to receive recognition for a job well done alongside encouragement to keep going. Employees want to know that their manager believes in them and trusts them to make important workplace decisions. If a member of the team lacks the confidence to apply for a promotion or to share their idea during team meetings, your encouragement can go a long way toward your employee being able to take action on something they may not have felt comfortable with in the past.

You can also encourage your team to think outside of the box, drawing on their creative side to come up with unique solutions. The more encouragement you provide, the more employees trust that you want what's best for them and will look up to you as a strong leader and ally in the workplace.

Show your passion

If you show your passion for the company, your team and the work you do, your staff should follow. A strong leader inspires others by their actions and general attitude. Especially at work, it's important to show that you believe in the company's values and want to operate by them while you lead your team.

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8 Qualities of Strong Leadership and How To Become a Stronger Leader

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Every workplace, no matter the size, can benefit from having a solid foundation of leadership. A strong leader can make a large difference in how a company operates and how the members of a team work together toward the same goal.

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Leadership is crucial to the success of any department or organization. Leaders inspire the workforce to meet challenges and achieve goals. Stepping out front can be daunting, but it can also be rewarding and make that big difference in productivity and success. These tips will help you become the leader than you need to be.

Hone Speaking Skills

Image via Flickr by nadine9411

When you think of history's great leaders you probably picture them delivering powerful speeches to adoring masses. The truth is, whether you're leading a small department or a nation, good communication skills are crucial. You must be able to clearly articulate your vision, your goals, your intentions, and your expectations to others around you. If your speaking skills need work, consider joining a social group like Toastmasters International to get the practical experience you need.

Be a Better Listener

Remember that good communication is about more than just speaking up. It's a two-way street, wherein your listening abilities are just as important as what you say. Many people don't listen well because they're not present. You can correct this by engaging your speaker whenever possible and appropriate; ask questions, and use clarifying phrases such as "So what you're saying is ..." to ensure you're really tuned in and getting the full picture.

Improve Your Problem-Solving Skills

When issues appear in the workforce, employees look to leaders to rectify them. Your problem-solving skills need to be sharp enough to handle crises and set good examples. It would be very smart to participate in professional problem-solving workshops and seminars. Many companies host them in-house, or sponsor them off-site, at conferences, associations, and colleges. You can also add to your problem-solving skills with brain games that encourage strategic planning, critical thinking, and analytical processing.

Study Leadership

The right degree can also give you excellent training in leadership. A Master of Arts in Counseling (MAC) or a Master of Arts in Human Services (MAHS) are excellent options, as these degrees focus on people, the cornerstone of leadership. The MAC is ideal for people interested in counseling in a school or clinical mental health setting, while the MAHS is a more general course of study. These degrees will teach you how to manage personnel, inspire others, and behave proactively in your workplace. Both degrees are available online to give professionals in the workforce the flexibility they need.

Get Happy

Who would you rather follow, an upbeat, optimistic person or a sad sack? Leaders inspire others with their positivity; it's the force that keeps a team moving forward, even in the face of obstacles. If you're the type of person who seems apathetic or easily discouraged, these qualities will be reflected in your team. It's important to not only maintain effective leadership skills in your professional life, but to maintain a healthy and enjoyable personal life as well. What do you love outside of your work environment? Make time for your personal passions and you're more likely to be in the right headspace for your professional leadership challenges.

Put this advice into practice and you'll soon find that you're developing the leadership skills you need to succeed in the workforce.

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Tips for Developing Your Leadership Skills | Wake Forest University

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Leadership is crucial to the success of any department or organization. Leaders inspire the workforce to meet challenges and achieve goals. Stepping out front can be daunting, but it can also be rewarding and make that big difference in productivity and success. These tips will help you become the leader than you need to be.

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Unpacking Leadership Theories Behavioral Theory vs. Relational Leadership DAPHNEE HOPE Leadership Theories Leadership Theories Theories that examine the background of effective leadership. They investigate the process of how and why individuals become leaders. Also focus on Sample

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At our Presidential Leadership Scholars weekend in College Station, Texas, John Sununu, former governor of New Hampshire and George H.W. Bush's chief of staff, recounted President Bush's first meeting with French president Francois Mitterrand upon assuming office in 1989. U.S. relations with France were strained, and while there was no immediate need for joint U.S. and French action at the time, President Bush knew that sometime he would need America's old ally and wanted to repair relations with its leader.

As recorded in Sununu's The Quiet Man, President Bush invited Mitterrand to his home in Kennebunkport, and over two days he began to win over the veteran statesman, developing a lasting friendship and professional partnership. This relationship, authentically cultivated, paid extraordinary dividends when President Bush was able to use his partnership with Mitterrand to negotiate financial assistance to Poland and Hungary in 1989 and the eventual reunification of East and West Germany.

This "relational" approach to leadership was core to President Bush's values and personality. And in the broader world, relational leadership-the longstanding and almost instinctive cultivation of close personal and professional relationships as an entre to building alliances and partnerships-is common. It's prevalent in politics, where relationships among legislators and community members often lead to compromise, and in business, where trust is such an essential component of partnership.

So, how is relational leadership cultivated?

It starts with a genuine interest in others. President Bush's Deputy Chief of Staff and Transportation Secretary Andy Card said of the President, "President George H.W. Bush created personal relationships with everyone he could. That personal connection could become a strategic partnership when it needed to be. It was universal but sincere." I've seen the same in my career. When I was a new business analyst at McKinsey, for example, a senior director in the office took an interest in me and counseled me, even though I would never be useful to him. And most of us have benefited from peers or mentors who have befriended us and then aided us in the cultivation of our careers. These friendships aren't purely instrumental but authentic, sincere and driven by a genuine interest in others.

Relational leadership is further predicated on empathy-understanding others and meeting them where they are. When the Berlin Wall fell in 1989, President Bush was criticized for his subdued response. Some wanted the president to celebrate more visibly. But President Bush knew how tense a political moment the event was for Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev, and sensitive to his relationship with Gorbachev and the fragility of the moment, the American president avoided the kind of gloating that may have made the situation more challenging for the general secretary to manage. This was an important gesture and one for which President Bush was misunderstood and criticized. But, as Sununu notes in The Quiet Man, it displayed empathy for Gorbachev and strengthened their partnership. Similarly, we're experiencing a heightened cultural appreciation now for former television host Fred Rogers based at least partially on his remarkable empathy. Mr. Rogers is the subject of a new documentary and a forthcoming feature film -and much of what makes him so unique and so compelling is the deep empathy he so regularly displayed for everyone he met, particularly children and the vulnerable. This empathy and kindness left even casual acquaintances transformed by their interactions with him and was a critical foundation of his leadership. It's similarly essential for each of us.

Further, this authentic and empathetic relational leadership is nurtured by small and large gestures of friendship. As I've written elsewhere, I once worked with a woman at a DC-area organization who was exceptional about spending time with even the most junior members of her organization and making them feel special. She took me to lunch and subsequently mailed me a book about which we'd spoken and a handwritten note-a kindness I appreciate to this day. Similarly, President Bush frequently wrote handwritten notes to friends and partners around the world. And while his subdued reaction to the fall of the Berlin wall was a grand gesture, he also made small gestures to reinforce relationships. Genuine interest in and excitement for others manifests in gestures and signals that you value and understand them.

Finally, while relational leadership is personal by nature, it can be powerfully embedded in the culture of an organization or team. Speaking of the Bush White House, Governor Sununu said, "President George H.W. Bush's commitment to collegiality was contagious. We all worked hard to maintain that." A culture that prioritizes authentic relationships starts at the top and cascades through an organization. In my time as a management consultant, I worked for several partners who prioritized collegiality among their teams-hosting kick-off dinners for us to get to know each other, planning team events to encourage bonding and insisting on respectful treatment of all colleagues-and that top-down leadership transformed the groups with which they worked.

Relational leadership can be incredibly successful, particularly when it is authentic, empathetic, reinforced through gestures of friendship and embedded in the culture of a team. It's not the only style of leadership, but can be powerful and personally fulfilling.
This article is part of a six-part series on leadership lessons from presidents that includes "Searching For The Right Leadership Style," "The Power Of Relational Leadership," "The Simple Power Of Connected Communication," "How A President Makes A Decision That Matters," "The Johnson Treatment: Pushing and Persuading Like LBJ" and "Life Is Worth Living In Three Dimensions."

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At our Presidential Leadership Scholars weekend in College Station, Texas, John Sununu, former governor of New Hampshire and George H.W. Bush's chief of staff, recounted President Bush's first meeting with French president Francois Mitterrand upon assuming office in 1989. U.S. relations with France were strained, and while there was no immediate need for joint U.S.

