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theories or methodologies re working together    

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theories or methodologies re working together    

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In the digital age, technological solutions are being developed and integrated into every aspect of our everyday lives. The ever-changing scope of research in systems and software advancements allows for further improvements and applications.

Systems and Software Development, Modeling, and Analysis: New Perspectives and Methodologies presents diverse, interdisciplinary research on topics pertaining to the management, integration, evaluation, and architecture of modern computational systems and software. Presenting the most up-to-date research in this rapidly evolving field, this title is ideally designed for use by computer engineers, academicians, graduate and post-graduate students, and computer science researchers.

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Systems and Software Development, Modeling, and Analysis: New Perspectives and Methodologies

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In the digital age, technological solutions are being developed and integrated into every aspect of our everyday lives. The ever-changing scope of research in systems and software advancements allows for further improvements and applications. Systems and Software Development, Modeling, and Analysis: New Perspectives and Methodologies presents diverse, interdisciplinary research on topics pertaining to the management, integration, evaluation, and architecture of modern computational systems and software.

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links to resources re stimulating group involvement

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links to resources re stimulating group involvement

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Materials in a Universal Design for Learning (UDL) classroom are different. These materials will be used to give students multiple means of representation of concepts, multiple means of engaging in learning the concepts, and multiple means of expression for students to demonstrate what they have learned. In a UDL classroom, instruction is more flexible and provides accessibility for all students. Teachers who use the principles of UDL in their classroom recognize that instruction does not come as a one-size-fits-all design. For example, digital content can be presented in different ways to meet the learning needs of each student. This content can include adding hyperlinks and glossaries. It might also include graphs, animation, and videos linked within the body of materials to aid understanding and expand content experience to demonstrate a concept (Rose, Meyer, & Hitchcock, 2006). The UDL principles help teachers create classrooms where students can use technologies to move beyond being academic observers. These principles provide a model for self-actuated learning and universal access for all students. Regardless of students' disabilities or differentiated learning styles, every student needs and has the right to access the curriculum (Nelson, 2006). UDL should be part of the initial design of the curriculum, learning environments, and assessments. Pisha and Coyne (2001) call this approach "smart from the start." The following list includes several Web sites that will further your understanding of UDL.

In the Introduction, we discussed some of the founding principles of UDL. It is interesting that this term originated in the field of architecture. The tenets for UDL were created to ensure universal access for individuals of all capabilities. Over time, it became obvious that the designs that were originally intended for individuals with disabilities were helpful to everyone. For example, push bars or lever handles for doors replaced traditional doorknobs. This universal design has become helpful to people without disabilities when they carry large parcels, heavy briefcases, or use cell phones. You can learn more about these tenets at the Center for Universal Design's Web site at http://design.ncsu.edu/cud. When we use UDL principles to build the curriculum and select materials for the classroom, all students will have equal opportunities to learn.

Classroom materials should be designed to follow the basic tenets of UDL-providing students with multiple means of representation, engagement, and expression. It is equally important to select materials that help students retain the information. Learning is not useful if students forget what they have learned. According to Rief (1993), students retain

10 percent of what they read

20 percent of what they hear

30 percent of what they see

50 percent of what they see and hear

70 percent of what they say

90 percent of what they say and do

These statistics remind us that it is important to use multisensory material whenever possible. It may not be feasible to use multisensory material for every lesson you teach. As you vary how you present information in your classroom, students will be more engaged in the learning process. Improved student engagement will result in improved achievement. Figure 2.1 shows examples of multiple ways to engage students in diverse classrooms.

Using Print Resources

Reading instruction in the early elementary grades is focused on learning to read. As children graduate into upper elementary and middle school, the focus shifts to reading to learn. Diamond and Moore (1995) discuss the importance of organizing classrooms to foster partnerships and collaboration among diverse students as they talk, listen, read, think, and write. These collaborations include providing students with experiences that allow them to read to learn. In the next section, we will discuss several important areas to be considered with respect to print resources-visual enhancement, cultural plurality, dictionaries, and other aids.

Using Visual Enhancement

Visually enhanced reading materials can contribute to students' learning experiences. Illustrations with vivid colors and details allow students' imaginations to travel to other times and places (Diamond & Moore, 1995). Exploring the visual details of an environment helps students with reading or language challenges have a better understanding of the context of the reading material. Illustrations also can provide cultural information, open up meaningful literature experiences, and promote dynamic exchanges among diverse students as each person shares his or her interpretation of the story. Visually enhanced reading materials assist struggling readers by

Providing indicators in the story line to help them anticipate and predict the content of the text.

Improving their comprehension with visual information that can be more accurately interpreted than language-based information.

Supporting their ability to recall and retell the story. Many students remember illustrated information for greater lengths of time than text-based information.

Graphic novels are another print resource to use with struggling readers. These novels are similar to comic books, but they have longer and more complex stories. Graphic novels provide the same benefits as illustrated books and are available in electronic formats.

