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The natives were very different from the Europeans and it changes everything because during this time most the humans that had the most opportunity were the Europeans. "Relations between the different European nations and native peoples were often complex and contradictory." In Caleb's Crossing, Caleb was the only person at Harvard who was no European. Everyone else including the instructors all either came from Europe or were born from European families.

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The People. In 1492 the native population of North America north of the Rio Grande was seven million to ten million. These people grouped themselves into approximately six hundred tribes and spoke diverse dialects. European colonists initially encountered Native Americans in three distinct regions. Eastern Woodland tribes included the Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy, Abenakis, Shawnees, Delawares, Micmacs, Mahicans, and Pequots. Some of these tribes were sedentary hunter-gathers while others grew maize (corn), beans, and squash. In the Southeast white settlers came into contact with Powhatans, Catawbas, Cherokees, Creeks, Natchez, Choctaws, and Chickasaws; these people were primarily agriculturalists. Pueblos, Zunis, Navajos, and Hopis represented some of the adobe-dwelling bands in the arid Southwest. Regardless of their differences, these groups shared some common characteristics. For Native Americans the family, clan, and village represented the most important social groups. In addition, religions revolved around the belief that all of nature was alive, pulsating with spiritual power.

Contact. When the various European nations reached the New World the encounters were predictably diverse. Culture, climate, and the location and timing of the contact all affected the nature of the experience. One common factor was disease, as large numbers of native peoples succumbed to the microbes that the Europeans unwittingly carried with them in virtually every encounter. Massive population declines undoubtedly placed great stress on economic, social, political, and religious systems of native peoples. From 1492 until the Revolutionary War, trade was a central theme of interaction between natives and Europeans. This relationship shifted over time, transforming native life by drawing North America into a web of global economic connections. The process began when the first traders offered textiles, glass, and metal products in exchange for beaver pelts and buffalo robes. The transactions did not end until Europeans had virtually dispossessed the native people of the land that produced the goods the foreigners desired. Relations between the different European nations and native peoples were often complex and contradictory. Spanish colonists developed a reputation for harsh treatment, but because the Spanish sent almost no women to the New World, Spanish men often intermarried with native women. The French have been portrayed as sensitive to the culture of native peoples, but under their influence, the Fox were all but destroyed.

Exchanges. In general, the interaction of native North Americans and Europeans began with a period of initial goodwill and trade, followed by armed conflicts in which native warriors demonstrated great courage, organization, and skill. Eventually, however, superior weaponry produced victory for the colonists. Throughout the period 1600 to 1754 the interaction was marked by biological, cultural, and material exchanges. Europeans were expected to bring "Indian presents" (glass beads, mirrors, hatchets, kettles, etc.) to any major negotiations, as a sign of their goodwill. These gifts were precursors to trade relationships that marked permanent change in native societies. By removing militant native leaders and replacing them with more-amenable rulers, the Spanish were able to take power and extract the gold and silver that made Central and South America attractive to Europeans. Spaniards sent priests to Christianize native peoples even as they stole their land and exploited their labor. Europeans initially mistook the natives of the Caribbean islands for inhabitants of Asia, the continent Columbus had expected to find, and called them Indians. Struck by the peoples' nudity and gentility, some Europeans considered them to be members of the lost tribes of Israel and the New World as the physical location of the Garden of Eden. As conflicts led to violence and colonization spread to the mainland, however, the view of Indians as naive innocents soon gave way to an image of native peoples as satanic fiends bent on the destruction of white colonists. Europeans engaged in formal academic debates on the nature of Native Americans and where they fit into the world.

