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Taking into consideration this set of Critical Success Factors, attached is an example Roadmap/E-Coaching Process indicating steps and activities in a successful E-coaching programme implemented within an organisation. To avoid an overly complex diagram the process involves two example e-coaching activities.

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A clear definition of e-coaching has yet to be agreed upon, partly due to the continuing development of technologies in creating opportunities for new methods of communication and collaboration (Rowland, 2011). Indeed, there has yet to be an agreed defintion of coaching itself (Passmore and Fillery-Travis, 2011), especially in defining it as something completely separate from mentoring. However, a general definition would encompass the process of
'. . .facilitation of learning and development by providing encouragement and direction with the purpose of improving performance' (Stein et al, 2013)

Building on such a definition regarding e-coaching, though it has been suggested that it forms simply a supportive role in traditional coaching, for example using e-mail for simple correspondence (Garvey et al, 2014), the more comprehensive definition given by Geissler et al (2014) which incorporates it as a coaching relationship, technology-mediated, with the clear purpose of facilitating learning and growth.

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Though cost-efficiency and convenient access (Anthony, 2011) are often used as reasons for implementing e-coaching, success lays not in the like-for-like transference of traditional coaching into the online environment but in leveraging the possibilities for incorporating new ways of communicating, reflecting and learning that the technology affords. Furthermore, what are sometimes seen as obstacles to a authentic communciation (lack of verbal cues and 'rich' face-to-face dialogues) actually highlight skills essential for good coaching such as reflecting on meaning and active listening, understanding that listening is not merely 'waiting to speak' (Kline, 2009).

By enabling the use of a wide diversity of mediums of communication, activity, reflection and practice, a well designed e-coaching strategy can increase engagement (Clutterbuck, 2010). It also enables both coach and coachee to incorporate external resources and other parties (for example, the use of group activities) into the coaching process (Ribbers and Waringa, 2013).

As a non-linear, reflective learning process, the textual nature of many e-coaching activities enhances the resources available for reflection and review over a longer period of time as the written record allows for those reflective 'loops over time' (Schofield, 2011) to be re-analysed and reviewed throughout the process.

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Though it has been suggested that 'coachee' holds connotations of passivity (Gray, Garvey and Lane 2016) an effective coaching relationship involves commitment by both coach and coachee to communicate, question, reflect and practice.

This is of even greater importance within e-coaching. Not only does e-coaching require higher levels of pre-planning, design and participation from the coach in relation to traditional coaching (Obura et al, 2011) but the commitment needed by the coachee to the process becomes even more pronounced (Clutterbuck, 2010). The use of asynchronous communication, self-paced activities and longer periods of reflection-on-action brings the coachee into a prominent pro-active role. Indeed, it has been suggested that e-coaching not only leads to a more even partnership between coach and coachee but places the locus of control into the hands of the coachee (Ribbers and Waringa, 2015).

This requirement for reciprocal activity and pro-activity is an area of e-coaching which needs to be addressed at the beginning of the coaching relationship, creating understanding of the commitment needed for goals to be achieved as a 'covenant' rather than a 'contract' (Williams and Kaye, 2011).

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Armellini, A. and De Stefani, M. (2016) Social presence in the 21st century: an adjustment to the community of inquiry framework, British Journal of Educational Technology, 47(6), 1202-1216

Averweg, R. (2010) Enabling role of an intranet to augment e‐coaching, Industrial and Commercial Training, 42(1), 47-52
Clutterbuck, D. and Hussain, Z. (2009) Virtual coach, virtual mentor, Information Age Press, Greenwich, CT

Filsinger, C. (2014) The virtual manager as coach: coaching direct reports remotely and across cultures, Intenational Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring, 12(2),188-202

Geissler, H., Hasenbein, M., Kanatouri, S. and Wegener, R. (2014) E-coaching: conceptual and empirical findings of a virtual coaching programme, International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring, 12(2), 165-187
Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T. and Archer, W. (2000) Critical inquiry in a text-based environment: computer
conferencing in higher education, The Internet and Higher Education, 2, 87–105.
Garrison, D. R. & Anderson, T. (2003). E-learning in the 21st century, New York, Taylor & Francis.
Garvey, B., Stokes, P. and Megginson, D. (2014) Coaching and mentoring: Theory and practice, 2nd ed, Los Angeles, Sage.
Gray, D.E., Garvey, B. and Lane, D.A. (2016). A critical introduction to coaching and mentoring, London, Sage.
Hawkins, P. and Smith, N. (2006) Coaching, mentoring and organisational consultancy, London, McGraw-Hill.
Obura, T., Brant, W.E., Miller, F. and Parboosingh, J. (2011) Participating in a community of learners enhances resident perceptions of learning in an e-mentoring program: proof of concept, BMC Medical Education 11(3), 1-6
Redmond, P. (2015) Discipline specific online mentoring for secondary pre-service teachers, Computers and Education, 90, 95-104
Ribbers, A. and Waringar, A. (2015) E-coaching: theory and practice for a new online approach to coaching, London, Routledge

