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The science classroom is often a frustrating place for English language learners due to complex vocabulary for even native English speakers. This blog gives creative strategies to make the science content more accessible of ELLs.

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This guest blog post was written by my friend Becca over at Science Rocks! She is a terrific teacher with a lot of experience working with ELL students in her science classroom and I collaborated with her in writing this post. I think her ideas are full of fantastic tips for teachers who teach English Language Learners.
If you've been teaching for a while, chances are you have had some ELL (English language learner) students in your classroom. I've known many teachers that have panicked and asked me "how can I teach them science if they don't speak English?" I think many teachers tend to think they need to dumb down the content for these students. They aren't dumb! Your job is to make the content accessible. It's been my experience that ELL students are amazingly hard workers and are a blast to work with. My friend Bethany Lau over at Science with Mrs. Lau and I have created a list of best-practice tips for working with ELL students. We also have some helpful resources to share with you!

Tip #1: Get them talking! A quiet classroom is not conducive to learning a new language. Many students are scared to speak out loud in English, especially in front of the entire class. To help build their confidence, try small group discussions first. To ensure that every student has spoken to his or her group, give each student something color-coded (I use colored popsicle sticks from the dollar store). When a student speaks, they place their popsicle stick in the center of the table. It is easy as a teacher to walk around and monitor who is speaking and who isn't. Make it a requirement that each student has to speak at least twice during group discussions.

Tip #2: SLOW down when you are talking, and use nonverbal cues. This is much easier to do when you have all your ELL students together in one class, but when they are mixed with native English speakers we often don't realize how fast we are talking. It is really difficult for ELL students to process when you are speaking a mile a minute. So take a deep breath, slow down, and use your hands and other nonverbal gestures. Don't be afraid to act things out! Yes they will giggle, and yes they will love it.

Tip #3: Build vocabulary. When you teach new words, always make your students repeat the word out loud after you say it. And if they aren't loud, make them do it again. If you have a word wall in your classroom, go down the list frequently and make your students say them with you. To help students remember the definitions, discuss prefixes and suffixes to help them decode meanings.

Find fun ways for students to practice those new words. Instead of doing vocabulary worksheets, do vocabulary games instead! Bingo is an awesome way to review vocabulary words before a test. Create a bingo card from a free online bingo-card maker such as http://osric.com/bingo-card-generator/. Type in the words you want your students to learn and print a class set. Instead of calling out the words, say the definition and the students need to cover up the correct word. If they get a bingo, they need to say the words out loud in order to win a prize.

Tip #4: Utilize pictures. I used to try and translate parts of my power points into Spanish before the lesson thinking I was doing my students a favor.

I quickly realized that:

1. Google translate is frequently wrong

2. Many of my students could speak fluent Spanish but couldn't read it.

3. Even if they could read most of it, they didn't know the content specific terms in Spanish. Why would I want my students to learn the word "homeostasis" in Spanish AND English? Let's just stick with English.

Instead of translating, stick with visual pictures. Pictures are understood in all languages. Include them as much as possible in your lessons and power points. Make students draw pictures in their notes. Include pictures in all your articles you want students to read. A great pre-reading activity is to have students look at the pictures and captions in an article before they read the body paragraphs. Have them guess what the article is about based on the pictures and discuss with their neighbors (get those popsicle sticks back out). If you have a word wall in your classroom, make sure it includes pictures too! The more they see a picture associated with a new word, the more likely they will remember what it means.

Tip #5: Learn about their language and culture, and include it in your lessons when applicable. Students will have more buy-in to your lessons when they feel like their language and culture is valued. If you can connect their language to the content, chances are they will remember it better. For example, students use the term "liga" in Spanish to mean rubber band or hair elastic. When teaching "ligaments," discuss how they are stretchy unlike tendons. Students won't forget!

Tip #6: Use Manipulatives! Sometimes students need help learning how to structure their writing into logical paragraphs (even native English speakers need this too!) If you have sample paragraphs for them to learn from, you can print separate sentences out on separate lines, and cut them into strips. Then you can mix the sentences up and have students order them in how they should logically appear in a sentence! You can also do this for other parts of a lab report, like the procedure section or even the proper labels for a graph!

You could create your own writing structure manipulatives, or you can check out Bethany Lau's Lab Report Writing Activity Bundle found here. She has a set of activities with manipulative for each and every part of the lab report with a lot of examples for students to learn from.