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Derek Farnsworth, Jennifer L. Clark, John Hall, Shannon Johnson, Allen Wysocki, and Karl Kepner 2

Figure 2.
Credit: linetic/iStock/Thinkstock.com

Introduction

The role every manager must fill in the workplace is leadership. Managers often make the mistake of assuming that because they are the managers, they are also the leaders and that their employees (associates) will automatically follow. In reality, position only denotes title, not leadership. Northouse (2001) defines leadership as a process whereby one individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal. To be an effective leader, the manager must influence his or her associates in a positive way to reach the goals of the organization. A transformational leadership approach can help managers become exceptional leaders. This article will explain the transformational leadership approach by discussing its strengths, weaknesses, and steps for application.

Transformational Leadership

To use this approach in the workforce, one must first understand exactly what transformational leadership is. In the simplest terms, transformational leadership is a process that changes and transforms individuals (Northouse 2001). In other words, transformational leadership is the ability to get people to want to change, to improve, and to be led. It involves assessing associates' motives, satisfying their needs, and valuing them (Northouse 2001). Therefore, a transformational leader could make the company more successful by valuing its associates.

One successful transformational leader was Sam Walton, founder of Wal-Mart, who often visited Wal-Mart stores across the country to meet with associates to show his appreciation for what they did for the company. Walton gave "rules for success" in his autobiography, one of which was to appreciate associates with praise (Walton 1996).

There are four factors to transformational leadership, (also known as the "four I's"): idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration. Each factor will be discussed to help managers use this approach in the workplace.

Idealized influence describes managers who are exemplary role models for associates. Managers with idealized influence can be trusted and respected by associates to make good decisions for the organization.

Inspirational motivation describes managers who motivate associates to commit to the vision of the organization. Managers with inspirational motivation encourage team spirit to reach goals of increased revenue and market growth for the organization.

Intellectual stimulation describes managers who encourage innovation and creativity through challenging the normal beliefs or views of a group. Managers with intellectual stimulation promote critical thinking and problem solving in an effort to make the organization better.

Individual consideration describes managers who act as coaches and advisors to the associates. Managers with individual consideration encourage associates to reach goals that help both the associates and the organization.

Effective transformational leadership results in performances that exceed organizational expectations. Figure 1 illustrates the additive effect of transformational leadership because managers must pull together the components to reach "performance beyond expectations" (Northouse 2001).

Figure 1.

Each of the four components describes characteristics that are valuable to the "transformation" process. When managers are strong role models, encouragers, innovators, and coaches, they are utilizing the "four I's" to help "transform" their associates into better, more productive and successful individuals. Northouse (2001) states that in 39 studies of transformational literature, individuals who exhibited transformational leadership were more effective leaders with better work outcomes. This was true for both high- and low-level leaders in the public and private sectors (Northouse 2001). Therefore, it can be very advantageous for managers to apply the transformational approach in the workplace.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Transformational Leadership

As with any theory or approach to leadership, strengths and weaknesses become evident. Northouse (2001) identifies the strengths and weaknesses of the transformational leadership approach as follows:

* Weak leadership may have too many components that focus superficially rather than identifying appropriate depth of engagement and treat leadership more as a personality trait than as a learned behavior; they have the potential for abusing power.

Applying Transformational Leadership

Because transformational leadership covers a wide range of aspects within leadership, there are no specific steps for a manager to follow. Becoming an effective transformational leader is an iterative process. This means that conscious effort must be made to adopt a transformational style. Understanding the basics of transformational leadership and the four I's can help a manager apply this approach. According to Northouse (2001), a transformational leader has the following qualities:

empowers followers to do what is best for the organization

is a strong role model with high values

listens to all viewpoints to develop a spirit of cooperation

creates a vision, using people in the organization

acts as a change agent within the organization by setting an example of how to initiate and implement change

* helps the organization by helping others contribute to the organization

Conclusions

Transformational leadership is a vital role for effective managers because leader effectiveness determines the ultimate success of the organization. According to Hesselbein and Cohen (1999, p. 263), organizations that take the time to teach leadership are far ahead of the competition. By becoming familiar with the transformational leadership approach and combining the four I's, managers can engage as effective leaders in the business world.

Transformational leadership can be applied in one-on-one or group situations. Using this approach, the manager (leader) and the associates (followers) are "transformed" to enhance individual job performance and, as a group, help the organization be more productive and successful.

References

Hesselbein, F., and P.M. Cohen. (1999). Leader to Leader. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Northouse, P.G. 2001. Leadership Theory and Practice, second edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Walton, S., and J.H. 1996. Sam Walton: Made in America: My Story. Canada: Bantam Books.

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HR020/HR020: Transformational Leadership: The Transformation of Managers and Associates

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University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences Extension outreach is a partnership between state, federal, and county governments to provide scientific knowledge and expertise to the public. The University of Florida (UF), together with Florida A&M University (FAMU), administers the Florida Cooperative Extension Service.

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What is your natural leadership style?

Do you focus on completing tasks or on building relationships with your team?

And have you considered that this natural style of leadership might be more suited to some situations than it is to others?

In this article, we'll explore Fiedler's Contingency Model, and we'll look at how it can highlight the most effective leadership style to use in different situations.

Note:

With this theory, we are not using the word "contingency" in the sense of contingency planning. Here, a contingency is a situation or event that's dependent - or contingent - on someone or something else.

Understanding the Model

The Fiedler Contingency Model was created in the mid-1960s by Fred Fiedler, a scientist who studied the personality and characteristics of leaders.

The model states that there is no one best style of leadership. Instead, a leader's effectiveness is based on the situation. This is the result of two factors - "leadership style" and "situational favorableness" (later called "situational control"). We explore these two factors in the next section, below.

Note:

At Mind Tools, we believe that transformational leadership is the best leadership style in most situations, however, we believe that other leadership styles are sometimes necessary.

In our opinion, the Fiedler Contingency Model is unhelpful in many 21st Century workplaces (see Criticisms of the Model, below). It may occasionally be a useful tool for analyzing a situation and determining whether or not to focus on tasks or relationships, but be cautious about applying any style simply because the model says you should. Use your own judgment when analyzing situations.

Leadership Style

Identifying leadership style is the first step in using the model. Fiedler believed that leadership style is fixed, and it can be measured using a scale he developed called Least-Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Scale (see figure 1).

The scale asks you to think about the person who you've least enjoyed working with. This can be a person who you've worked with in your job, or in education or training.

You then rate how you feel about this person for each factor, and add up your scores. If your total score is high, you're likely to be a relationship-orientated leader. If your total score is low, you're more likely to be task-orientated leader.

Figure 1: Least-Preferred Co-Worker Scale

The model says that task-oriented leaders usually view their LPCs more negatively, resulting in a lower score. Fiedler called these low LPC-leaders. He said that low LPCs are very effective at completing tasks. They're quick to organize a group to get tasks and projects done. Relationship-building is a low priority.

However, relationship-oriented leaders usually view their LPCs more positively, giving them a higher score. These are high-LPC leaders. High LPCs focus more on personal connections, and they're good at avoiding and managing conflict. They're better able to make complex decisions.

Situational Favorableness

Next, you determine the "situational favorableness" of your particular situation. This depends on three distinct factors:

Leader-Member Relations - This is the level of trust and confidence that your team has in you. A leader who is more trusted and has more influence within the group is in a more favorable situation than a leader who is not trusted.

Task Structure - This refers to the type of task you're doing: clear and structured, or vague and unstructured. Unstructured tasks, or tasks where the team and leader have little knowledge of how to achieve them, are viewed unfavorably.

Leader's Position Power - This is the amount of power you have to direct the group, and provide reward or punishment. The more power you have, the more favorable your situation. Fiedler identifies power as being either strong or weak.

Applying the Fiedler Contingency Model

Step 1: Identify your leadership style

Think about the person who you've least enjoyed working with, either now or in the past.

Rate your experience with this person using the scale in figure 1, above. According to this model, a higher score means that you're naturally relationship-focused, and a lower score means that you're naturally task-focused.

Step 2: Identify your situation

Answer the questions:

Are leader-member relations good or poor?

Is the task you're doing structured, or is it more unstructured, or do you have little experience of solving similar problems?

Do you have strong or weak power over your team?