Using Cultural Plurality

Ensuring that print materials reflect a spirit of cultural plurality is important to supporting learning in diverse classrooms. The Council on Interracial Books for Children (1978) offers the following guidelines for evaluating children's books for cultural plurality:

Check the illustrations. Look to see if the illustrations depict a broad range of human diversity, such as race, ethnicity, and gender. Look for stereotypical depictions. Which characters are doing what in the illustrations? Are females and people of color consistently depicted in subservient or passive roles?

Check the story line. Are persons of color or individuals with disabilities required to have superhuman qualities to gain acceptance or approval? Are these characters framed as "the problem"? Are these characters able to solve their own problems or must a white, male, or non-disabled individual come to the rescue? Is the status of the female characters based on their own initiative and intelligence? Or are they dependent upon their good looks or to their relationship to male characters in the story?

Consider the author's perspective. No author can be totally objective. Has the author created a balanced story? Does the author's perspective seem overly patriarchal or feminist? Is the story solely from a Eurocentric perspective? Are diverse cultural perspectives included?

When we are aware of these elements, we can provide reading materials to our students that reflect the ideals of culturally responsive instruction. The resources list at the end of this chapter includes sources that can help you select appropriate reading materials.

Using Dictionaries and Other Aids

Electronic dictionaries are a great multimedia support for children with writing challenges. They come in multiple formats, and students can experiment with different versions until they find one that fits their needs. Electronic dictionaries are easier for most students to use than the traditional print version. For diverse students, electronic dictionaries provide helpful features such as auditory assistance for pronunciation or verifying words that students are seeking.

Electronic dictionaries come in formats that are appropriate for young children and mature learners. Many talking dictionaries for young children are illustrated and give them additional learning support. The following list includes online dictionaries that you can explore:

Embedding Content-Rich Experiences into the Classroom

Virtual field trips and tours are great opportunities for students to have content-rich experiences. Teachers can choose a variety of global and national entities to explore, such as NASA, Colonial Williamsburg, the Smithsonian museums, and the Smithsonian National Zoological Park. Some sites offer video streaming observation experiences. For example, the Smithsonian National Zoological Park provides the Pandacam that shows live streaming video of the panda habitat from your choice of two camera views. NASA offers numerous virtual field trips into outer space and across the surface of the earth. Students can follow the daily adventures of scientists and explorers into the far reaches of the earth, watch videos taken from various sites, and e-mail their questions. The Smithsonian museums offer virtual "walking" tours where students can choose what they want to see and walk through as though they are using a video camera. You can explore these virtual tours by using the following links:

Skype and iChat are software applications that allow you to explore virtual opportunities such as bringing guest speakers to classes. These programs open up endless opportunities for students to communicate with experts or children from many countries and cultures. You can link to these services from anywhere in the world. For example, by using virtual docent programs, you can pre-arrange a meeting and connect to wonderful tours, lectures, and question-and-answer sessions. These content-rich experiences give students engaging and valuable opportunities for learning. Let's take a look at how Mr. Hogan uses content-rich experiences in his classroom.

The film director is responsible for capturing images for the group presentation. Videos can be downloaded from YouTube, TeacherTube, Google and still images can be downloaded from a museum's or zoo's Web site. The director will load these videos and images to the wiki for review. After all group members give feedback on their preferences, the film director edits the media resources on the wiki. This role would be a good choice for a child with disabilities because these students typically thrive in a technological environment.

The recorder is in charge of recording the dialogue that will be used to narrate the presentation and compiling all contributed material. The recorder will create a wiki page that lists all the contributions that are expected from all group members. This role is a great role for a student with strong writing skills.

The wiki director will develop the group's Web presence. This responsibility includes creating an engaging appearance and working closely with the recorder to include accurate information. The recorder will provide most of the written work to support the wiki director. This would be another good role for a child with a disability.

The spokesperson will be the primary presenter for the group. This role includes making arrangements with Mr. Hogan for the group's interaction with the museum personnel, gathering questions from each group member, recording and archiving audio files of the conferences and the group's presentation, and posting files to the wiki in collaboration with the wiki director.

The trip coordinator works closely with Mr. Hogan to ensure that the group is tuned in when they need to be. This person is responsible for posting directions on the wiki for all needed resources. The trip coordinator will also coordinate with the ESL teacher to make sure that all information is presented in other languages as necessary. This role will require organizational skills and can be filled by an ELL student.

Creating Motion-Centered Experiences in the Classroom

Meaningful manipulatives are multisensory tools that are very beneficial for students with diverse learning styles. Earlier in this chapter, we talked about globes and number lines as examples of manipulatives. Working with manipulatives can be more like an integrative brain function when used in motion-centered experiences. TouchMath is a good example of one such set of tools. For this multisensory math program, students begin by using concrete materials such as beans or pieces of cereal to practice counting. Students soon move on to touching points on the manipulated numeral set and other materials that come with the program. Over time, students are able to learn the content by simply using other surfaces for tapping out numbers or using visualizations of previous problem-solving techniques to help them remember math concepts and calculations. For more information, you can log onto www.touchmath.com for free downloads and videos.