Tip #7: Get them writing as much as possible. Data shows that when students take the state language proficiency tests, they struggle the most with writing. Find ways to get students writing on a daily basis. This could work in many different formats- just find one that works for you. Daily bellwork is a great place to start, as well as having students keep writing journals.

What should you have them write about? Check out these writing prompts from Science Rocks' store!

These were designed to be used before new concepts are taught, and allows the teacher to assess prior knowledge and check for misconceptions. When students are first learning English, allow them to write in their native language if they are able to and plug in English words that they know. Throughout the year as their language improves, you will see their writing transform from fragmented to fluid sentences.

Another great writing strategy for ELL students are sentence frames. For students still learning how to write a complete sentence, give them half the sentence first and have them fill in the blanks. For example, a hypothesis on a lab report for an ELL student could look like this: "If I change ___________, then I think ___________ will happen, because __________.

Tip #8: Model. And then model some more. As science teachers we tend to think of "modeling" as meaning "I'll show them how to do a lab before it's their turn." Modeling applies to so much more than labs.

1. Model reading strategies. As you read through articles out loud, stop and discuss. What was the main idea? What did you highlight and why?

2. Model writing strategies. When you assign those writing prompts, work through one with them first. Show them what a quality answer would look like.

3. Model behaviors. Many students will enter your classroom from different backgrounds. Behaviors that may have been acceptable where they grew up may not be acceptable in your classroom. If you want them to give a verbal presentation with eye contact, show them what a good presentation looks like first.

4. Model word pronunciation. Sometimes if students are nervous to say things in English, I have them teach me how to say the phrase in their native language first. Once they have giggled at my horrible pronunciation, they aren't so embarrassed to pronounce things in English.

Tip #9: Modify. Yes, one more thing to add to your to-do list. But it can honestly be as simple as cutting down the number of questions for them to complete, or adding pictures to an assessment. One of my favorite websites to find nonfiction science articles on is newsela.com. Not only is it free to use, but once you find an article you can change the lexile! That means all your students can be reading the same article but at a reading level that is assessable to them.

Tip #10: Use formative assessment frequently, and celebrate gains. It's important to check in with ELL students often. Many of them will take notes, smile, and nod during class, but only understood 20% of what was discussed. Exit tickets and note summaries are great ways to check in and see where they need help and what they have mastered. Make your exit tickets specific. Don't just say, "One thing I still need help with is..." but instead ask them to answer a specific question related to the lesson. This will help you group them by mastery and focus on the students that really need your help. Once they have mastered a new concept or learned new vocabulary, don't forget to celebrate! Let them know you are proud of them, and they will work harder in the future. If students feel like their hard work is recognized and celebrated, they will continue to work hard!

We'd love to hear stories from you about what helps your ELL students! Let us know in the comments!

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Ten Tips for Teaching ELL Science - Science and Math with Mrs. Lau

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This guest blog post was written by my friend Becca over at Science Rocks! She is a terrific teacher with a lot of experience working with ELL students in her science classroom and I collaborated with her in writing this post. I think her ideas are full of fantastic tips for teachers who teach English Language [...]

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Language Policy: History and Contemporary Views

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Language Policy: History and Contemporary Views

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Colorin Colorado is a great resource for all things education, and this article has very informative resources over all of the policies and views regarding ESL methods.

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When studying policy and English language learners (ELLs), it is helpful to start with some background information about the history of U.S. language policy. The following resources summarize key pieces of legislation, historical issues, and Landmark Court Cases regarding language policy.

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Language Policy: History and Contemporary Views

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When studying policy and English language learners (ELLs), it is helpful to start with some background information about the history of U.S. language policy. The following resources summarize key pieces of legislation, historical issues, and Landmark Court Cases regarding language policy.

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English Language Proficiency Standards - these are important to include in the language objectives when lesson planning and for determining which language domains are begin addressed with the lesson.

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Proficiency Level Descriptors - these are important to refer to when monitoring the progress of the English learners. They also serve as reminders of what students can do at each level of proficiency within each domain of language.

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Language Proficiency Assessment Committee Resources (LPAC) is a committee designed to make assessment decisions on an individual students basis. This committee is the voice and advocate that determines the best instructional program for the student.

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First language is defined as the primary language- not necessarily mother tongue- which the speaker first acquires and use on a constant basis. According to Lennenberg, the language that one picks up during the critical period will generally be the person's first language.