Step 3: Determine the most effective leadership style

Figure 2 shows a breakdown of all of the factors we've covered: Leader-Member Relations, Task Structure, and Leader's Position Power. The final column identifies the type of leader that Fiedler believed would be most effective in each situation.
Figure 2: Breakdown of Most Effective Leader Style

Leader-Member Relations

Task Structure

Leader's Position Power

Most Effective Leader

For instance, imagine that you've just started working at a new company, replacing a much-loved leader who recently retired. You're leading a team that views you with distrust (so your Leader-Member Relations are poor). The task you're all doing together is well defined (structured), and your position of power is high because you're the boss, and you're able to offer reward or punishment to the group.

The most effective leader in this situation would be high LPC - that is, a leader who can focus on building relationships first.

Or, imagine that you're leading a team that likes and respects you (so your Leader-Member relations are good). The project you're working on together is highly creative (unstructured) and your position of power is high since, again, you're in a management position of strength. In this situation, a task-focused leadership style would be most effective.

Criticisms of the Model

There are some criticisms of the Fiedler Contingency Model. One of the biggest is lack of flexibility. Fiedler believed that because our natural leadership style is fixed, the most effective way to handle situations is to change the leader. He didn't allow for flexibility in leaders.

For instance, if a low-LPC leader is in charge of a group with good relations and doing unstructured tasks, and they have a weak position (the fourth situation), then, according to the model, the best solution is to replace them with a high-LPC leader - instead of asking them to use a different leadership style.

There is also an issue with the Least-Preferred Co-Worker Scale - if you fall near the middle of the scoring range, then it could be unclear which style of leader you are.

There have also been several published criticisms of the Fiedler Contingency Model. One of the most cited is "The Contingency Model: Criticisms and Suggestions," published in the Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 13, No. 3. The authors say that, even under the best circumstances, the LPC scale only has about a 50 percent reliable variance. This means that, according to their criticism, the LPC scale may not be a reliable measure of leadership capability.

It's also perfectly possible that your least preferred co-worker is a genuinely confused, unpleasant or evil person (they do exist) - if you are unfortunate enough to have encountered such a person just once in your career, then you might always be categorized as a low-LPC leader, however people-oriented you actually are.

Key Points

The Fiedler Contingency Model asks you to think about your natural leadership style, and the situations in which it will be most effective. The model says that leaders are either task-focused, or relationship-focused. Once you understand your style, it says that you can match it to situations in which that style is most effective.

However, the model has some disadvantages. It doesn't allow for leadership flexibility, and the LPC score might give an inaccurate picture of your leadership style.

As with all models and theories, use your best judgment when applying the Fiedler Contingency Model to your own situation.

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Fiedler's Contingency Model: Matching Leadership Style to a Situation

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What is your natural leadership style? Do you focus on completing tasks or on building relationships with your team? And have you considered that this natural style of leadership might be more suited to some situations than it is to others?

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Transactional leadership, also known as managerial leadership, focuses on the role of supervision, organization, and group performance. Leaders who implement this style focus on specific tasks and use rewards and punishments to motivate followers.﻿﻿

This theory of leadership was first described in by sociologist Max Weber and further explored by Bernard M. Bass in the early 1980s. Take a closer look at how the transactional style works as well as some of the potential benefits and downsides of this style.

Basic Assumptions of Transactional Leadership

People perform their best when the chain of command is definite and clear.

Rewards and punishments motivate workers.

Obeying the instructions and commands of the leader is the primary goal of the followers.

Subordinates need to be carefully monitored to ensure that expectations are met.﻿﻿

This theory takes a behavioral approach to leadership by basing it on a system of rewards and punishments.

Athletic teams also rely heavily on transactional leadership. Players are expected to conform to the team's rules and expectations and are rewarded or punished based on their performance. Winning a game might mean accolades and bonuses while losing might lead to rejection and verbal castigation. Players often become highly motivated to do well, even if it means suffering pain and injury.

Unlike transformational leaders who tend to be forward-looking, transactional leaders are interested in merely maintaining the status quo.﻿﻿ Transformational leaders try to sell their ideas and vision to followers. Transactional leaders, on the other hand, tell group members what to do and when to do it.

How Transactional Leadership Works

In transactional leadership, rewards and punishments are contingent upon the performance of the followers. The leader views the relationship between managers and subordinates as an exchange - you give me something for something in return. When subordinates perform well, they receive a reward. When they perform poorly, they will be punished in some way. Rules, procedures, and standards are essential in transactional leadership.

They do not, however, act as catalysts for growth and change within an organization. Instead, they are focused on maintaining this as they are and enforcing current rules and expectations.

These leaders do tend to be good at setting expectations and standards that maximize the efficiency and productivity of an organization.﻿﻿ They tend to give constructive feedback regarding follower performance that allows group members to improve their output to obtain better feedback and reinforcement.

When Is Transactional Leadership the Most Effective?

Followers are not encouraged to be creative or to find new solutions to problems. Research has found that transactional leadership tends to be most effective in situations where problems are simple and clearly defined.﻿﻿

It can also work well in crisis situations where the focus needs to be on accomplishing certain tasks. By assigning clearly defined duties to particular individuals, leaders can ensure that those things get done.

Transactional leaders focus on the maintenance of the structure of the group.﻿﻿ They are tasked with letting group members know exactly what is expected, articulating the rewards of performing tasks well, explaining the consequences of failure, and offering feedback designed to keep workers on task.

While transactional leadership can be useful in some situations, it is considered insufficient in many cases and may prevent both leaders and followers from achieving their full potential.

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How a Transactional Leadership Style Works

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Transactional leadership, also known as managerial leadership, focuses on the role of supervision, organization, and group performance. Leaders who implement this style focus on specific tasks and use rewards and punishments to motivate followers.﻿﻿ This theory of leadership was first described in by sociologist Max Weber and further explored by Bernard M.

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Servant leaders are a revolutionary bunch–they take the traditional power leadership model and turn it completely upside down. This new hierarchy puts the people–or employees, in a business context–at the very top, and the leader at the bottom, charged wi

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The Benefits of Evolving Leadership Theories

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The Benefits of Evolving Leadership Theories

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The Advantages of Emerging Leadership Theories

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Organizations require leaders to motivate, direct and drive workers to move the company forward. A leadership theory attempts to understand and explain the process that occurs between leaders and followers. Emerging or current leadership theories focus on leadership styles that respond to a variety of situations and ...

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When Kathleen Yosko, now CEO of Northwestern Medicine's Marianjoy Rehabilitation Center, began her first job as a hospital president, there was no onboarding process planned, and no one to welcome her. Thinking it was a mistake, Yosko called her headquarters for advice. They told her, "Just do whatever a president does."

Fortunately, Yosko was a seasoned leader and she intuited where to start. But for many others, our first forays into leadership felt much like Yosko's first day: knowing how to start was not obvious. In many companies, individuals are promoted because of their technical skill - they are gifted engineers, accountants, or marketers - but that does not mean they are prepared for leadership. Leadership is a skill that can be learned, but it takes intentionality.

In the past half century, the study of leadership has grown, offering many new theories and frameworks for exploring what it means to be a leader, and how to do leadership well. In this article, we outline five current leadership theories, and offer resources and suggestions for integrating the theories into your own leadership practice. We will explore:

1. Transformational Leadership

2. Leader-Member Exchange Theory

3. Adaptive Leadership

4. Strengths-Based Leadership

5. Servant Leadership

But First, A Quick Review of Leadership History

Before we begin, we need to put leadership theory and practice in the context of history, to understand how the field of study has evolved. The earliest theories of leadership were the Great Man Theories, which emerged in the late 1800s. (Perhaps you can see one primary fault with these theories, just from their name: they assumed only half the world's population could even be considered for leadership.) The Great Man concept evolved into trait-based theories of leadership, which defined leadership by a leader's characteristics, most of which were considered innate. You were either lucky enough to be born with them, or you weren't. (Starting, first, with a Y chromosome.) For many of us, our first understanding of leadership may have aligned with these theories: leaders were often men with dominant personalities. We still see this theory at play unconsciously today, when someone is overlooked for a leadership role because of a quiet personality.

In the middle of the last century, the study of leadership shifted from the study of traits to the study of behaviors: not who the leader is but what the leader does. This allowed for an understanding that leadership could be developed in others. The most prominent leadership theories today build on this understanding, and begin to integrate the perspective of followers and the contextual circumstances in which leaders and followers interact. As business, and our understanding of human nature, grows more complex, leadership theories and frameworks should evolve to accommodate the new contexts and understandings.

Defining Leadership

Before we unpack contemporary theories of leadership, we need to define the term itself. Leadership theory scholar Dr. Peter Northouse defines leadership as "a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal." This definition makes clear that leadership is not a trait or behavior, and it is not a position. You are not made a leader by your job title, you are made a leader by your influence.