Rosett, A. and Marino, G. (2005) If coaching is good, then e-coaching is. . . , Training and Development, 59(11), 46-53

Rowland, K.N. (2011) E-mentoring: an innovative twist to traditional mentoring, Journal of Technology Management and Innovation, 7(1), 229-237

Schofield, R. (2011) The meaning of transformations: finding threads and the stories we tell ourselves, The International Journal of Learning, 18(2), 179-190
Stein, D. S and Wanstreet, C. E. (2013) e-Coaching success strategies for synchronous discussions, Distance Learning, 10(2), 19-24
Stein, D.S., Wanstreet, C.E., Slagle, P., Trinko, L.A. and Lutz, M. (2013) From ‘hello’ to ‘higher-order thinking: the effect of coaching and feedback on online chats, Internet and Higher Education, 16, 78-84

Williams, L., and Kaye, B. (2011). Virtual coaching: Development at a distance, Chief Learning Officer, 10(8), 44-47

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social exchanges need to have cognitive purpose if they are to prosper (Garrison and Anderson, 2003)

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CSF 4 - Adapting the CoI framework for conversational learning

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CSF 4 - Adapting the CoI framework for conversational learning

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Though the original CoI framework indicates equality between the three types of 'presence', developments particularly in collaborative technologies such as web 2.0 and social media has led some to review the relationship and offer adaptations to the original, specifically in the role which social presence has in instigating and developing teaching and cognitive presence. The work of Armellini and De Stefani (2016) has highlighted the central role that social presence plays within online learning experiences, including e-coaching (illustrated in Adapted CoI model for e-coaching). In practical application this could include :

Ensuring regular contact with the coachee

Giving regular and timely feedback to asynchronous activities

Facilitating further reflection and discussion through non-directive questioning

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Managing expectations is an essential part of the coaching process (Garvey et al, 2014) and this is even more so in e-coaching where 24/7 access to technology does not necessary correlate to 24/7 access to an e-coach. It is therefore important that the first communication should concentrate not only on the goals and objectives of the coachee but also expectations regarding availability, definitions of timely response to asynchronous communication and the variety of technology which will be used (Filsinger, 2014).

The latter point is essential if e-coaching is to be successful as lack of confidence or trust in the technology will lead to issues with authentic and regular communication. (Redmond, 2015)

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Original Community of Inquiry (CoI) Model

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Original Community of Inquiry (CoI) Model

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CSF3 - Developing the coaching relationship

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CSF3 - Developing the coaching relationship

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Successful coaching is dependent on the establishment of an authentic, confidential relationship (Schofield, 2011) and the development and maintenance of the coaching relationship has been shown to be critical in the success of all coaching activities (Geissler, 2014).

Difficulties in developing such an authentic relationship online, including the lack of non-verbal clues seen as important in the development of the coaching relationship, has been the focus of resistance to e-coaching (Garvey, Stokes and Megginson, 2014). Though there is some validity in this, the use of active listening, attention to language and frequent communication can help to limit these disadvantages (Geissler, 2014; Stein and Wanstreet, 2013).

There are also specific elements within e-coaching which are beneficial (see table Benefits and Obstacles to e-coaching) to the development of an authentic relationship which is not always possible in traditional coaching (Rowland, 2011; Stein et al, 2013; Rossett and Marino, 2005; Averweg, 2010).

Furthermore, the Community of Inquiry model (Garrison, Anderson and Archer, 2000) which emphasises 'presence' can be adapted to frame the design of e-coaching and the relationship between social, teaching and cognitive presence as a framework for e-coaching as a learning process.

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Though coaching can be an integral part of organisational culture (Hawkins and Smith, 2006), the incorporation of online or e-coaching can be perceived as contradictory to the ethos of 'conversational learning' and authentic dialogue integral to coaching, traditionally based on physical one-to-one communication (Gray, Garvey and Lane, 2016). However, if e-coaching is implemented not as a 'cheap alternative' to traditional coaching but as an integrated process for supporting learning and development, what are perceived as disadvantages of e-coaching can be overcome.

This poster, through a review of recent literature on e-coaching, aims to analyse the benefits and obstacles of developing a 'pure' e-coaching programme and to demonstrate the critical success factors (CSF) required for developing successful e-coaching.

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. . . rather than the technology being simply an add-on to an established process, technology and coaching. . . have synthesised into something new and exciting' (Clutterbuck and Hussein 2009).