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Imagine a blank template, a white sheet of paper, thats how human being starts off. From a crying baby in a cradle, to babbling, to simple single words, slowly progressing into two-words, then finally a complete sentence, ever wonder how one acquires the ability to produce the language? Linguists throughout the ages have tried to find out how does one ACQUIRE a language, is it a deep structure as claimed by Kimball? Or is it an innate ability, a build-in human capacity propagated by Chomsky?

Find out more

Various theories have arose since language studies came to fore, and the ability to acquire language has interested various parties since the dawn of man. From the dunes of Egypt,Â Psammeticus, the Pharaoh during the 7thÂ century BC, believed language was inborn and that children isolated from birth from any linguistic influence would develop the language they had been born with. Fast forward to the 15th century,Â King James VÂ of Scotland performed a similar experiment; the children were reported to have spoken good Hebrew. Akbar, a 16th century Mogul emperor of India, desired to learn whether language was innate or acquired through exposure to the speech of adults.Â He believed that language was learned by people listening to each other and therefore a child could not develop language alone.Â So he ordered a house built for two infants and stationed a mute nurse to care for them.Â The children did not acquire speech, which seemed to prove Akbar's hypothesis that language is acquired and does not simply emerge spontaneously in the absence of exposure to speech.Â

Henceforth, modern linguists have been trying hard to crack the codes which govern the acquisition and learning of a language. Theories ranging from Jean Piaget's Cognitive Theory(1929), Skinner's Behaviorist Theory (1957), to Chomsky's The Innateness Hypothesis, and Lambert's Critical Period Hypothesis(1967) for first language acquisition, and finally Krashen's 5 hypothesis of second language learning have paved a way for an insight, a way to unravel the way the mind works in acquiring and learning a language -which happen to be distinct from one another-, and here, we will be looking at the theories that have been the workhorse of language acquisition and learning.

Definition

First Language Acquisition is touted by linguist as the process of acquiring a language via exposure whilst young. First language is defined as the primary language -not necessarily mother tongue- which the speaker first acquires and use on a constant basis. According to Lennenberg (1967) the language that one picks up during the critical period will generally be the person's first language. The Canadian census agrees that the first language that one acquires during childhood is the first language.

A second language, however, can be a related language or a totally different one from the first language. Language acquisition is a cognitive process cognitive process (reasoning, perception, judgment and memory) of "acquiring" a language. It is usually done subconsciously, with the mind slowly structuring the template to mold the language into shape. Language learning however, means a person is trying to learn the language consciously through practice, training, or experience.

Amongst the most prominent theories of language acquisition that has been put forward by linguists is the:

Cognitive Development Theory

According to Jean Piaget's cognitive theory (1970s), language is a subordinate part of cognitive development. Language is mapped onto an individual's set of prior cognitive structures. The principles of language are no different from other cognitive principles. A person becomes capable of abstraction, of formal thinking which excels concrete experience and direct perception (Freeservers.com, 2012). Firstly, the child becomes aware of a concept, they acquire the words and patterns to convey the concept. Simple ideas are expressed earlier than more complex ideas even if they are grammatically more complicated. Piaget described four distinct stages of childhood cognitive development which include sensorimotor stage, pre-operational stage, concrete operational stage and formal operational stage and relates them to a person's ability to understand and assimilate new information (Springhouse Corporation, 1990). First language learners are thought to creatively use their skills of cognition in order to figure out the second language of their own. For adult learners, they have the ability to abstract, classify and generalize gives them an advantage to systematically solve problems. Adult language learners rely on their cognitive activities of general information processing because their Language Acquisition Device gradually becomes unavailable for them (Hadley, 2002).

Piaget claims that the human mind has a template known as the schema: The representation in the mind of a set of perceptions, ideas and /or actions which go together (Atherton , 2011). The schema helps individuals understand the various happenings around them, an understanding of oneself (self-schemata), other people (people schemata), events/situations (event schemata) and roles/occupations (role schemata).

According to psychologists, cognitive development starts at adaptation, followed by assimilation and accommodation close after. Assimilation is the process of incorporating new information into pre-existing schema, more often than not leading to overgeneralization. For example, the child refers to a whale as a fish, due to the fact the whales and fish, have fins and lives in the ocean. After assimilation, comes accommodation, whereby the mind is able to differentiate concepts made during the prior phase.