Using Auditory Materials in the Classroom

Auditory materials come in an increasing number of formats and can be classified in multiple ways. MP3 players are very popular, pocket-sized devices that play music and other types of audio recordings. Students can use them to play podcasts such as archived recordings from their classes or information transferred from other sites. MP3 players provide flexible access and give students the ability to repeat recordings for clarification and additional information. Many electronic books are available as free downloads in MP3 formats for pleasure or extended learning opportunities.

Amazon offers the Kindle 2, which delivers text-to-speech playback for an extensive list of books, newspapers, and blogs. You can also use this device for your own documents. This device opens up many additional avenues of access for students with reading challenges. The National Instructional Materials Accessibility Standard (NIMAS) requires textbook publishers to produce standard source files that allow their publications to be easily translated into talking books, Braille, and large-print formats. For students who have challenges reading print, alternative formats help them with their reading difficulties. NIMAS was established as part of the reauthorization of Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 2004. NIMAS provisions apply to students with identified print disabilities who have an Individualized Education Program (IEP). Check out the NIMAS site ( http://nimas.cast.org) for more information and program updates. Bookshare is a partner with NIMAS and the U.S. Department of Education and offers many audio book options. You can visit Bookshare at www.bookshare.org.

Infusing Popular Culture into Instruction

Today's students have increased exposure to multimedia and pop culture technology resources. Some teachers may question whether there is any value in using these specific resources and other computer- and Internet-based activities. According to the U.S. Department of Education Office of Educational Technology (2004), students' computer skills are far beyond those of their teachers. These students, often referred to as the Millennials, prefer to use the Internet and seek information that is more abundant, accessible, and up-to-date. In a 2004 report, the U.S. Department of Education cited the following facts for today's students:

49 percent of students may be interested in pursuing careers in technology.

28 percent of high school students access foreign news services via the Internet.

94 percent of teens use the Internet for school-related research.

Students spend more time on the Internet than they do watching television.

The largest group of new users of the Internet from 2000-02 were 2- to 5-year-olds.

Today's students feel technology is an essential and preferred asset in every part of their lives.

Today's students are ultra communicators.

Computers can help students increase their performance on standardized tests.

Technology can increase students' motivation and improve their self-concept.

Technology promotes inclusion for students with disabilities. (p. 11)

For educators, it is essential to blend these facts into the teaching and learning process.
Using Web 2.0 Tools

What is Web 2.0? This term generally refers to a group of new Internet applications that promote the use of, contribution to, and creation of information. Blogs, wikis, podcasting, and social networking are some of the most widely used applications (Churchill, 2007).

Blogs-Students can use blogs for discussions with friends or other groups of individuals. They can be integrated as digital bulletin boards where students can share, self-evaluate, and participate in group evaluations and feedback sessions. Students can also include art and photography on their blogs. Blogs also hold great promise for use in journaling in student activities (Utecht, 2007).

Wikis-Wikis are Internet-based collections of information that can be as expansive as Wikipedia or as simple as compiling information into a camping trip organizer. Teachers can use wikis for adding information to research topics, posting outstanding student work, or reporting news to parents on a bulletin board. You can visit Wikispaces at www.wikispaces.com to build a wiki to support your classes.

Podcasting-Podcasts are easy and affordable audio recordings of activities or presentations that students can listen to on their personal MP3 players. Students can use podcasts to access new information, record their own presentations, and review content that is presented or archived in this format.

Social Networking-Social networking sites such as MySpace and Facebook provide great opportunities for students to link and communicate with students from all over the world. For diverse students, these sites can promote and improve their writing abilities. As always, teachers need to monitor students' participation for Internet safety issues.

The following links are great resources that provide more in-depth information on Web 2.0 applications:

* * *

Instructional materials are critical for successful teaching in any classroom, especially in diverse and inclusive classrooms where students' skill levels, learning styles, and interests are more varied. There are many exciting options that can help teachers meet the instructional challenges they face.

In Chapter 3, we will explore other factors related to the context of instruction in diverse and inclusive classrooms.

Resources for Multicultural Materials

Books

Bar, C., East, K. A., & Thomas, R. L. (2007). Across cultures: A guide to multicultural literature for children. Santa Barbara, CA: Libraries Unlimited.

Knowles, E., & Smith, M. (2007). Understanding diversity through novels and picture books. Santa Barbara, CA: Libraries Unlimited.

Journal Articles

Davis, K. L., Brown, B. G., Liedel-Rice, A., & Soeder, P. (2005). Experiencing diversity through children's multicultural literature. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 41(4), 176-179.

Levin, F. (2007). Encouraging ethical respect through multicultural literature. The Reading Teacher, 61(1), 101-104.

Lowery, R. M., & Sabis-Burns, D. (2007). From borders to bridges: Making cross-cultural connections through multicultural literature. Multicultural Education, 14(4), 50-54.