Finally, contemporary theories of leadership wrestle with the motivations of leaders: can you be a leader if your goal is selfish or even malicious? The classic question is, "Was Adolf Hitler a leader?" Theories of leadership must wrestle with the moral implications of a leader's motivations. As you'll see in several of the theories below, many theories would answer the question of Hitler with a firm no: Hitler was a dictator, but not a leader. He had positional authority, but did not show true leadership.

To begin our exploration of leadership theories, let's start with one of the most researched and referenced today, transformational leadership.

Transformational Leadership

The concepts of transformational leadership were brought to prominence by political sociologist James MacGregor Burns, in the late 1970s. Burns identified two types of leadership,

Transactional: where a leader influences others by what they offer in exchange, the transaction;

Transformational: where a leader connects with followers in such a way that it raises the level of motivation and morality.

Those two words - motivation and morality - are important, as it demands that transformational leaders be committed to a collective good. This may be a societal good, such as starting a community center or improving air quality, or a more personalized good, such as helping direct reports reach their own potential.

Activating transformational leadership:

If Kathleen Yosko, the hospital CEO who was thrown into leadership with little direction, wanted to employ transformational leadership strategies in her work, she might start with four factors researchers find present in transformational leaders. Northouse (2016) outlines these factors, which can serve as a starting place for test driving transformational leadership:

1. Idealized influence, or charisma: Transformational leaders have an uncanny ability to make you want to follow the vision they establish.

2. Inspirational motivation: Communication is a vehicle of inspiration for transformational leaders; they use words to encourage others and inspire action.

3. Intellectual stimulation: Transformational leaders stretch others to think more deeply, challenge assumptions, and innovate.

4. Individualized concern: Finally, while focused on the common good, transformational leaders show care and concern for individuals.

Leader-Member Exchange Theory

The concept of individualized concern has some carry-over to our second theory, Leader-Member Exchange Theory (LMX). To understand this theory, you only need to think back to junior high: almost every student could be divided into two categories, popular or unpopular.

LMX theory explains that in any group or organization, there are in-group members and out-group members. In-group members work well with the leader, have a personality that fits with the leader's, and are often willing to take on extra tasks or responsibilities. Out-group members are less compatible with the leader; they may hold dissenting opinions, have clashing personalities, or be less willing to take on extra assignments. Not surprisingly, in-group members are more likely to earn promotions; out-group members are more likely to leave.

Activating LMX theory:

For followers, applying the concepts of LMX theory is easy: align yourself with the leader, take on extra tasks, and expect positive results. For leaders, LMX offers a greater challenge, because making your team as productive as possible will mean finding ways to turn out-group members into in-group members. Individualized concern, the final factor of transformational leadership, may offer one path to converting out-group members.

Additionally, LMX theory has important implications for improving diversity and inclusion. If minorities, women, or people with disabilities routinely identify as out-group members, the leader should ask the question, "What is required to be an in-group member here, and are we creating unintentional barriers for others?"

More on Leadership Theory

Continue learning about leadership theory in the next article in this series, where we'll discuss Adaptive Leadership, Strengths Based Leadership, and Servant Leadership, along with the usefulness of leadership theories. >> Read more in part 2 of this series.

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Amber Johnson is the Center's Chief Communications Officer and Senior Research Associate; she is also a doctoral student in the Center's Ph.D./D.B.A. Program in Values-Driven Leadership.

Want more on Leadership Theory? Find an interview on why leadership theory matters, at this link.

Reference:

Northouse, P.G. (2016). Leadership: Theory and practice (7 th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishers, Inc.

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5 Leadership Theories & How to Apply Them

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When Kathleen Yosko, now CEO of Northwestern Medicine's Marianjoy Rehabilitation Center, began her first job as a hospital president, there was no onboarding process planned, and no one to welcome her. Thinking it was a mistake, Yosko called her headquarters for advice. They told her, "Just do whatever a president does."

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Linda Cliatt-Wayman: How to fix a broken school? Lead fearlessly, love hard

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Introduction

For learners within higher education, leadership education is taught via application of knowledge and skills acquired through theory and leadership competencies taught in formal educational experiences. Similarly, informal educational experiences such as co-curricular activities provide students the opportunity to move from theory to practice in leadership education. Connecting students to these opportunities are academic advisors, one of a student's most consistent academic relationships during their time in college (Hunter & White, 2004). Hunter & White posit that "academic advising, well developed and appropriately accessed, is perhaps the only structured campus endeavor that can guarantee students sustained interaction with a caring and concerned adult who can help them shape such an experience" (2004, p. 21). Academic advising is crucial to student success in facilitating student development of competencies such as the ability to partake in interpersonal interactions, fulfilling major and career objectives, and aiding in student self-exploration, all of which aid in providing the student with the capacity for success in society (NACADA, 2006). The National Academic Advising Association (NACADA) reinforces that "through academic advising, students learn to become members of their higher education community, to think critically about their roles and responsibilities as students, and to prepare to be educated citizens of a democratic society and a global community" (2006). Academic advisors are a catalyst for the extension of the student learning environment, as they assist students in navigating their own personal development and provide a connection to faculty, academic and campus resources, as well as resources outside of the university setting.

Despite the relevance of academic advising to the college student experience, there is little research to define the role of academic advisors in leadership education. Students invested in their own personal development, in addition to academic advisors, faculty, and future employers, all have a connected role in the process of understanding student development through leadership education. If students are to become informed, productive members of society, it is important to better understand the role of academic advisors in helping students develop leadership competencies. This study explores the role of the academic advisor in the leadership education process within institutions of higher education. The findings and resulting implications provide context for creating a more holistic approach to leadership education through the maximization of advising relationships.

Literature Review

Understanding leadership education, college student development, and the foundations of academic advising leads to a framework for defining the role of the academic advisor in leadership education. Relevant literature defining leadership education, the role of academic advising programs, and related student development theories provide the foundation for further understanding the role of the academic advisor in leadership education. For advisors to facilitate leadership education, McClellan (2013) states that they "need to begin by developing a basic understanding of leadership development models in higher education and the process of leadership development" (p. 212). By understanding the qualities of leadership, academic advisors can work to further understand the purpose and development of leadership education programs. Astin & Astin (2000) posit that the concept of leadership consists of the following assumptions: "leadership is concerned with fostering change, leadership is inherently value-based, all people are potential leaders, and leadership is a group process" (p. 19). With knowledge of these assumptions of leadership, McClellan (2013) asserts that advisors can "articulate a clear set of leadership outcomes...[and] then intentionally embed leadership development efforts into their work as advisors consistent with their roles within the institution" (p. 212). In defining and understanding the concept of leadership, educators and higher education administrators can work toward developing meaningful leadership education opportunities for students. Furthermore, understanding the processes of student development and student learning styles enables advisors to provide students the challenge and support they need to develop during their higher education experience (Evans, Forney, Guido, Patton, & Renn, 2010). In addition, an understanding of student development theory allows academic advisors to engage students in reflective thinking about their experiences. According to McClellan (2013), the foundations of academic advising "may already be contributing to the development of leadership among [college] students as the nature of the [advising] process is conducive to the promotion and development of many leadership competencies" (p. 212-213). Moreover, assisting academic advisors in facilitating leadership education requires "the focus and framing of the developmental process within advising" (McClellan, 2013, p. 212).

Understanding Leadership Education. The interdisciplinary nature of leadership education has made defining the discipline difficult. At most higher education institutions, forms of leadership education are being taught through individual college or major programs, in addition to various departments within student affairs (Andenoro, Allen, Haber-Curran, Jenkins, Sowcik, Dugan, & Osteen, 2013). The National Leadership Education Research Agenda (2013) explores the interdisciplinary nature of leadership education and defines it as:

the pedagogical practice of facilitating leadership learning in an effort to build human capacity...informed by leadership theory and research. It values and is inclusive of both curricular and co-curricular educational contexts (Andenoro, et al., p.3).

Leadership development "involves self-awareness and understanding of others, values and diverse perspectives, organizations, and change" (Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education, 2009). In addition, "leadership programs seek to empower students to enhance their self-efficacy as leaders and understand how they can make a difference" (Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education, 2009). The concept of leadership does not apply to a single individual, but stems "from a relationship with others fostered through self-awareness and an understanding for context" (Andenoro, et al., 2013, p. 13). Through a better understanding of self and working with others, students can become informed and productive members of society.