Piaget contends there are four stages of cognitive development which are sensorimotor stage (birth-2years), pre-operational stage (2-7 years), concrete operational stage (7-11years) and formal operational stage (11 years and up).

The first stage or the sensorimotor stage is the stage where a child learns about himself and his environment through motor and reflex movements. The child's thoughts are derived from movement and sensation (Springhouse Corporation, 1990). They learn and progress by doing simple motor movements such as looking, grasping, crying, listening, touching and sucking. Further down the road, they will also gain a basic understanding of the relationships of cause and effect. Object permanence appears around 9 months and further physical development allows the children to begin developing new intellectual abilities. Piaget contends that some basic language abilities are developed at the end of this stage.

Pre-operational stage follows after the child reaches at the age of 2. During that stage, a child's intelligence is demonstrated through the use of symbols, and his language use matures, advancing to basic sentences. The child's memory and imagination are developed to a certain extend but thinking is done in non-logical and non-reversible manner.

The following stage is the concrete operational stage -where the child reaches the age of 7-11-: Children then develops seven types of conservation, namely number, length, liquid, mass, weight, area and volume. The child's intelligence is further demonstrated through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects, and his operational thinking develops exponentially, however, his thinking at this stage is still concrete.

The final stage in the cognitive development is the formal operational stage, where the child's developed intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. This is reflected in his/her speech as in choice of words, and capability of metaphorical usage.

Humanistic Approach (Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers)

Abraham Maslow proposed the humanistic approach as a method of language acquisition and learning. The theory takes into considerations of the feelings, motivation levels and confidence of a person According to Carl Rogers however, the person's consciousness of their own identity is about behavior central to oneself. Rogers believed that people could only fulfill their potential for growth if they had basically positive self-regard. On the contrary Abraham Maslow's believed that those who satisfied all their needs might become self-actualizers (Sammons, n.d.).

Humanistic approach differs it tries to encourage positive emotions that help language acquisition such as self-esteem, motivation, empathy and risk taking. It also tries to dampen negative emotions such as low self-confidence, nervousness and mental inhibition (Villatoro, n.d.) and in a sense, it coincides with Skinner's Behaviorist Theory.

Behaviorist Theory

B.F. Skinner described learning as a behavior produced by learner's response to stimuli which can be reinforced with positive or negative feedback to environmental stimuli. Skinner added that learning can be observed, explained, and predicted through observing antecedents and consequences. Both positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement increase the probability that the antecedent behavior will happen again. In contrast,Â punishmentÂ (both positive and negative) decreases the likelihood that the antecedent behavior will happen again. Positive indicates the application of a stimulus; Negative indicates the withholding of a stimulus. Learning is therefore defined as a change in behavior in the learner. Punishment is sometimes used in eliminating or reducing incorrect actions, followed by clarifying desired actions. Educational effects of behaviorism are important in developing basic skills and foundations of understanding in all subject areas and in classroom management.Â

Skinner's Behaviorist approach contends that children learn language through imitation, repetition and the reinforcement of the successful linguistics attempts. Mistakes are considered to be the result of imperfect learning or insufficient opportunities for practice. In such, that a child having a pleasant learning experience (such as rewards or praise) is positive reinforced. Through that positively reinforcing stimulus, a child's learning capacity is triggered. However, unpleasant experiences (such as punishment) serve as negative reinforcements, and cause learners to avoid undesirable responses to stimuli. As such, continuous reinforcement increases the rate of learning, be it positive or negative; a child will respond to different triggers and with experience, remember what is to do and to avoid. Hence, intermittent reinforcement helps a child to a longer retention of what is learned.

Skinner contends that both positive and negative reinforcement can shape behavior, and this in turn affects their language acquisition capability, as such, a lack of any reinforcement can also shape behavior. If people receive no acknowledgement of their behavior, they will likely change that behavior until they receive some kind of reinforcement.

Behaviorism gave birth to a stimulus-response (S-R) theory which sees language as a set of structures and acquisition as a matter of habit formation. Ignoring any internal mechanisms, it takes into account the linguistic environment and the stimuli it produces. Learning is an observable behavior which is automatically acquired by means of stimulus and response in the form of mechanical repetition. Thus, to acquire a language is to acquire automatic linguistic habits. According to Johnson (2004:18), "Behaviorism undermined the role of mental processes and viewed learning as the ability to inductively discover patterns of rule-governed behavior from the examples provided to the learner by his or her environment". Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991:266) consider that S-R models offer "little promises as explanations of SLA, except for perhaps pronunciation and the rote-memorization of formulae" (Menezes, V. n.d.).