Southwest. Spanish colonists pushed northward from their base in Mexico in search of precious metals and created the new colony of Nuevo México. In 1598 Juan de Oñate led a group of about four hundred colonists along the Rio Grande, where they settled among the residents of the pueblo of Yunque (to which they referred as San Juan Bautista). The Pueblo people accepted their presence without resistance, adopting some of their innovations in cooking, architecture, and town planning. These Spaniards had profound effects on the local ecology. They brought cattle and sheep which grazed on the land. Their use of baking ovens greatly increased the need for firewood, depleting local supplies. And the Spanish organized Indian laborers to expand the existing network of irrigation canals. The Acoma Pueblo refused to submit to the interlopers, and hundreds of Indians were killed or enslaved. This policy of "blood and fire" produced a legacy of resentment. The Spanish never found gold or silver, struggled economically, and maintained an uneasy peace with their neighbors. But in 1680 Acoma warriors expelled the Spanish, driving them all the way back to Mexico and keeping them out for a decade. During the eighteenth century missionaries led by Friar Junipero Serra established twenty-one missions, a day's march apart, from San Diego to San Francisco, California. Military presidios, or forts, soon were added to each mission. Native religion was suppressed; Indians who resisted were physically abused; and traditional family relationships were discouraged. Native resistance took the form of poisonings, arson, and violent uprisings-with four thousand deaths recorded at Santa Barbara alone. The native population of coastal California, estimated at seventy thousand before the missions, declined to about fifteen thousand within three decades of their arrival.

Northeast. In the early 1600s Indians in the Saint Lawrence River valley established trading relationships with the French. The Montagnais and others obtained textiles and glass and metal goods in exchange for beaver skins. The French erected a fort at Quebec in 1608 to protect their trade from raids by the Mohawks. In the following years other nations entered into trade relations with the French, including the Hurons and the Algonquins. Against this alliance of French and natives were arrayed the Iroquois nations of Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, and Senecas, which had united as the Five Nations under Hiawatha and Deganawidah in the previous century. The Iroquois gained an ally in 1609, when Dutch colonists led by Henry Hudson arrived in present-day New York, seeking to copy the economic success of the French. The Dutch supplied them with metal weaponry-hatchets, knives, and arrow points-needed to combat their native and French enemies. Dutch traders penetrated southern New England and the Delaware River valley in present-day Pennsylvania. Until 1620 the British were unsuccessful in their attempts to obtain a beachhead on the North Atlantic coast. After that date the Wampanoags accepted the colony of Plymouth, and British traders began to compete for native products. By the end of the second decade of the seventeenth century, the region bounded roughly by the Hudson River, the Saint Lawrence River, and the Atlantic Ocean was North America's most complex zone of interaction between natives and Europeans. The traders' influence grew considerably after the conversion of wampum, originally a sacred object used in religious rituals, into currency. The use of wampum accelerated the pace of trade and heightened competition among native peoples, producing commercial rivalries that sometimes were settled through warfare. The Iroquois had overhunted their own territory in present-day upstate New York and needed skins to continue trading with the Dutch at Fort Orange. Further west, competition for hunting territory led to raids and counterraids. North of the Great Lakes, the Ottawas defeated the Winnebagos, forcing them to the western shore of Lake Michigan at Green Bay. Later a people known as the Neutrals drove out the Sauk, Fox, and Potawatomis, who also relocated to the Green Bay area, where the defeated Winnebagos-recovering from an epidemic-had little choice but to accept them. The native refugees at Green Bay grew into a strong anti-Iroquois, pro-French alliance. In the 1640s the Iroquois attacked the remaining Hurons, defeating them and driving the remnants of the nation and their allies toward Green Bay. Some of the Shawnee and Erie allies of the Hurons fled to the South, instead, where they would face still more conflicts with Europeans.

The Chesapeake. In Virginia early attempts to establish English colonies failed, but with the aid of the Powhatans the Jamestown colony survived. The Powhatan confederacy covered nearly all of eastern Virginia, and until 1609 relations with the English were peaceful. When white leaders attempted to dictate unfavorable terms of trade and colonization, the Powhatan chieftain retaliated by withholding corn, and war broke out. By 1611 the English had forced all native peoples out of their immediate area, and three years later a truce was implemented. Indian uprisings in 1622 and 1644 did not stop the tide of white settlers. By midcentury Virginia was experiencing a boom-and-bust economy as the price of tobacco rose and fell. Immigration remained high, however, and the area of settlements moved westward into Indian country. As the population grew, social divisions arose among the settlers. The colony's leaders tended to come from the men living near the coast and far from the Indians, representing established, relatively wealthy families. Those living farther inland tended to be more-recent arrivals, generally younger, and more hostile to their Indian neighbors.