Web Sites

Teaching Tolerance: www.teachingtolerance.org. This site is a project of the Southern Poverty Law Center. It includes a wealth of information related to culturally responsive instruction. Teachers can request free instructional kits related to topics such as the civil rights movement and the holocaust. This site also includes reviews of multicultural children's literature.

Cooperative Children's Book Center: http://www.education.wisc.edu/ccbc/books/multicultural.asp. This site includes annotated bibliographies of high-quality multicultural children's literature for grades K-12.

Multicultural Children's Literature: http://www.multiculturalchildrenslit.com. This site includes annotated bibliographies of high-quality multicultural children's literature for grades K-12.

Resources for Technology

Books

Dell, A. G., Newton, D. A., & Petroff, J. G. (2008). Assistive technology in the classroom: Enhancing the school experiences of students with disabilities. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.

Shelly, G. B., Cashman, T. J., Gunter, R. E., & Gunter, G. A. (2010). Integrating technology and digital media in the classroom. Boston: Thomson.

Journal Articles

Bausch, M. E., & Ault, M. J. (2008). Assistive technology implementation plan: A tool for improving outcomes. Teaching Exceptional Children, 41(1), 6-14.

Columbo, M. W., & Columbo, P. D. (2007). Blogging to improve instruction in differentiated science classrooms. Phi Delta Kappan, 89(1), 60-63.

Davis, A., & McGrail, E. (2009). "Proof-revising" with podcasting: Keeping readers in mind as students listen to and rethink their writing. The Reading Teacher, 62(6), 522-529.

Lucking, R. A., Christmann, E. P., & Wighting, M. J. (2009). Podcasts and blogs. Science Scope, 33(3), 64-67.

Putnam, S. M., & Kingsley, T. (2009). The atoms family: Using podcasts to enhance the development of science vocabulary. The Reading Teacher, 63(2), 100-108.

Simpson, C. G., McBride, R., Spencer, V. G., Lowdermilk, J., & Lynch, S. (2009). Assistive technology: Supporting learners in inclusive classrooms. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 45(4), 172-175.

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Supporting the Classroom with Materials for Instruction

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Materials in a Universal Design for Learning (UDL) classroom are different. These materials will be used to give students multiple means of representation of concepts, multiple means of engaging in learning the concepts, and multiple means of expression for students to demonstrate what they have learned.

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(Some sections adapted from Davis, 1993; Brookfield and Preskill, 1999)

Discussions can be an excellent strategy for enhancing student motivation, fostering intellectual agility, and encouraging democratic habits. They create opportunities for students to practice and sharpen a number of skills, including the ability to articulate and defend positions, consider different points of view, and enlist and evaluate evidence.

While discussions provide avenues for exploration and discovery, leading a discussion can be anxiety-producing: discussions are, by their nature, unpredictable, and require us as instructors to surrender a certain degree of control over the flow of information. Fortunately, careful planning can help us ensure that discussions are lively without being chaotic and exploratory without losing focus. When planning a discussion, it is helpful to consider not only cognitive, but also social/emotional, and physical factors that can either foster or inhibit the productive exchange of ideas.

Determine and communicate learning objectives

Plan a strategy

Ask good questions

Provide direction and maintain focus

Bring closure

Demonstrate relevance

Encourage participation

Make high-quality participation "count"

Evaluate the discussion

Cognitive Factors

Determine and communicate learning objectives

For discussions to accomplish something valuable, they must have a purpose. Consider your goals for each discussion. How do the ideas and information to be discussed fit into the course as a whole? What skills, knowledge, perspectives, or sensibilities do you want students to walk away from the discussion with? Your goals for a particular discussion should be consistent with your course objectives and values as an instructor. You might, for example, want students to be able to:

Articulate the arguments made by the authors of two assigned readings and assess the evidence used to support them. Evaluate the arguments alone and in comparison with one another and discuss their contemporary policy implications. Or...

Formulate arguments and counter-arguments for a legal position. Or...

Imagine a particular approach to the design of cities and discuss the impact such a design would have on the lives of people in different socioeconomic categories. Suggest and justify design changes to optimize the benefits for the most number of people.

When you can clearly envision the purpose of the discussion, it is easier to formulate stimulating questions and an appropriate strategy for facilitating the discussion. Communicating your objectives to your students, moreover, helps to focus their thinking and motivate participation.

Plan a strategy

After determining the objectives for your discussion, ask yourself: How will I make sure that students meet these objectives? Plan the discussion out, even if you end up deviating from your plan. Some of the questions to consider when formulating a plan include:

How do I want students to prepare: read a case study? (if so, in class or as homework?) do a team exercise? watch a documentary? reflect on a set of questions?

What questions will I pose to spark or guide discussion? to encourage deeper analysis?

Will I open the discussion to the entire class or ask students to discuss the issue in pairs, small groups, or some combination of the above?

What will I do if students simply aren't participating? If certain students dominate the discussion?

How will I allocate and manage the time I have?

How will I deal with digressions or unanticipated shifts in topic?

How will I correct students' misconceptions or inaccuracies without stifling participation?