Literature on leadership education agrees that every student engages in some form of leadership practice whether it be inside or outside of a formal classroom setting (Astin & Astin, 2000; Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education, 2009). As a result, students must be well prepared to transition out of higher education with the capacities to become citizen-leaders. Astin and Astin (2000) define a leader as "anyone-regardless of formal position-who serves as an effective social change agent" (p. 12). Thus, if students are to be leaders, the responsibility of higher education is to facilitate their knowledge and skills and empower them to become effective agents of social change (Astin & Astin, 2000). To this effect, the Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education (CAS) has developed standards and guidelines for Student Leadership Programs (SLP). These standards include that SLP must:

prepare students to engage in the process of leadership; provide students with opportunities to develop and enhance a personal philosophy of leadership that includes understanding of self, others, and community, and acceptance of responsibilities inherent in community membership; and promote intentional student involvement and learning in varied leadership experiences (Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education, 2009).

Through personal and interpersonal development and further understanding of the development of groups and organizations, students can successfully navigate a changing world.

The Social Change Model of Leadership Development (SCM) provides a framework to further understand the application of leadership development in the higher education setting. The model is inclusive in that it attempts to understand leadership development for all individuals participating in leadership education. The model connects individual values, group values, and society/community values with critical values identified as: consciousness of self, congruence, commitment, collaboration, common purpose, controversy with civility, and citizenship (HERI, 1996). Using the SCM, Dugan and Komives (2007) conducted a national study on developing leadership capacity in college students. The multi-institutional study found that college experiences matter in developing leadership capacity. The college environment and related experiences influence student leadership outcomes in citizenship, controversy with civility, and common purpose (Dugan & Komives, 2007). In addition, the study concludes that students with any level of involvement in campus organizations have higher scores on all SCM measures, but particularly in collaboration, common purpose, and citizenship (Dugan & Komives, 2007).

Related Student Development Theory. An understanding of student development theory is crucial in developing leadership education programs that are accessible and appropriate for students (Owen, 2012). Owen (2012) states that "theories of student learning and development are particularly important in leadership education because they make prescriptions about how people can adopt increasingly complex ways of being, knowing, and doing-essential forms of development for leadership learning" (p. 17). Furthermore, Hall (2004) states, "Regarding personality characteristics of the leader, identity is probably the most important aspect of leader and career development" (p. 154). David Kolb's theory of experiential learning (1984), Marcia Baxter Magolda's theory of self-authorship (2008), and the Leadership Identity Development (LID) Theory and Model presented by Komives, Owen, Longerbeam, Mainella, & Osteen (2005), can aid leadership educators and academic advisors in understanding student development in a higher education context.

Kolb's theory of experiential learning focuses on learning styles and the relationship between learning and development. Kolb (1984) defines learning as a cyclical four-stage model comprised of concrete experience (CE), reflective observation (RO), abstract conceptualization (AC), and active experimentation (AE). Essentially, the four-stages encompass the feeling, watching, thinking, and doing aspects of learning. For learning to occur, learners must be able to navigate conflicts among the four abilities. Kolb (1984) named the subsequent four learning styles converging (AC/AE), diverging (CE/RO), assimilating (AC/RO), and accommodating (CE/AE) to reflect that learning styles can change as they are influenced by factors such as environment and experiences. Learning styles contribute to student development of critical skills such as adapting to change, awareness of meaning and values, decision making, and inductive reasoning. Evans, et al. (2010) emphasize that academic disciplines can be accessible to students with diverse learning styles by providing varied methods of instruction to help students connect with subject matter. Disciplines can also challenge students to develop the "nondominant aspects of their preferred learning styles so that they can achieve the level of flexibility needed to respond to differing environmental needs" (Evans, et al., 2010, p. 143). For higher education professionals, Evans, et al. (2010) assert that:

learning style information can assist us in providing support by demonstrating our understanding, fostering feelings of connectedness, and building on individual strengths, as well as challenge by supplying developmental mismatches to aid in overcoming weaknesses and by helping individuals to value differences in others (p. 151).

A second student development theory to be considered when developing leadership education programs is Baxter Magolda's theory of self-authorship. Baxter Magolda (2008) highlights the dimensions of self-authorship as the "interconnectivity of how we view the world (the epistemological dimension), how we view ourselves (the intrapersonal dimension), and how we view social relations (the interpersonal dimension)" (p. 271). Leadership education programs and academic advisors can assist in providing students the support they need to explore and develop their beliefs and identities. Students' journeys to self-authorship are varied based on their unique personal experiences and environmental contexts. The three elements of self-authorship are trusting the internal voice, building an internal foundation, and securing internal commitments (Baxter Magolda, 2008). In trusting the internal voice, individuals are able to recognize that reality is beyond their control, but that they can control their reactions to events. This enables an individual to take ownership of meaning making and to be more flexible when they encounter obstacles. In building an internal foundation, individuals "refine their personal, internal authority in determining their beliefs, identity, and relationships" (Baxter Magolda, 2008, p. 280). This gives individuals the ability to take part in reflective thinking and recognize and explain the choices they make. Lastly, in securing internal commitments, individuals are certain in their internal convictions and can continue or adjust their convictions or relationships as needed (Baxter Magolda, 2008).

Understanding the theory of self-authorship can assist leadership education programs and academic advisors in partnering with students to develop an understanding of their relationships, identity, and beliefs. Academic advising in particular, allows space for reflective conversations with students where advisors can "[validate] their capacity to use their internal voices, [situate] learning in their experience, and [invite] them to construct meaning of their experiences" (Baxter Magolda, 2008, p. 283). This can assist students in framing academic and career choices, as well as understanding the impact of internal voice in the many aspects of their life.

Komives, et al. (2005) present the LID Theory and Model which focuses on how leadership identity develops over time and is connected to the categories of developmental influences, developing self, group influences, students' changing view of self with others, and students' broadening view of leadership. As a result, Komives, et al., provide a conceptual model detailing the development of leadership identity through the connection of these influences. An individual's leadership identity involves six developmental stages: awareness, exploration/engagement, leader identified, leadership differentiated, generativity, and integration/synthesis (Komives, et al., 2005). Students typically move through the awareness and exploration/engagement stages prior to college, while moving through the remaining four stages throughout college. The remaining four stages each have implications for student development. In the leader identified stage, adults move into mentoring roles and are models of different leadership styles. Adults and peers then become someone that facilitates reflection and meaning making from experiences in the leadership differentiated stage. In the generativity stage, individuals can reflect on how their experiences and leadership values will apply to varied contexts. Finally, in integration/synthesis individuals in new contexts consciously seek opportunities to participate in experiences that will further develop their leadership identity (Komives, et al., 2005).

Using the LID Model, leadership educators can further understand student development and provide the environment, challenge, and support in which students can develop. It is important that "educators realize that growth and complexity cannot be forced, only facilitated" (Owens, 2012, p. 26). Thus, leadership educators can "create environments, opportunities, and conditions that encourage more complex ways of being" (Owen, 2012, p. 22). Leadership educators and academic advisors can meet students where they are in their development and create experiences and facilitate conversations that meet the needs of individual students. As individuals develop their own sense of self, these conversations and experiences can help students navigate a complex world.

Foundations of Academic Advising. The National Academic Advising Association (NACADA) summarizes the role of academic advising as:

a series of intentional interactions with a curriculum, a pedagogy, and a set of student learning outcomes. Academic advising synthesizes and contextualizes students' educational experiences within the frameworks of their aspirations, abilities and lives to extend learning beyond campus boundaries and timeframes (NACADA, 2006).

In this regard, academic advisors work with all students to define and progress toward their educational, personal, and life goals while meeting the objectives of the higher education experience. According to the CAS Standards and Guidelines for Academic Advising Programs (AAP), academic advising "encourages students to cultivate meaning in their lives, make significant decisions about their futures, and access institutional resources" (Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education, 2013, p.3). The academic advisor provides a consistent relationship for students throughout their higher education experience, while also facilitating student success, persistence, and retention.

Like the CAS Standards and Guidelines for SLP, the CAS Standards and Guidelines for AAP span student learning and development domains including cognitive complexity; intrapersonal development; interpersonal competence; humanitarianism and civic engagement; and practical competence (Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education, 2013). In collaboration with the CAS Standards and Guidelines for AAP, NACADA uses a Core Competencies Model and a Statement of Core Values to delineate the broad range of knowledge and skills that support academic advising. The NACADA Core Competencies Model lists three content areas for mastery by academic advisors: conceptual, informational, and relational. The conceptual component covers the theories and ideas behind the context of advising. The informational component includes advisors understanding institutional specific information and needs of student populations, while the relational component highlights the skills advisors must demonstrate to build advising relationships and communicate with students (NACADA, 2017). The NACADA Statement of Core Values includes seven domains that apply to the profession of advising as a whole. One of the core values is the value of empowerment. NACADA states, "Academic advisors motivate, encourage, and support students and the greater educational community to recognize their potential, meet challenges, and respect and express individuality" (2017). Like leadership education programs, academic advising programs allow students to develop their sense of self through varied curricular and co-curricular experiences.