Migrations. British trade goods were extremely attractive to the native peoples of the North. The French relied on military force to keep their native allies in line. In the first decade of the eighteenth century they built Fort Ponchartrain at Detroit in an attempt to enforce their monopoly of the fur trade in the northern Great Lakes region and keep the English at bay. But French attempts to block their partners from access to British trade made the Hurons and Petuns and other allies resentful and strengthened opposition to the French among the Iroquois. The Five Nations took part in two unsuccessful British attempts to invade Canada. In 1706 conflict pitted the Hurons, Petuns, and Miamis against the Ottawas, who relocated from upper Lake Superior to the Detroit River. The Miamis, meanwhile, returned to their former homes on the Maumee River in present-day Indiana. In 1712 the Fox people fled toward Detroit after being attacked by Ojibwas and Sioux. More than one thousand Fox arrived at Detroit to claim their traditional hunting grounds. Other Indians near Detroit resented the newcomers, and the Fox's historic links to the Iroquois fed French paranoia. The French supported their allies in a combined attack on the Fox in 1712, triggering a sequence of Fox wars that undercut French relations with native peoples during the balance of the century. In the second decade of the eighteenth century the Tuscaroras were driven from North Carolina after losing a war with the British. They journeyed to the territory of the Iroquois, who adopted the Tuscaroras and henceforth became known as the Six Nations. Two other groups-the Shawnees and Susquehannocks-also moved northward into Iroquois territory. Strengthened by the new arrivals, the Iroquois attempted to make peace with both the French and the British. This infusion of new people made the Iroquois a more formidable military power. Furthermore, the newcomers brought anticolonist sentiments that reinforced the views of those Iroquois who opposed cooperation with missionaries and Europeans generally. Finally, the influx coincided with a smallpox epidemic which the Iroquois leadership blamed on Europeans. Overall, Iroquois with "traditionalist" feelings, favoring isolation and withdrawal, became dominant over those who favored connections with traders and missionaries. For the next generation the Iroquois turned to the South, making war against the Cherokees (the Tuscaroras' old enemies), and lived in peace with the Hurons, Petuns, and other peoples of the Great Lakes.

Lower South. The colony of Carolina was founded in 1669 by investors seeking to prosper, in part, from the Indian trade. The proprietors assumed a monopoly on trade with the nearby Indians whom they called the Westos. (The Westos were, in fact, the surviving members of the Eries, driven from the Great Lakes region by the Huron-Iroquois conflicts.) Some colonists attempted to make slaves of the Westos, who retaliated with violent raids on white settlements. Colonists from the area known as Goose Creek, South Carolina, aided by the Shawnees, destroyed the Westos. The downfall of the Westos led to expanded trade between the English and the Creeks, who raided Spanish missions where Timucuans and Apalachees lived. In the 1680s Spanish raids against Coweta and Kasihta led those Creek towns to relocate into western Carolina. By the turn of the eighteenth century the Creeks were staunch military allies of the English. Led by the former Carolina governor, James Moore, English and Creek forces destroyed the Spanish mission villages in Florida. They took more than one thousand Apalachees and other Florida Indians to Charleston, where they sold them as slaves to Caribbean sugar planters. Afterward the Creeks achieved a balance of power in the region by playing European nations against each other and trading with the British, French, and Spanish alike. The British had the best trade goods at the lowest prices, however, and their economic strength and military advantages gave them the greatest staying power in North America. The Creeks' links to the British endured after their other alliances faded.