How will I (or my students) synthesize the ideas at the end of the class period?

Your answers to these questions will depend on your goals. For example, correcting factual inaccuracies might be critical in some circumstances, less so in others. Digressions may be productive if your primary purpose is to explore connections, and undesirable if the goal of your discussion is more focused.

One of the most important things to consider when formulating a strategy is how to get the discussion jump-started. Davis (1993) and Frederick (1981) provide a number of excellent suggestions.

Ask Good Questions

Good questions are the key to a productive discussion. These include not only the questions you use to jump-start discussion but also the questions you use to probe for deeper analysis, ask for clarification or examples, explore implications, etc. It is helpful to think about the various kinds of questions you might ask and the cognitive skills they require to answer. Davis (1993) lists a range of question types, including:

Exploratory questions: probe facts and basic knowledge

Challenge questions: interrogate assumptions, conclusions or interpretations

Relational questions: ask for comparisons of themes, ideas, or issues

Diagnostic questions: probe motives or causes

Action questions: call for a conclusion or action

Cause-and-effect questions: ask for causal relationships between ideas, actions, or events

Extension questions: expand the discussion

Hypothetical questions: pose a change in the facts or issues

Priority questions: seek to identify the most important issue(s)

Summary questions: elicit synthesis

These question types can be mapped onto Bloom's taxonomy of learning objectives, which shows increasing levels of cognitive complexity as students move from fairly simple tasks (such as recall of information) to more complex tasks (such as synthesis, evaluation, or creation.) While you might frame the entire discussion in terms of a Big Question to grapple with, it is a good general strategy to move from relatively simple, convergent questions (i.e., questions with correct answers, such as "According to this treatise, what is Argentina's historical claim on the Falklands?" or "What kinds of tax cuts does this bill propose?") to more complex, divergent questions (i.e., questions with many valid answers, such as "Why did Argentina invade the Falklands?" or "To what extent would this bill's proposed tax increases resolve the budget deficit?") (exmples from Davis, 1993). Starting with convergent questions helps discussion participants to establish a base of shared knowledge and builds student confidence; it also gives you, the instructor, the opportunity to correct factual inaccuracies or misconceptions before the discussion moves into greater complexity and abstraction. Asking a variety of types of questions can also help to model for students the ways that experts use questions to refine their analyses. For example, an instructor might move an abstract discussion to a concrete level by asking for examples or illustrations, or move a concrete discussion to a broader level by asking students to generate a generalization or implication.

When instructors are nervous that a discussion might flag, they tend to fall prey to some common questioning errors. These include:

Asking too many questions at once: Instructors often make the mistake of asking a string of questions together, e.g., "What do you think the author is trying to say here? Do you agree with him? Is his evidence convincing? Did you like this article?" Students may get confused trying to figure out which question to address first. Asking a number of questions together may also conflate issues you really want to help students distinguish (for example, the author's thesis versus the kinds of evidence he uses to support it).

Asking a question and answering it yourself: We have all had the experience of asking a question only to encounter blank stares and silence. The temptation under these circumstances is to jump in and answer your own question, if only to relieve the uncomfortable silence. Don't assume, though, that students' silence necessarily indicates that they are stumped (or unprepared); sometimes they are simply thinking the question through and formulating an answer. Be careful not to preempt this process by jumping in too early.

Failing to probe or explore the implications of answers: One mistake instructors can make in leading a discussion is not to follow up sufficiently on student contributions. It is important not only to get students talking, but to probe them about their reasoning, ask for evidence, explore the implications of what they say, etc. Follow-up questions push students to think more deeply, to substantiate their claims, and consider the practical impact of particular perspectives.

Asking unconnected questions: In the best discussions, there is a logical progression from question to question so that, ultimately, the discussion tells (or reveals) a story. When you are planning your discussion questions, think about how they fit together.

Asking yes/no or leading questions: Asking questions with a yes/no answer can be the starting point of a good discussion, but only if there is a follow-up question that calls for explanation or substantiation. Otherwise, yes/no questions tend to be conversation-stoppers. By the same token, discussions can stall if the instructor's questions are overly leading, i.e., if there is clearly an answer the instructor wants, and the students' task is simply to guess it, rather than to think for himself.

Ignoring or failing to build on answers: If students do not feel like their voices have weight in discussion, their motivation to participate drops. Thus, it is important to acknowledge student contributions, responding enthusiastically when they are insightful ("That's an excellent point, Sarah; could you elaborate further?") and pointing out when they contain inaccuracies or problematic reasoning ("Take another look at the article, Tranh; is that really what the author is claiming?"). If you do not wish to play such a directive role yourself - and want students to develop the habit of assessing and responding to one another's contributions - you can throw student comments back to the class for evaluation (for example, "Do the rest of you agree with John's recommendation? What would be some possible consequences if this plan of action were followed?")