This view of language learning gave birth to research on contrastive analysis, especially error analysis, the main focus of which is the interference of one's first language in the target language. An important reaction to behaviorism was the interlanguage studies, as the simple comparison between first and second language neither explained nor described the language produced by SL learners. Interlanguage studies will be present in other SLA perspectives, as the concern of the area has been mainly with the acquisition of grammatical morphemes or specific language structures.

Behaviorist Theory for Second Language Learning

Under this theory, it is believed that the second language learning learner tries to imitate what he hears and practices the second language regularly to develop habits in the language. This theory also believes that learners try to relate their knowledge of the native language to the second language and this could lead to positive as well as negative results. However the imitation of one language with the other is not recommended as this does not help in real life situations. The behaviorists believe that First language learners (FLL) consists of learners imitating what they hear and develop habits in the first language (FL) by routine practice. In this view, the learners are thought to relate what they know of their first language to what they recognize in the second language. "Positive transfer" is a result of similarities between the first language and the second language, because habits used in the first language easily transfer to the second language. On the other hand, "negative transfer is caused by differences between the first language and the second language, because errors result from using habits from the first language in the second language.

Problems with this view of FLL include the fact that imitation does not help the learner in real-life situations. Learners are continually required to form sentences they have never previously seen. A finite number of pre-practiced sentences is not enough to carry on conversation, not even with an instructor. Another problem with this view is that many of the errors made by FL learners are not based on the first language. Instead, the problems most often encountered by learners resemble errors made by children during the period of first language acquisition.

The Innateness Hypothesis

Noam Chomsky believes that children are born with a language acquisition device (LAD) which encodes the major principles of a language and its grammatical structure into the child's brain and thus possesses an inherited ability to learn any human language. He claims that certain linguistic structures which children use so accurately must be already imprinted on the child's mind.Â Children have then only to learn new vocabulary and apply the syntactic structures from the LAD to form sentences.Â Chomsky points out that a child could not possibly learn a language through imitation alone because the language spoken around them is highly irregular - adult's speech is often broken up and even sometimes ungrammatical.Â Chomsky's theory applies to all languages as they all contain nouns, verbs, consonants and vowels and children appear to be 'hard-wired' to acquire the grammar.Â

Chomsky defends the innate hypothesis in terms of an elaborated linguistic theory which postulates not only a general ability in humans to acquire language, but also the ability that comes from a specific language acquisition device in the brain, equipped already at birth with specific grammatical rules and principles.

The main arguments in favour of the innateness hypothesis are first, language acquisition would be diï¬ƒcult or even impossible without an innate grammar: "How do we come to have such rich and speciï¬c knowledge, or such intricate systems of belief and understanding, when the evidence available to us is so meager?" (Cook, 1985).

Chomsky claims that the mere existence of language universals supports the hypothesis that these are innate, and most essentially all humans acquire language, and no other animals do.

The LAD is a hypothetical brain mechanism that Chomsky suggested to explain human acquisition of the syntactic structure of language. This mechanism endows children with the capacity to derive the syntactic structure and rules of their native language rapidly and accurately from the impoverished input provided by adult language users. The device is comprised of a finite set of variables which languages vary, which are set at different levels for different languages on the basis of language exposure. The LAD reflects Chomsky's underlying assumption that many aspects of language are universal (common to all languages and cultures) and constrained by innate core knowledge about language called Universal Grammar.Â

Universal grammar is defined by Chomsky as "the system of principles, conditions and rules that are elements or properties of all human languages" (Cook, 1985). The language properties inherent in the human mind make up 'Universal Grammar', which consists, not of particular rules or of a particular grammar, but of a set of general principles that apply to all grammars and that leave certain parameters open; Universal Grammar sets the limits within which human languages can vary.

Universal Grammar present in the child's mind grows into the adult's knowledge of the language so long as certain environmental 'triggers' are provided; it is not learnt in the same way that, say, riding a bicycle or playing the guitar are learnt: 'a central part of what we call "learning" is actually better understood as the growth of cognitive structures along an internally directed course under the triggering and potentially shaping effect of the environment' (Cook, 1985).