The Colonial Wars. From 1689 until 1754 a series of four colonial wars racked the North American continent and pitted the English against the French and sometimes the Spanish. Various tribes became embroiled in the conflict, fighting on behalf of one European power or another. In addition, old native enmities sometimes flared into open warfare, and new conflicts arose out of the indirect effects of colonization, such as trade and migration. By the early 1750s the native peoples of North America were squeezed between the French, who were gaining control of the Mississippi and Ohio River valleys and the British settlements along the Atlantic coast. In 1754, when the two powers went to war for the fifth and final time in North America, Indian country would be their battlefield.

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The People. In 1492 the native population of North America north of the Rio Grande was seven million to ten million. These people grouped themselves into approximately six hundred tribes and spoke diverse dialects. European colonists initially encountered Native Americans in three distinct regions.

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In the mid-to late 1600’s a young man from Martha's Vineyard became the first Native American to graduate from Harvard College. The narrator of Caleb's Crossing is Bethia Mayfield she is restless and curious and yearns after an education that but is not available for her because she is female. As often as she can, she slips away to explore the island's glistening beaches and observe the native Wampanoag. At twelve, she encounters Caleb, the young son of a chieftain, and the two forge a secret friendship they introduce each other into one another worlds. Bethia's minister father tries to convert the Wampanoag, in the process angering the tribe's shaman. Bethias father made it a project to the educate Caleb, and a year late Caleb arrived in Cambridge to study Latin and Greek. There, Bethia finds herself reluctantly indentured as a housekeeper and can closely observe Caleb's crossing of cultures. Bethia becomes involved with Samuel, the son of the school's headmaster. Bethia is becoming the object of romantic interest from Samuel. Even though Caleb is studying and Bethia is busy caring for the boys her friendship with Caleb still deepens.At the age of 17 Bethia is a mother and her happiness is restored when they go back to live on her old island again.She describes how she and Samuel married, went to Europe to enable Samuel to study medicine, and had a son whom is the first of several. Bethia also describes how Caleb and Joel's studies transcended and raised them to the top of the class no long being thought of as inferior to their fellow classmates and teachers. Shortly before their graduation, Joel is murdered by natives and Caleb falls ill with tuberculosis. A desperate visit made by Bethia to Caleb's uncle, a powerful pawaaw results in her being given the means to give Caleb a comfortable death.

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This source shows that the natives in circa 1600-1700 were always attacked and lives their lives day to day to survive. They did not have much education and chances to be part of the world. They simply farmed and used what they could from the wilderness to survive. "At that time most residents were farmers who supplemented their agricultural produce with wild game and plant foods. Native communities ranged in size from hamlets to large towns, and most Southeast societies featured a social hierarchy comprising a priestly elite and commoners." This is much like the book Caleb's Crossing because he is able to be a part of society even though he is native American and not like the other people he was still able to do what he needed in order to be successful.

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The thoughts and perspectives of indigenous individuals, especially those who lived during the 15th through 19th centuries, have survived in written form less often than is optimal for the historian. Because such documents are extremely rare, those interested in the Native American past also draw information from traditional arts, folk literature, folklore, archaeology, and other sources.

Powhatan village of Secoton© North Wind Picture Archives

Native American history is made additionally complex by the diverse geographic and cultural backgrounds of the peoples involved. As one would expect, indigenous American farmers living in stratified societies, such as the Natchez, engaged with Europeans differently than did those who relied on hunting and gathering, such as the Apache. Likewise, Spanish conquistadors were engaged in a fundamentally different kind of colonial enterprise than were their counterparts from France or England.

The sections below consider broad trends in Native American history from the late 15th century to the late 20th century. More-recent events are considered in the final part of this article, Developments in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.