There are multiple theoretical and practical approaches to academic advising; however, developmental academic advising remains at the core of each of these approaches (Grites, 2013). Developmental advisors "gather information to recognize where the student stands along the educational, career, and personal dimensions of his or her life, discusses where the student plans to be, and assists the student in getting to that point as readily as possible" (Grites, 2013, p. 13). Developmental advising considers the holistic development of the student and understands the connectedness of all attributes of an individual. The advisor promotes student growth and success by meeting students where they are developmentally and facilitating their educational and personal growth. Both students and advisors contribute to the developmental advising approach (Grites, 2013).

Academic advisors are a key element in the higher education experience that facilitate students' development of self, as well as the capacities required to become informed, productive members of society. Baxter Magolda states that students progress toward self-authorship when they "encounter challenges that bring their assumptions into question, have opportunities to reflect on their assumptions, and are supported in reframing their assumptions into more complex frames of reference" (2008). Academic advisors challenge students through developmental conversations that allow for students to use reflective thinking. Baxter Magolda suggests that encouraging advisees to reflect on their experiences helps them "consciously analyze their assumptions about the world, themselves, and their relationships" (2008). Academic advising provides a structured context where students engage in self-reflection and determine how their experiences affect their developing identities. Through reflective conversations, academic advisors assist students in thinking critically about their educational and co-curricular experiences and in turn connect them to their personal, educational, and future goals.

Conceptual Framework

Knowledge of leadership education, the college student development process, and the principles of academic advising leads to a conceptual framework that delineates the connection between the three concepts and student leadership development (Figure 1). Leadership education is an interdisciplinary approach to developing students' capacities for personal and interpersonal interactions, including being agents for social change. Providing a college environment that encourages self and values exploration enhances students' capacities in working with others and understanding their own identities. Involvement in campus organizations and activities enables students the ability to move from theory to practice in their leadership development. An understanding of student development theory directly impacts a leadership education program's effectiveness, as well as the effectiveness of academic advising. By providing students an environment to reflect on their knowledge and identity, students can make meaning from their college experiences. Through these experiences and reflection, advisors assist students in framing their educational and co-curricular experiences and connect them with personal and future goals. This situates academic advisors with the potential to have a critical role in student leadership development through the maximization of their relationship with students. Despite separate research in leadership education and academic advising, more research is needed to further define the role of the academic advisor within leadership education. This understanding of leadership education, relevant student development theory, and the foundations of academic advising will inform research into the role of the academic advisor in leadership education.

Figure 1. Academic Factors that Contribute to Student Leadership Development: Illustrating the Process

Methods

The purpose of this qualitative study is to use case study research to explore the role of the academic advisor in leadership education. Data collection for this study was guided by the following research objectives:

1. Explore academic advisors' perceptions of leadership development.

2. Explore current advising practices that impact student leadership development.

3. Explore academic advisors' knowledge of leadership education programs.

4. Explore academic advisors' self-perceptions on their role in leadership education.

Sampling & Participants. Typical case sampling within an overarching purpose sampling technique was used within this qualitative case study research design. Typical case sampling considers the advisor as a typical member of the population being researched and studies the phenomenon of the advisor's role in leadership education and its impact on students. The typical case sampling method provides access to a cross-section of advisors that represent the institution's larger body of academic advisors. The study explores the role of the academic advisor in leadership education by sampling advisors across campus whose role has the same impact on students in various campus programs. The advisors participating in the study are employed at a large land grant university in the southeast region of the United States with the primary job responsibility of academic advising.

Data Collection. The researcher conducted a content analysis of materials and websites provided by advising program gatekeepers, including advising syllabi or similar webpages that outline advising missions, values, and expectations. The researcher also conducted personal one-on-one interviews with respondents using a sample of advisors ( n=10) from varying departments on campus. Respondents participated in a one hour interview that explored their views of leadership, leadership education, current advising practices that foster leadership development, and their perceptions of the role of academic advisors in leadership education. Using digital materials and advisor interviews with a sample of advisors from varied campus departments enabled research to be collected and triangulated from multiple sources and perspectives within the sample population of advisors to provide credibility and dependability. The use of field notes and audio recordings, along with member checks allowed respondents the opportunity to clarify recorded statements. A varied sample of academic advisors at the institution provides thick-rich description which allows for transferability across the institution and in similar contexts. The research findings give confirmability to the respondents' perceptions of the role of academic advising in leadership education

Data Analysis. The researcher used both content and thematic analysis to analyze data collected. A content analysis was performed first on advising documents accessed from college or advising web materials. Advising documents accessed include college advising webpages and advising syllabi. A thematic analysis was performed to analyze data from advisor interviews. Open coding was used to code the advising documents to identify patterns in the purpose, mission, values, and processes of advising across colleges at the institution. Open coding was also used to organize data collected via advisor interviews. Following open coding, axial coding was performed to analyze relationships between open code categories to further understand advisor perceptions of leadership, leadership education, and the advisor's role in leadership education. Respondent perceptions were coded and data is reported in aggregate form. The researcher provided consistent interview conditions for each respondent, including a private interview room where interviews would not be disturbed. The research protocol provided a list of 18 interview questions that were posed to each respondent in their hourlong interview session. Interview questions were developed by narrowing the central and sub questions in the study (Creswell, 2007). Respondents completed consent forms and were informed of the purpose of the study, time needed to complete the interview, and information on how interview results would be used (Creswell, 2007).

Findings

Findings from the content analysis of advising documents revealed that of the 11 colleges within the institution, three colleges had advising syllabi and two colleges had advising-specific webpages. There is no university-wide advising document outlining the university's standard advising practices or expectations. Open coding of the advising documents led to patterns in the advising mission, purposes, and delivery of services across campus. All five of the advising documents listed an advising mission or values statement, including expectations for the advisor and student during interactions. Following a developmental advising approach, all documents also included a listing of both advisor and student roles and responsibilities in the advising relationship, setting expectations and underscoring the role of a student's academic advisor. Within the roles and responsibilities portions of the advising documents, the documents from different colleges differed in their inclusion and presentation of student leadership and skill development resources. However, each advising document followed the CAS Standards for AAP (2013) and addressed student leadership and skill development in some form, including development of personal values, development of skills and strengths, career development, and opportunities for involvement. Lastly, the documents clearly articulated the role of the academic advisor in connecting students with campus resources. The advising documents analyzed provided a clear and concise expectation of advising services in specific colleges, including the impact of the academic advising relationship on students and the university community.

The thematic analysis and open coding performed on data from advisor interviews organized data collected from interviews and enabled further axial coding. Axial coding provided analysis of relationships between the open code categories which allowed for understanding of advisor perceptions of leadership and their role in leadership education. Findings reported address each of the four research objectives assessed in the study.

Academic Advisors' Perceptions of Leadership Development. Following McClellan's (2013) call for academic advisors to develop an understanding of leadership development, respondents each identified their knowledge of leadership development, including their perceptions on leadership competencies they valued as important. Respondents defined leadership as a "combination of personality, interest, and skills used for the betterment of mankind" (R2) and "contributing back to a greater sense of humanity" (R3). Themes emerged from responses that enabled the grouping of leadership development knowledge into soft skills such as collaboration, communication, and listening, each being identified as critical to leadership development. Respondents believed that leadership development can be intentional, but that it takes time and is a multifaceted undertaking. According to respondents, critical to developing leadership competencies is the development of self and being aware of one's strengths, weaknesses, and limitations. Leadership is "inspiring others to bring the best out in others around them-not just professionally, but as humans" (R9). Leadership development involves the gaining of skills that enable one to be seen as a voice of knowledge and information.

In addition to defining leadership development, respondents identified perceived competencies of leadership that align with the CAS Standards and Guidelines for SLP (2009). Being open-minded and willing to be challenged, as well as possessing listening and communication skills were the most frequently identified competencies by 80% of respondents. Interpersonal skills such as listening and communication skills were seen as critical in allowing for reflection, seeing value in disagreement, collaborating, and providing and receiving feedback, all of which are important in the academic advising setting. Being open-minded and willing to be challenged is important when leadership requires individuals to adapt and take on different roles. Self-direction and self-awareness were also commonly cited by 70% of respondents as important leadership competencies. Being self-directed and self-aware enables leaders to empathize and see other perspectives, believe in what they are leading, act responsibly and take measured risks, and lead with integrity. Self-aware leaders are also likely to be perceived as genuine in their actions and intentions. Collaboration was mentioned by 50% of respondents as an important leadership competency. When a leader is collaborative, they practice active listening and are open to other perspectives, "seeing qualities in others worth developing," including "strengths or weaknesses and helping people grow" (R6). Respondents viewed leaders as those who can take ownership of situations and developers of others, who can "seek out others who can contribute and cultivate those skills" (R10). These leadership competencies transcend any specific discipline and can be applied across varied life contexts.