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Language acquisition is the growth of the mental organ of language triggered by certain language experiences. Hence the theory of Universal Grammar is frequently referred to as part of biology. Indeed the theory is not dissimilar from ideas current in biology on other issues, for instance the view that 'Embryogenesis may then be seen as the progressive, orderly manifestation of the knowledge which is latent in the egg' (Cook, 1985).

So, to acquire language, the child needs not only Universal Grammar but also evidence about a particular language; he needs to hear sentences of English to know how to fix the parameter for the order of Verb, Subject, and Object. The evidence he encounters can be positive or negative (Cook, 1985).Â

By using the same language principles, a French child constructs a grammar of French, an English child a grammar of English. The two grammars represent different choices within the guidelines set by Universal Grammar, different applications of the same linguistic principles in response to different environments; 'Experience is necessary to fix the parameters of core grammar' (Cook, V, 1985). But the children also have to learn aspects of language that are peripheral, that do not conform to Universal Grammar. The child's mind 'prefers' to adopt rules based on the handy set of principles with which it is equipped; they are in a sense the easy way out, and need only triggering experience to be learnt. By listening to the language around him, he can decide how to fix the parameter of sentence order as SVO or SOV, for instance. His mind 'prefers' not to adopt peripheral solutions, as they fall outside his pre-programmed instructions; they are more demanding. This may be interpreted through the concept of markedness: the child prefers to learn 'unmarked' knowledge that conforms to Universal Grammar, rather than 'marked' knowledge that is less compatible with it.Â

Chomsky's work has been highly controversial, rekindling the age-old debate over whether language exists in the mind before experience. Despite its few limitations, The Innateness Hypothesis is rich enough to provide a substantial idea of how a child acquires his/her first language.

The Critical Period Hypothesis

According to Eric Lenneberg's Cirtical Period Hypothesis in 1967, the hypothesis theorized that the acquisition of language is an innate process that determined biologically. The notion of critical period was connected only in the first language acquisition (freeservers.com, 2012). Lenneberg assumed that the structural reorganizations within the brain were developed only from roughly the age of two to puberty which was around thirteen or fourteen. Language skills which were neither learned nor being taught during this age would remain permanently undeveloped (Schouten, 2011). Lenneberg's hypothesis claimed that the absence of language was very limited in the first language acquisition during the early childhood exposure (citizendium.org, 2009). He believed that the brain would lose the plasticity after two sides of the brain has developed specialized functions.

The Critical Period Hypothesis is Lenneberg's response to the long-standing debate in language acquisitionÂ over the extent to which the acquireÂ languageÂ isÂ biologicallyÂ linked to age (citizendium.org, 2009) Lenneberg proposed that the ability of brain to acquire a language is stopped at puberty with the onset of brain lateralization. He refers that brain lateralization, which is a process which the both sides of brain develop specialized function, in which after the process, the brain would lose its plasticity as the function of the brain is set.

Lenneberg stated that if the child did not learn the language before the puberty, the language could never be learned in a full and functional way. He proves his theory by referring to cases of feral children, such as Genie. Discovered in the age of thirteen and a half in 1970 in an isolated and neglected living condition, Genie did not had any form of communication, and she was neither able to speak nor write. After being saved from her ordeal, she began to learn language slowly, but she never regained full language capabilities.

According to Lenneberg, first language learners should receive exposure on their first language prior to puberty for the best acquisition results. He contends that the critical period for learning a first language would same apply to acquiring a second language Studies have shown that before the brain is fully developed a second language can be learned more easily. However, while many people have been able to master the syntax and vocabulary of a second language after puberty, not many achieve native-speaker fluency, compared to first language learners, or bilinguals who start off at a young age. A notable trait for FLL is that their phonological is the most obvious evidence for the critical period hypothesis, as their learning a second language would be impacted by their first language accent.

Lenneberg's works is still highly regarded as one of the most well regarded psycholinguistic argument of language acquisition.

Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition

Stephen Krashen's theory of second language acquisition has been of much debate in the psycholinguistic circles. His theories are well regarded, and provide a different insight into how the mind works in learning a second language.

The first of the five of Krashen's theories is the Natural Order Hypothesis. Based on a powerful analysis of research results, Krashen's natural order hypothesis suggests that the acquisition of language, especially the rules of language, follows a predictable natural order. For any given language, some grammatical structures tend to be acquired earlier than others. This idea reflects Noam Chomsky's revolutionary notion that have a built-in Language Acquisition Device (LAD), which within the first year of the children lives begins to enable them to understand and acquire language.