North America and Europe circa 1492

The population of Native America

Scholarly estimates of the pre-Columbian population of Northern America have differed by millions of individuals: the lowest credible approximations propose that some 900,000 people lived north of the Rio Grande in 1492, and the highest posit some 18,000,000. In 1910 anthropologist James Mooney undertook the first thorough investigation of the problem. He estimated the precontact population density of each culture area based on historical accounts and carrying capacity, an estimate of the number of people who could be supported by a given form of subsistence. Mooney concluded that approximately 1,115,000 individuals lived in Northern America at the time of Columbian landfall. In 1934 A.L. Kroeber reanalyzed Mooney's work and estimated 900,000 individuals for the same region and period. In 1966 ethnohistorian Henry Dobyns estimated that there were between 9,800,000 and 12,200,000 people north of the Rio Grande before contact; in 1983 he revised that number upward to 18,000,000 people.

Dobyns was among the first scholars to seriously consider the effects of epidemic diseases on indigenous demographic change. He noted that, during the reliably recorded epidemics of the 19th century, introduced diseases such as smallpox had combined with various secondary effects (i.e., pneumonia and famine) to create mortality rates as high as 95 percent, and he suggested that earlier epidemics were similarly devastating. He then used this and other information to calculate from early census data backward to probable founding populations.

Dobyns's figures are among the highest proposed in the scholarly literature. Some of his critics fault Dobyns for the disjunctions between physical evidence and his results, as when the number of houses archaeologists find at a site suggests a smaller population than do his models of demographic recovery. Others, including the historian David Henige, criticize some of the assumptions Dobyns made in his analyses. For instance, many early fur traders noted the approximate number of warriors fielded by a tribe but neglected to mention the size of the general population. In such cases small changes in one's initial presumptions-in this example, the number of women, children, and elders represented by each warrior-can, when multiplied over several generations or centuries, create enormous differences in estimates of population.

A third group suggests that Dobyns's estimates may be too low because they do not account for pre-Columbian contact between Native Americans and Europeans. This group notes that severe epidemics of European diseases may have begun in North America in the late 10th or early 11th century, when the Norse briefly settled a region they called Vinland. The L'Anse aux Meadows site (on the island of Newfoundland), the archaeological remains of a small settlement, confirms the Norse presence in North America about 1000 ce. Given that sagas attest to an epidemic that struck Erik the Red's colony in Greenland at about the same time, the possibility that native peoples suffered from introduced diseases well before Columbian landfall must be considered.

Yet another group of demographers protest that an emphasis on population loss obscures the resilience shown by indigenous peoples in the face of conquest. Most common, however, is a middle position that acknowledges that demographic models of 15th-century Native America must be treated with caution, while also accepting that the direct and indirect effects of the European conquest included extraordinary levels of indigenous mortality not only from introduced diseases but also from battles, slave raids, and-for those displaced by these events-starvation and exposure. This perspective acknowledges both the resiliency of Native American peoples and cultures and the suffering they bore.

Native American ethnic and political diversity

Determining the number of ethnic and political groups in pre-Columbian Northern America is also problematic, not least because definitions of what constitutes an ethnic group or a polity vary with the questions one seeks to answer. Ethnicity is most frequently equated with some aspect of language, while social or political organization can occur on a number of scales simultaneously. Thus, a given set of people might be defined as an ethnic group through their use of a common dialect or language even as they are recognized as members of nested polities such as a clan, a village, and a confederation. Other factors, including geographic boundaries, a subsistence base that emphasized either foraging or farming, the presence or absence of a social or religious hierarchy, and the inclinations of colonial bureaucrats, among others, also affected ethnic and political classification; see Sidebar: The Difference Between a Tribe and a Band.

The cross-cutting relationships between ethnicity and political organization are complex today and were equally so in the past. Just as a contemporary speaker of a Germanic language-perhaps German or English-might self-identify as German, Austrian, English, Scottish, Irish, Australian, Canadian, American, South African, Jamaican, Indian, or any of a number of other nationalities, so might a pre-Columbian Iroquoian speaker have been a member of the Cayuga, Cherokee, Huron, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca, or Tuscarora nation. And both the hypothetical Germanic speaker and the hypothetical Iroquoian speaker live or lived in nested polities or quasi-polities: families, neighbourhoods, towns, regions, and so forth, each of which has or had some level of autonomy in its dealings with the outside world. Recognizing that it is difficult to determine precisely how many ethnic or political groups or polities were present in 15th-century Northern America, most researchers favour relative rather than specific quantification of these entities.