Current Advising Practices that Impact Student Leadership Development. McClellan (2013) advocates for academic advisors to embed leadership development into their role as an advisor. As such, four themes were present among respondents' perceptions of their current advising practices that impact student leadership development. Those themes include connecting students to campus resources, participating in reflective conversations with students, encouraging student involvement, and utilizing college ambassadors and peer advising models. All respondents stated that they impact student leadership development by providing students with a connection to campus resources. The ability of advisors to connect students with campus resources opens opportunities in areas such as student organizations, study abroad, and student helping resources that allow students to create meaning from their college experience and gain leadership skills. In order to facilitate necessary connections to campus resources, all respondents mentioned that they must engage students in reflective conversations, as described by Baxter Magolda (2008). These conversations should "be intentional about how time is spent in college" and should "pair [student] likes with opportunities" (R3, R4). Advisors can assist students in self-reflection, the "developmental piece" that provides students the "competencies to meet to get where [they] want to be" (R4). Fifty percent of respondents spoke of encouraging student involvement during these reflective conversations. This encouragement serves to allow students to think about the future and "attach action to overall goals" (R4), with the value of student involvement toward building leadership competencies confirmed in Dugan and Komives' (2007) multi-institutional study. Respondents stated that building relationships with students through reflective conversations allows them to be credible sources of information in communicating with students, yet also impart to students the value of self-responsibility and self-reliance. Advisors "facilitate students becoming leaders" and help them "learn the language they need to facilitate what they want to do" (R6). In addition, 40% of respondents mentioned the use of college ambassadors or peer advisors in facilitating student leadership development. Interacting with student ambassadors or peer advisors allows students to view other peers who are modeling the way. Ambassadors and peer advisors can also encourage student involvement and increase student knowledge of leadership opportunities on and off campus. Respondents deemed that their current advising practices encourage student curiosity and exploration of leadership opportunities, encourage student self-reflection, and ultimately lead to student growth and development in areas of leadership.

Academic Advisors' Knowledge of Leadership Education Programs. Mirroring the National Leadership Education Research Agenda's (2013) interdisciplinary definition of leadership education, advisor knowledge of leadership education programs spanned both formal and co-curricular opportunities. All respondents were aware of various leadership education programs and opportunities within their colleges and departments, as well as a variety of opportunities offered university-wide. Respondents recognized formal leadership education programs and other formal education programs with a leadership education component. These programs included a university-wide leadership minor for undergraduate students, leadership education Master's and Ph.D. programs, student research and teaching assistant positions, and college-specific leadership education programs. Respondents also identified co-curricular opportunities that provided students with leadership education. These opportunities included involvement in student organizations and student government, student employment opportunities at the university, campus recreation involvement and employment, the university's Center for Leadership and Service, involvement in student orientation programs, and study abroad opportunities. Respondents deemed that co-curricular opportunities "build skills that make good leaders" and offer students the ability to develop these leadership skills in a non-formal context (R3). Both formal programs and co-curricular programs are offered "across campus" that "match to career goals and relate to student goals" (R4). Academic advisors serve as catalysts to the student learning environment by generating awareness and connecting students to leadership education opportunities. In addition to leadership education opportunities for students, respondents also identified several trainings and certificate programs for academic advisors. Advisor professional development opportunities were identified as computer-based trainings, leadership trainings offered by university human resources, and membership in the university's Undergraduate Advising Council.

Academic Advisors' Self-Perceptions of Their Role in Leadership Education. Respondents defined academic advisors as the "front line of the student experience," mentioning that "students are leaders and they are missing out if we aren't training them to be leaders" (R3, R2). Academic advisors set expectations for students and "help prepare students for the real world" (R5). Respondents expressed the importance of the conceptual, informational, and relational content areas for academic advising included in the NACADA Core Competencies Model (2017). All respondents perceived their role in leadership education as providing students with the connection to resources and opportunities that will develop their leadership capacities. Respondents stated that advisors "can point students to resources to develop skills, both inside and outside of class, can encourage students to value and pursue these opportunities, and can facilitate student character development to help students realize their values and put those values into practice" (R3). Advisors "work most closely with students and understand their challenges" and can advocate on their behalf (R6). All respondents also identified their role in the encouragement and support of students, evoking the NACADA Core Value of empowerment (2017). Respondents acknowledged the role academic advising plays in a student's education and the ways academic advisors can "build a more connected community" within the university setting (R8). Respondents stated that advisors can "help students conceptualize what skills they have and where they can improve," in addition to "guiding students to recognize how skills are developed and how to apply those skills" (R4). Respondent 8 suggests that "having leadership skills is important in life and that an academic advisor can help students understand the skill sets associated with leadership and how they can be effective in a variety of contexts." Fifty percent of the respondents also identified the importance of academic advisors in modeling the way and leading by example for students. Not only can academic advisors advocate for students, they can also "lead by example in different contexts" (R8). Advisors can model the skills of networking, watching and learning from others, and self-reflection. Through leading by example, academic advisors can "encourage students to be active players in their own education" and "provide students with continuity" in their college experience (R8, R9). Advisors can be mindful of student leadership development and have intentional conversations with students that facilitate students "taking ownership of their own path" (R10).

Discussion/Implications

Although not an intended research objective, all respondents identified barriers and challenges for academic advisors in advising for leadership education. A lack of time was identified by all respondents as the most influential barrier in advising for leadership education. Respondents noted that it is "hard to juggle all of the things we need to do" (R1). Seventy percent of respondents identified money and resources as a having a direct impact on their opportunities for professional development. Money and resources also impact the number of advisors hired within an advising office. Thirty percent of respondents indicated that hiring more academic advisors would allow them to spend more time in meaningful conversation with students. In addition, 90% of respondents identified the perceptions of academic advising by both university administration and students as directly impacting academic advising on campus. Respondents suggested that students "do not always see the impact of advising" and that some "students overestimate or severely underestimate what advisors do" (R3, R4). Respondents suggested a need for "senior administration to give advisors their own voice" (R10). In addition, developing university-wide policies and procedures would allow for consistency among the decentralized academic advising units on campus. Future research can explore barriers and challenges within academic advising that prevent the maximization of advising services at an institution. Addressing these barriers can provide advisors with increased time to focus on developmental advising and leadership education.

Academic advisors should have the proper training and opportunity for continuing education and professional development that allows them to facilitate a student's journey toward self-authorship and critical thinking of their own beliefs and identities. Advisors should work to dispel student "assumptions about knowledge and self [that] lead students to view faculty and academic advisers alike as having the formula for students' academic and career success" (Baxter Magolda, 2008). Time is often a challenge for academic advisors as most advisors have additional job responsibilities such as course scheduling, administering orientation programs, and meetings or campus engagement requirements. Advisors must work within the time constraints imposed by these other responsibilities to effectively engage students in meaningful conversation.

Future research opportunities can explore the leadership identities of academic advising professionals. Understanding their own leadership identities and identity development process would be valuable for advisors who are working with students during their developmental process. In addition, research should also explore professional development opportunities for academic advisors in the areas of leadership education and development. By increasing their capacities in leadership education and in supporting leadership programs, academic advisors can become a useful tool for universities in promoting student leadership education and in creating and facilitating such programs.

Limitations

As this study is limited to advisors at one institution, caution must be taken in applying the conclusions to other universities. Academic advising at this particular institution operates using a shared academic advising model, where some students receive advising services in a central administrative unit such as an advising center, while other students receive advising services in their academic department. Other institutions use a decentralized advising model, where students receive advising services within their specific academic department or college. A third model is a centralized advising model, where students receive advising services from a centralized advising office, regardless of their chosen discipline (Pardee, 2004). Not only can students receive academic advising from a professional academic advisor, they may also receive academic advising from a faculty advisor or peer advisors. In addition to differing service models, each individual academic advisor comes to the advising role from varied backgrounds. Some advisors may even serve multiple roles within the institution, such as instructors, student affairs professionals, or counselors. Thus different theories and models may inform their work with their specific student populations (He & Hutson, 2016). The differences in advising approaches and from whom students are receiving academic advising may have a direct impact on the services offered to students.