Because of the nature of the LAD, children tend to learn different structures at different levels as young children. Researchers have found that the same pattern occurs for older learners - not a surprise to seasoned language teachers! This is the "predictable natural order" of this hypothesis.

Secondly, is the Acquisition or Learning Hypothesis. The distinction between acquisition and learning is the most fundamental of all the hypotheses in Krashen's theory, since it suggests that language comes to children in two rather different ways. Acquisition is one. Language can be acquired by using it for real communication while learning, which he describes as "knowing about" language, is quite a different thing.

Acquisition is the product of a subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their first language. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language-natural communication, in which speakers concentrate not on the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act. Learning, on the other hand, provides conscious knowledge about the target language. It is therefore less important than acquisition for basic communication, but it still plays an important role in language learning. In short, learning is likely to occur in the "study" segment of an English lesson, while acquisition takes place during language activation.

Thirdly, is the Monitor Hypothesis. The fundamental distinction between acquisition and learning leads directly to the next hypothesis. The monitor hypothesis relegates language learning (that is, a student's responses to what the teacher teaches) to a secondary place in the scheme of language learning.Â

The monitor hypothesis is the idea that conscious learning - that is, the outcome of grammar instruction and other activities that were the traditional stock in trade of the language teacher - serve only as a monitor or an editor for the language student. Real acquisition takes place as "meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication - in which speakers is concerned not with the form of their utterances but with the messages they are conveying and understanding."Â

Following that is theÂ Input Hypothesis. The input hypothesis suggests that people acquire language in only one way: by understanding messages, or by receiving 'comprehensible input'. According to the input hypothesis, learner's progress by receiving second language input that is one step beyond their current stage of linguistic competence. Acquisition for learners with language knowledge "i" can only take place if they are exposed to comprehensible input at a slightly higher level, which Krashen describes as level "i + 1".Â

And last but not least, the Affective Filter Hypothesis. Finally, the Affective Filter Hypothesis proposes that a mental block caused by affective or emotional factors can prevent input from reaching the student's language acquisition device. The affective filter hypothesis says that affective variables like self-confidence and anxiety play a role in language acquisition. When the filter is up, that is, when negative emotional factors are in play, language acquisition suffers while when the filter is down, language acquisition benefits.

Similarities between First Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning

There have been many arguments about language acquisition, some claims that acquisition and learning is the same process, whilst some beg to differ. Here are some similarities between first language acquisition and second language learning that have been argued before.

Physical process wise, the learners of both first language and second language hear the spoken language and begin to understand how it sounds, the mind works to grasp the basic sounds, which in turn, facilitates learning. The learners pick up words and phrases in the language and begin to build up a vocabulary, this is then followed up by grasping the grammatical structure and learning how to form simple and complex sentences in the language. Subsequently the learners are eventually able to understand new words by context and they are able to express complex ideas and thoughts in the language, and finally, learn to pick up writing and reading skills in the language (Panse, 2010).

Universal grammar mayÂ influence learningÂ either independently or through the first language in second language learning. For both first language acquisition and second language learning there areÂ predictable stages, and particular structures, are acquired in a set order.Â Individuals may move more slowly or quickly through these stages, but they cannot skip ahead.

Making errors is a part of learning.Â Learners need to make and test hypotheses about language to build an internal representation of the language.Â In the initial stages of learning, learners may use chunks of language without breaking them down or processing them as independent units.Â In later stages, they may make new errors as they begin to process the parts of each chunk according to the rules of their language system.Â For example, a learner may start out using the correct form of an irregular verb as part of a language chunk, but later overgeneralize and place a regular affix on that same verb.

Differences between First Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning

Many studies addressed the distinction between first language acquisition and second language learning. The first distinction is the natural process in which first language learners acquire their knowledge naturally and the conscious process in which second language learners learn their second language.

First language acquisition is a natural process which is genetically triggered at the most crucial stage of the child's cognitive development in which children subconsciously process and develop the linguistic knowledge of the setting they live in and are unaware of grammatical rules.

In contrast, second language learning takes place where the target language is the language spoken in the language spoken in the language community that differs from the first language. Second language is not genetically triggered in any way unless the child grows up bilingually in which case, it is not considered second language learning at all.