The outstanding characteristic of North American Indian languages is their diversity-at contact Northern America was home to more than 50 language families comprising between 300 and 500 languages. At the same moment in history, western Europe had only 2 language families ( Indo-European and Uralic) and between 40 and 70 languages. In other words, if one follows scholarly conventions and defines ethnicity through language, Native America was vastly more diverse than Europe.

Politically, most indigenous American groups used consensus-based forms of organization. In such systems, leaders rose in response to a particular need rather than gaining some fixed degree of power. The Southeast Indians and the Northwest Coast Indians were exceptions to this general rule, as they most frequently lived in hierarchical societies with a clear chiefly class. Regardless of the form of organization, however, indigenous American polities were quite independent when compared with European communities of similar size.

European populations and polities

Just as Native American experiences during the early colonial period must be framed by an understanding of indigenous demography, ethnic diversity, and political organization, so must they be contextualized by the social, economic, political, and religious changes that were taking place in Europe at the time. These changes drove European expansionism and are often discussed as part of the centuries-long transition from feudalism to industrial capitalism ( see Western colonialism).

Many scholars hold that the events of the early colonial period are inextricably linked to the epidemics of the Black Death, or bubonic plague, that struck Europe between 1347 and 1400. Perhaps 25 million people, about one-third of the population, died during this epidemic. The population did not return to preplague levels until the early 1500s. The intervening period was a time of severe labour shortages that enabled commoners to demand wages for their work. Standards of living increased dramatically for a few generations, and some peasants were even able to buy small farms. These were radical changes from the previous era, during which most people had been tied to the land and a lord through serfdom.

Even as the general standard of living was improving, a series of military conflicts raged, including the Hundred Years' War, between France and England (1337-1453); the Wars of the Roses, between two English dynasties (1455-85); and the Reconquista, in which Roman Catholics fought to remove Muslims from the Iberian Peninsula (c. 718-1492). These conflicts created intense local and regional hardship, as the roving brigands that constituted the military typically commandeered whatever they wanted from the civilian population. In the theatres of war, troops were more or less free to take over private homes and to impress people into labour; famine, rape, and murder were all too prevalent in these areas. Further, tax revenues could not easily be levied on devastated regions, even though continued military expenditures had begun to drain the treasuries of western Europe.

As treasuries were depleted, overseas trade beckoned. The Ottoman Empire controlled the overland routes from Europe to South Asia, with its markets of spices and other commercially lucrative goods. Seeking to establish a sea route to the region, the Portuguese prince Henry the Navigator sponsored expeditions down the Atlantic coast of Africa. Later expeditions attempted to reach the Indian Ocean, but they were severely tested by the rough seas at the Cape of Good Hope. Christopher Columbus had been a member of several such voyages and proposed an alternative, transatlantic route; in 1484 he requested the sponsorship of John II, the king of Portugal, who refused to support an exploratory journey.

Iberia was a hotbed of activity at the time. Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castille had begun to unify their kingdoms through their 1469 marriage, but they were soon forced to resolve bitter challenges to their individual ascensions. Eventually quelling civil war, the devout Roman Catholic sovereigns initiated the final phase of the Reconquista, pitting their forces against the last Moorish stronghold, Grenada. The city fell in January 1492, an event Columbus reportedly witnessed.