Conclusion

Leadership education programs must consider their respective institution's mission, goals, curriculum, and co-curriculum in carrying out their purpose. Many organizations and programs within the university setting claim to promote and facilitate leadership education and development. For instance, formal leadership education programs such as college majors and minors, co-curricular organizations and experiences, and opportunities presented through internships and entities outside of the institution are all viable leadership development opportunities for students. Leadership educators and academic advisors need to be integrally involved and committed to the development and facilitation of leadership education within the university setting. Institutions, leadership educators, and academic advisors should work to collaborate with campus partners to ensure that efforts are not being duplicated across campus. According to McClellan (2013), "not all of the resources of the university are dedicated to the achievement of the multitude of university missions that both overtly and indirectly espouse leadership development" (p. 225). As more students are becoming actively involved in campus activities and opportunities, "there remains a gap to fill in the intentional promotion of [students'] growth as leaders" (McClellan, 2013, p. 225). Academic advisors have the knowledge and skills to become intentional promotors of leadership education. Academic advisors can leverage their knowledge of student development theory, leadership education, and their role in the higher education process to maximize their advising relationships and facilitate student leadership development.

References

Andenoro, A. C., Allen, S. J., Haber-Curran, P., Jenkins, D. M., Sowcik, M., Dugan, J. P., & Osteen, L. (2013). National Leadership Education research agenda 2013-2018: Providing strategic direction for the field of leadership education. Retrieved from Association of Leadership Educators website: http://leadershipeducators.org/ResearchAgenda

Astin, A. W., & Astin, H. S. (2000). Leadership Reconsidered: Engaging higher education in social change. Battle Creek, MI: W. K. Kellogg Foundation. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED444437.pdf

Baxter Magolda, M. B. (2008). Three elements of self-authorship. Journal of College Student Development, 49(4) 269-284. doi: https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.0.0016

Baxter Magolda, M. B., & King, P. M. (2008). Towards reflective conversations: An advising approach that promotes self-authorship. Peer Review; Washington, 10(1), 8-11. Retrieved from https://login.lp.hscl.ufl.edu/login?URL=http://search.proquest.com/accountid=10920?uur =https://search.proquest.com/docview/216597434?accountid=10920

Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education. (2013). Academic Advising Programs. In CAS professional standards for higher education (8 th ed., pp. 1-18). Washington, DC: Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education.

Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education. (2009). Student leadership programs. In CAS professional standards for higher education (7 th ed., pp. 1-19). Washington, DC: Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education.

Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Dugan, J. P., & Komives, S. R. (2007). Developing leadership capacity in college students: Findings from a national study. A Report from the Multi-Institutional Study of Leadership. College Park, MD: National Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs.

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He, Y., & Hutson, B. (2016). Appreciative assessment in academic advising. The Review of Higher Education, 39(2), 213-240. doi: https://doi.org/10.1353/rhe.2016.0003

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McClellan, J. L. (2013). Contributing to the development of student leadership through academic advising. Journal of Leadership Education, 12(1), 207-233. Retrieved from http://www.journalofleadershiped.org/attachments/article/50/McClellan%202013.pdf

NACADA: The Global Community for Academic Advising. (2006). NACADA concept of academic advising. Retrieved from NACADA Clearinghouse of Academic Advising Resources Web Site: http://www.nacada.ksu.edu/Resources/Clearinghouse/View-Articles/Concept-of-Academic-Advising-a598.aspx

NACADA: The Global Community for Academic Advising. (2017). NACADA academic advising core competencies model. Retrieved from https://www.nacada.ksu.edu/Resources/Pillars/CoreCompetencies.aspx

NACADA: The Global Community for Academic Advising. (2017). NACADA core values of academic advising. Retrieved from https://www.nacada.ksu.edu/Resources/Pillars/CoreValues.aspx

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Exploring the Role of the Academic Advisor in Leadership Education - Journal of Leadership Education

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Introduction For learners within higher education, leadership education is taught via application of knowledge and skills acquired through theory and leadership competencies taught in formal educational experiences. Similarly, informal educational experiences such as co-curricular activities provide students the opportunity to move from theory to practice in leadership education.

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Meet Mrs. Adriana DuPrau: Campus Leader and Role Model

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Meet Mrs. Adriana DuPrau: Campus Leader and Role Model

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As I walk up the wooden staircase to Mrs. DuPrau’s office, the sound of instrumental music and the scent of a vanilla candle float down, greeting me warmly. Without skipping a beat, Mrs. DuPrau cheerfully calls out, “Mrs. Hope, is that you? I am so happy that you are here!” (A. DuPrau, personal communication, April 21, 2021). This welcoming introduction embodies who Mrs. DuPrau is as an individual and a leader on her campus. After teaching kindergarten for six years and serving as the Curriculum Coordinator, Mrs. DuPrau now acts as the Dean of Students at The New Century School, a progressive multilingual Montessori academy located in Baltimore, Maryland. When asked about her favorite part of her new position, she eagerly gushes, “The people… [and]...especially collaborating with my amazing staff members” (A. DuPrau, personal communication, April 21, 2021). Mrs. DuPrau places great importance on her relationships with students, families and staff members, and she enjoys exploring how to motivate those around her to achieve their desired goals. These traits are the hallmarks of a successful relational leader, whose ultimate goal is the wellbeing and success of others (Cherry, 2019). Relational leadership advocates for followers to learn and grow interdependently while working towards a central mission. The values of inclusivity, empowerment, open mindedness and integrity are essential aspects of this leadership style (Coleman, 2018).

Not only does Mrs. DuPrau embody these values as a leader, she also notes that creating a positive and welcoming work environment for everyone is at the core of her leadership philosophy. She argues that “when people feel valued, recognized and included, they will work twenty times harder to get a job done” (A. DuPrau, personal communication, April 21, 2021). This statement echoes the sentiment of servant leadership, which emphasizes “making a positive difference in followers’ lives by providing an open and caring atmosphere conducive to growth and development” (Paul& Fitzpatrick, 2015, p. 29). Servant leaders have a central philosophy of serving others and putting their own needs last. While commending Mrs. DuPrau for these selfless tendencies, she stops me mid-sentence and shakes her head sadly, sharing that this aspect of her personality often lands her in trouble. She notes that “because I have a tendency to say yes to everything and everyone, I often overcommit myself to the point of putting my own needs, especially basic ones, last… I will frequently work through lunch and forget to eat or take work calls and emails at home, cutt into family time with my kids'' (A. DuPrau, personal communication, April 21, 2021).  Mrs. DuPrau suggests that she is still learning to manage this part of her leadership philosophy- she wants to be available to her team but also put boundaries on how much she makes herself available to others.

We briefly discuss her professional role model and the qualities that set this individual apart from others. Mrs. DuPrau tells me a heartwarming story about her very first principal, a strong, caring and joy-filled woman, who took in a student temporarily while he battled issues at home. Mrs. DuPrau shares that this principal “led and loved her community fiercely… and gave everyone the time of day no matter how many obligations were currently sitting on her plate” (A. DuPrau, personal communication, April 21, 2021). Mrs. DuPrau notes that she would like to encompass these same qualities as she leads and shapes her own school community. She states that this type of leadership- leaders empowering their followers- can trickle down to positively impact more people than intended, essentially causing a ripple effect of connection and belonging. Indeed, “The function of leadership is to produce more leaders, not followers…[by]  altering the perspective or psychology of a follower and shift them to want to become a leader too” (Western Governors University, 2021).

We conclude our interview with my final question regarding the advice she would give an individual entering a leadership position for the first time. Mrs. DuPrau gets a faraway look in her eyes, smiles softly at me and responds, “Be good to people and don’t take yourself too seriously” (A. DuPrau, personal communication, April 21, 2021)

References
Cherry, K. (2019). The Major Leadership Theories. Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/leadership-theories-2795323

Coleman, J. (2018, August 18). The Power Of Relational Leadership. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/johncoleman/2018/04/16/the-power-of-relational-leadership/?sh=2dd10990369d

Paul, K. W., & Fitzpatrick, C. (2015). Advising as servant leadership: Investigating student satisfaction. NACADA Journal, 35(2), 28-35. Retrieved from http://eds.b.ebscohost.com.easydb.angelo.edu/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=4&sid=7f2571df-a469-4e77-8150-11ff3543b8cc%40pdc-v-sessmgr03

Western Governors University. (2021). Leadership Theories and Styles. https://www.wgu.edu/blog/leadership-theories-styles2004.html#:~:text=Leadership%20theories%20are%20the%20explanations,to%20increase%20their%20leadership%20capabilities