Provide Direction and Maintain Focus

Discussions tend to be most productive when they have a clear focus. It may be helpful to write out a few questions that the discussion will address, and return to those questions periodically. Also, summarize key issues occasionally as you go and refocus student attention if the discussion seems to be getting off track (for example, "How do the issues that have just been raised relate to the question originally posed?" or "That's an interesting point, Alexis, and one we will return to later in the course.")

While some lulls in discussion are to be expected (while participants are thinking, for example) the instructor must be alert to signs such as these that a discussion is breaking down (Davis, 1993):

Excessive hair-splitting or nit-picking

Repetition of points

Private conversations

Participants taking sides and refusing to compromise

Apathetic participation

If the discussion seems to be flagging, it can help to introduce a new question or alter the task so as to bring a fresh kind of thinking or a different group dynamic to bear. For example, you might switch from discussing an ethical issue in the abstract to a concrete case study, or shift from large-group discussion to small group or pair-work.

Bring Closure

It is important to leave time at the end of the discussion to synthesize the central issues covered, key questions raised, etc. There are a number of ways to synthesize. You could, for example, tell students that one of them (they won't know who in advance) will be asked at the end of every discussion to identify the major issues, concerns and conclusions generated during discussion. You could also ask students individually to write down what they believe was the most important point, the overall conclusion, and/or a question the discussion raised in their mind (these can be collected and serve as the basis of a follow-up lecture or discussion.) You might also provide students with a set of 2 or 3 "take-home" points synthesizing what you thought were the key issues raised in discussion. Synthesizing the discussion is a critical step for linking the discussion to the original learning objectives and demonstrating progress towards meeting those objectives.

Social and Emotional Factors:

Demonstrate Relevance

While students generally enjoy discussions, they may have difficulty recognizing what they gain from participating in them - in contrast with lectures, in which students may take copious notes and have a sense of having covered clearly discernable ground. This can be particularly true for international students from cultures <link to Cultural Variations> in which discussions are not a regular or valued part of the educational curriculum.

It is helpful to tell students up front how you think the skills they gain from participating in discussion will help them in academic and future pursuits. For example: "The ability to articulate and defend a position thoughtfully and respectfully will serve you well in the work world when you are arguing for a particular policy solution or course of action. Discussions for this class will give you the opportunity to practice that skill."

Beyond explaining the relevance of discussion in general, it is a good idea to point out the relevance of particular discussions vis-à-vis contemporary social issues, your students' future plans, etc. For example, "Today we'll be discussing the advantages of Chinese traditional medicine over Western medicine in the treatment of pain and chronic illness. As we talk, think about a conversation with a colleague in medical school and imagine how you would articulate this argument and suggest a productive fusion of both approaches to medicine."

Encourage Participation

Many issues can affect students' willingness to participate in discussions, from cultural background (Are discussion classes new and unfamiliar to them?) to preparedness (Have they done the background work - reading, for example - to prepare for the discussion?) to the kinds of questions asked (Are the questions too difficult or, alternatively, are the answers too obvious?). Below are some strategies that can help encourage meaningful student participation.

Create a discussion climate early.

If you want to use discussion in your class, encourage active student participation from the first day of class <link to first day of class html page>. Plan an icebreaker early in the semester that gets students talking and interacting, preferably while doing an activity that is integral to the content material for the course. Also, create a climate in which students feel comfortable taking intellectual risks: respond to their comments respectfully, even when you correct or challenge them, and make sure (perhaps by establishing clear behavioral ground rules) that their peers do as well.

Require students to prepare for discussion.

Discussions often break down because students simply haven't done the reading or work upon which the discussion is based. Discussions tend to be most productive when students have already done some preparatory work for them. It can be helpful to give assignments to help students to prepare for discussion. This could be a set of questions to answer, a question or two to write, an informal one-page (or paragraph) "reflection" on a reading, film, work of art, etc. Brookfield and Preskill (1999), for example, recommend "structured, critical pre-reading" focused on these kinds of questions:

Epistemological questions probe how an author comes to know or believe something to be true

Experiential questions help the student review the text through the lens of his/her relevant personal experiences

Communicative questions ask how the author conveys meaning and whether the forms clarify or confuse

Political questions ask how the work serves to represent certain interests and challenge others

Preparatory assignments help students focus their reading and their thinking, thus facilitating a higher-quality discussion. It is important to note that assigning preparatory work does not necessarily add significant extra work for the instructor, who can collect student prep assignments, glance over them quickly to assess overall comprehension or to identify questions to address in class, and simply mark them Credit/No Credit.

Get to know your students.

Students are more likely to participate if they feel that they are recognized as individuals. If at all possible, learn your students' names and encourage them to learn and use one another's names. Some faculty members require individual students (or groups of students) to come to their office hours once early in the semester, to get to know them better; others use ice-breaking exercises <link to> early in the semester to lower inhibitions and encourage interaction.

Model exemplary discussion behavior.