The seemingly endless military and police actions to which Ferdinand and Isabella had been party had severely depleted their financial reserves. This situation was exacerbated by the chief inquisitor of the Spanish Inquisition, Tomás de Torquemada, who persuaded the monarchs to expel any Jews who refused to be baptized. Under his authority some 160,000-and by some accounts as many as 200,000-Jews were ultimately expelled or executed for heresy, including many of Spain's leading entrepreneurs, businessmen, and scientists. Having lost so many of its best minds, Spain faced a very slow economic recovery, if it was to recover at all. Seeking new sources of income, the royal treasurer, Luis de Santángel, urged the monarchs to accept Columbus's proposal to explore a western route to the East. Although Columbus did not find a route with which to sidestep Ottoman trade hegemony, his journey nonetheless opened the way to overseas wealth. Spain used American resources to restore its imperiled economy, a strategy that was soon adopted by the other maritime nations of Europe as well.

Spanish Inquisition Three Lions/Hulton Archive/Getty Images

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Native American - Native American history

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Native American - Native American - Native American history: The thoughts and perspectives of indigenous individuals, especially those who lived during the 15th through 19th centuries, have survived in written form less often than is optimal for the historian.

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In Caleb’s Crossing, by Geraldine Brooks, there are a few significant cases in which the American Dream is shown. Bethia’s family seems to be well-off and know what they want. The American Dream is different for some people, but its main idea is to be successful with your time and money. Throughout the novel, there are many instances that concern equality and independence. It is portrayed that Bethia’s family would be considered the “American Dream” for Caleb to live with, but this is falsely shown. The text illustrates this paradox by talking about the dream but not living it.

In some cases, the American Dream has depicted an American Identity. Some of the values of the American identity would be considered spoiled and selfish. This is shown throughout the text by representing the father as the American identity. Bethia’s father only has one perspective: how the world treats him. He’s stuck in a cultural paradigm. He doesn’t take into consideration other’s wants, desires, and liberties.

The concept of justice is to get what you deserve. In Caleb’s Crossing, Caleb is able to get justice by graduating from Harvard after all the work he’s done.

Whatever is to be considered right and wrong is different from each person. According to the father, it is right that a woman shouldn’t need to study, but should focus her time working in the house, cooking, and obeying her husband. However, it’s considered wrong for Bethia to waste her knowledge like that.

Justice seems to be in Caleb’s favor. There’s a great opportunity for Caleb to get an education, and he only has to sacrifice a little. Justice is controlled by the people themselves, or the society it’s created in. People control their own ways of life and how they choose to go through with their actions. Those that don’t care to work for what they want don’t deserve what they want, and therefore suffer the consequences. Although, those that do care will be able to have whatever they please as long as they work for it. It all depends on what is done to get what one deserves.

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Geraldine Brooks is an Australian American author and journalist born and raised in Sydney where she attended Bethlehem College Ashfield and the University of Sydney. She began her career working as a reporter for The Sydney Morning Herald. She remained a feature writer there for three years, In 1982 she won the Greg Shackleton Australian New Correspondent scholarship for a program at Columbia University which is located in New York City. She then moved to new york city and obtained her master's degree in journalism. Not long after graduating she began to work for Wall Street Journal as a foreign correspondent. With this job she got the opportunity to often travel around the world and with her dedication and captivating articles, she was soon rewarded with the Overseas Press Club’s Hal Boyle Award in 1990. Just four short years later she released her first nonfiction novel “Nine Parts of Desire In which she informed the readers of the cultural and religious practices in the middle east and how it affected women”. Then in 1997 she released her Second - more personal - book Foreign Correspondents which granted her the Nita Kibble Literary Award for women’s writing the same year. Brooks continued to write novels and in 2001 she published her first Fiction novel Years of Wonder at this point she has become an International Bestseller. Her second Fiction Novel was published in the 2005 March in which she puts a different point of view on May Alcott’s Little Women. Washington post selected March as one of the five best fiction works of 2005 and in 2006 it won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction. "In 2008 she won the Australian Book of the Year Award as well as the Australian Literary Fiction Award for People of the Book". Brooks published Caleb’s Crossing in 2011 which New York Times named her novel the Best Seller in 2011.
Source:  “Biography: Geraldine Brooks.” Geraldine Brooks: Biography, Webbiography, www.webbiography.com/biographies/geraldine-brooks.