Often, students must learn how to enter meaningfully into a discussion. One way to encourage students to engage in the style of intellectual exchange you desire is to model good discussion techniques in your own behavior, using language that demonstrates, among other things:

how to build on another individual's contribution ("As Sunil pointed out...")

how to ask for clarification ("I'm not sure what you mean, Allie. Can you give a concrete example from one of the readings we've had?")

how to disagree politely ("I've got a different take on that issue...")

how to marshal evidence to support a position ("There are three things in the book that led me to this conclusion. They are...")

In the interests of modeling a particular style of intellectual exchange, some instructors invite a colleague to their class and engage in a scholarly discussion or debate for the benefit of their students.

On its own, instructor modeling is not likely to affect student behavior, however. It is also important to explicitly point out the kinds of discussion skills illustrated above and to distinguish high-quality contributions (e.g. claims that are substantiated with evidence, comments which effectively build on other student comments) from lower-quality contributions (e.g. unsubstantiated claims, opinions based purely on personal taste, etc.)

Create ground rules.

Explicit ground rules or guidelines can help to ensure a respectful environment for discussion. The ground rules you use will depend on your class size and goals, but may include provisions such as these:

speak respectfully to one another, even when disagreeing

avoid using put-downs (even humorous ones)

avoid disrupting the flow of thought by introducing new issues before the discussion of the previous issue has come to its natural end

keep in confidence any information shared by a student in class

You can set these ground rules yourself and specify them in your syllabus, or have students help create them. Click on these links to see examples of ground rules and a template for creating student-generated ground rules.

Monitor group dynamics.

One of the instructor's responsibilities is to manage the personalities and dynamics within the discussion group, so that all students feel that their contributions (if thoughtful and appropriate) are welcome. Cultural <link to CV doc> as well as personality differences influence the ways in which students enter into (or hesitate to enter into) the discussion.

If a subset of students seems reluctant to speak up in class, you might consider ways for them to share their ideas and engage with the material in an alternative forum, such as via discussion board or e-mail. You can then bring these students' contributions to the attention of the class as a way of acknowledging their perspectives and encouraging further participation ("Felipe made an interesting observation in a post to the discussion board yesterday. He pointed out that..."). Giving students time to write down their thoughts before opening the floor to discussion can also help quiet students get more involved. So too can the use of pair-work and small-group discussions. While some faculty are reluctant to call on quiet students for fear of embarrassing them, it should be pointed out that calling on students can also liberate them: not all students who are quiet are shy; they may simply have trouble finding a way into the discussion.

Sometimes the problem is not shy students but overly domineering or aggressive students who monopolize discussion. Sometimes a subtle approach to reining in these students can be effective (for example: "Jake, I see your hand and want to hear your perspective, but I'd like to give some of the other students a chance to answer first."); other times it may be necessary to take a domineering student aside after class to discuss changing the behavior.

Handling strong emotions and disagreement that arise in a discussion can be a challenge for instructors. A certain amount of disagreement is desirable, yet if the conversation gets too heated or antagonistic, it can inhibit participation and squelch a productive exchange of ideas. When emotions are high, remind students to focus on ideas and refrain from personal comments (this stipulation can be included in your ground rules as well). You might also consider asking students to take a minute to write about their reactions to what has been said so they can cool off, focus their thoughts, and consider one another's perspectives before re-entering the discussion.

Also, consider in advance how you will handle sensitive discussion topics. Certainly one of the goals of education is to challenge and unsettle students' assumptions and beliefs. Discussions that do so may not be comfortable for some participants yet still have the desired effect. On the other hand, done poorly such discussions can stifle rather than stimulate engagement and learning. Thus, it is important to anticipate where the "hot spots" will be and make sure you accord them the time and sensitivity they deserve. Also, think about whether the discussion environment in your classroom is sufficiently inclusive of all your students, regardless of race, class, gender, sexual orientation, political persuasion, religion, etc. (link to principle about inclusivity).

Assign pair and small-group work.

As a prelude or addition to full-class discussion, consider giving pairs or small groups of students the task of discussing a question or problem. Group work tends to work best when the task is clearly defined and concrete. It can facilitate group work to assign roles within the group. For example, one member of the group could be charged with breaking the task down into steps and posing questions to the group; another could be charged with managing time and keeping the group on task; another could have the job of recording the group's thoughts or recommendations and reporting back to the full class. (Assigning this last task to a quiet student can help to draw him or her out.) Click on this link for more on group work.

Make high-quality participation count

While we all want students to participate in discussions for the sheer joy of intellectual exchange, not all students may be equally motivated to jump in - at least not initially. Providing extrinsic motivations can be helpful to establish the behavioral patterns that lead, ultimately, to intrinsic motivations. For this reason, many instructors include a participation grade as part of the reward structure of their courses.

In making participation "count", however, one runs the risk of encouraging talk for the sake of talk, rather than for the purpose of meaningful and thoughtful exchange. For this reason it can be helpful to define what you consider high-quality contributions to discussions and distinguish them from low-quality contributions by using a rubric for discussion that makes your expectations and grading criteria clear. One instructor, for example, defines high-quality participation as: "raising thoughtful questions, analyzing relevant issues, building on others' ideas, synthesizing across readings and discussions, expanding the class' perspective, and appropriately challenging assumptions and perspectives." She assesses student discussion performance on the basis of whether they make such contributions to discussion regularly, sometimes, rarely, or never.

Evaluate the discussion

How will you know if a discussion accomplished what you hoped it would? How will you assess your own performance as a discussion leader? There are a number of ways to evaluate discussions. For example, immediately following the discussion, you might ask students to write briefly about what they learned, how their thinking changed, or how the discussion relates to other course materials. An alternative is to ask students to reflect on the quality of the discussion, answering questions such as: What kinds of contributions were and were not helpful? When were and weren't digressions productive? Did everyone who wanted to get a chance to speak? If not, why not?

Brookfield and Preskill suggest that students "keep a weekly audit of their participation in class discussions and then summarize and analyze their entries in an end-of-semester learning portfolio" (1999, p. 218). Another possibility is to videotape the discussion and analyze it after the fact; this can be helpful because instructors facilitating a discussion are busy juggling many things at once (time management, the flow of ideas, group dynamics), and often cannot assess the discussion as a whole. Davis provides a useful inventory for analyzing the behavior of discussion participants in videotaped discussions (1993, p.72).

Of course, discussions can be evaluated less formally, simply by asking yourself a set of questions after the fact, for example: Who participated? Who didn't? What might explain the patterns of participation? What questions proved most fruitful and why? How might the discussion be improved to promote deeper inquiry, more student-student interaction, etc.?

Physical Factors

Try to arrange the physical set-up of your classroom so that it is conducive to discussion. Some instructors prefer that chairs be in a circle, others in a U-shape, while for small group discussions or debates chairs must be moved and assembled differently. Our intention here is not to recommend a "best way" of organizing the discussion space, but to raise some questions to consider when determining how to arrange your classroom.

First, what are your objectives? If one of your goals is for students to enter into a dialog with one another, then it is particularly important that they be able see and address each other directly. Obviously, the traditional classroom arrangement, with the instructor positioned before rows of student chairs does not serve this objective. On the other hand, if the style of discussion (or quasi-discussion) is Socratic, with the instructor asking questions and students answering, then a more traditional seating arrangement could be successful. In keeping with your objectives, you might also ask yourself what the arrangement of physical space communicates. Do you want to set yourself apart from other discussion participants, or position yourself as one of them? Do you want to make it difficult for students to avoid participation or do you believe they have the right to opt out? (Some authors, for example, have applied a Foucaultian analysis to discussions, arguing that the traditional circle-format is coercive in that students cannot hide from the instructor's disciplinary gaze! (citation).

Second, what discussion format(s) will you use? If you are engaging in a brainstorming session and plan to write on the board, you will need to have students sit where they can see the board. If you want students to work in small groups, you might consider how chairs and tables can be positioned so that you can walk from group to group, or have students do so if the task demands it. If your discussion is part of a group project that involves hands-on construction or manipulation (perhaps of a flow-chart or design), the physical space must be organized accordingly.

As a general rule, it is a good idea to set up the classroom so that students can (a) see each other and (b) see progress (e.g., to watch an evolving list of brainstormed ideas take shape, to focus their participation around a central question, to see several synthesizing points written on the board.) Clearly, the configuration of the room itself can limit your options, as can class size. If you are teaching a class of 120 in an auditorium with bolted-down seats and poor acoustics, the traditional circular discussion arrangement is untenable. However, you would be surprised how much discussion can be accomplished even in large classes (link to lament) and sub-optimal physical settings.

In conclusion...

While there are a lot of issues to consider when planning and leading a discussion, the time you spend up-front thinking through the cognitive, social/emotional, and physical aspects of discussion will pay off later in more lively, productive, and rewarding discussions as well as greater student learning.

References

Brookfield, S. D. & Preskill, S. (1999)
Discussion as a Way of Teaching: Tools and Techniques for Democratic Classrooms. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Davis, B. G. (1993)
Tools for Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Frederick, P. (1981)
"The Dreaded Discussion: Ten Ways to Start". Improving College and University Teaching. 29(3).

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Discussions - Eberly Center - Carnegie Mellon University

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(Some sections adapted from Davis, 1993; Brookfield and Preskill, 1999) Discussions can be an excellent strategy for enhancing student motivation, fostering intellectual agility, and encouraging democratic habits. They create opportunities for students to practice and sharpen a number of skills, including the ability to articulate and defend positions, consider different points of view, and enlist and evaluate evidence.

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Read "Reaching Students: What Research Says About Effective Instruction in Undergraduate Science and Engineering" at NAP.edu

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Read chapter 6 Overcoming Challenges: The undergraduate years are a turning point in producing scientifically literate citizens and future scientists and ...

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video that convey sharing responsibility and/or reciprocity

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video that convey sharing responsibility and/or reciprocity

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In the Trump age, an emboldened attack on intellectuals

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Bill Moyers speaks with Joan Scott about the way in which the right is targeting critical thinking