FirstÂ language acquisitionÂ is mostly passive. Children usually listen to the people around them, their speech melody, their sounds, their words, and their sentence structures. Before the child can even read or write a single word in his first language, he is already using an impressive vocabulary and many important grammar structures. Some people never learn how to read or write but can still speak their first language fluently. Most babies learn rules while listening to the people around them. They are able to distinguish sentence structures at the early age of seven months as experiments have shown. They also pick up new words from their surrounding people. At the age of six, most children have acquired their native language(s) without any effort.

Second language learning, on the other hand, is an active process. Second language learners need to learn vocabulary and grammar in order to achieve their goals. Most people will need an instructor, either a teacher at school or the instructions of a course book or audio course. For those learners to achieve fluency or near fluency in a second language, it requires years of studying and likely a long stay in another country. Many people will never reach anywhere near fluency with any second language. Most experts see the ages between three to four years as theÂ critical ageÂ when first language acquisition ends and second language learning begins.

Another area of difference between first language acquisition and second language learning is input - specifically the quality and quantity of input. Language learning process depends on the input frequency and regularity. The quantity of exposure to a target language a child gets is immense compared to the amount an adult receives. A child hears the language all day every day, whereas an adult learner may only hear the target language in the classroom - which could be as little as three hours a week. Even if one looks at an adult in a total submersion situation the quan

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Imagine a blank template, a white sheet of paper, thats how human being starts off. From a crying baby in a cradle, to babbling, to simple single words, slowly progressing into two-words, then finally a complete sentence, ever wonder how one acquires the ability to produce the language?

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According to interactionist (SLA) theories, comprehensible input is critical for second language acquisition. This is an important resource because it gives the framework of creating a good path for SLA.

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View of Second Language Acquisition Theories as a Framework for Creating Distance Learning Courses | The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning

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This is a great resource to visualize and understand one of the ESL methods - TPR

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Oral language is one of the most important skills people can master for social and academic success. This website has informational strategies for learners to use throughout their day-to-day learning journey.

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Oral language is one of the most important skills your students can master-both for social and academic success. Learners use this skill throughout the day to process and deliver instructions, make requests, ask questions, receive new information, and interact with peers.

As a teacher, there's a lot you can do during your everyday lessons to support the development of strong oral language skills in your students. Today's post, excerpted and adapted from Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, OWL LD, and Dyscalculia , by Berninger & Wolf, gives you 14 ideas for supporting oral language development in your students who are verbal. These teaching strategies can help students with specific language disabilities (including dyslexia), and they can boost the language skills of your other learners, too. Try these and see which ones work best for your students!

Encourage conversation.

Every social interaction gives students a new opportunity to practice language. Some of your students might need a little guidance from you to engage in conversations, so spark interactions whenever you can. Ask questions, rephrase the student's answers, and give prompts that encourage oral conversations to continue.

Model syntactic structure.

Your students may not use complete oral syntax in informal speech, but encourage them to do so when they're in the classroom. When a student uses fragmented syntax, model complete syntax back to them. This builds oral language skills and gives students practice in a skill necessary for mastering written language.

Engage in eye contact with students during instruction and encourage them to do the same. Maintaining eye contact will help learners gauge their audience's attention and adjust their language, their volume, or the organization of their speech. This will help them be better understood, communicate more clearly, and successfully interpret nonverbal cues about their clarity.

Remind students to speak loudly and articulate clearly.

Ask students to feel the muscles used for speech while they're talking and monitor their volume and articulation. Remind them that clear and loud-enough speech is essential for holding the attention of the group and communicating their information and opinions effectively.

Have students summarize heard information.

Encourage students to verbally summarize or otherwise discuss the information they hear. This should begin in kindergarten and continue with increasingly difficult questions as students grow older. Teach students to ask for clarification when they don't understand something, and emphasize that they can ask you directly or query fellow students.

Model and guide sentence construction.

Some students have trouble getting started with the wording of a sentence. Saying the beginning word or phrase for the student can help the student structure their response. Give students time for thinking and formulating an oral or written response. Students' explicit experience in both producing their own oral language and processing others' language will help facilitate their comprehension of reading material.

Explain the subtleties of tone.

Your students have probably experienced playground arguments related to tone; misunderstandings are common when students are using loud outdoor voices. Remind your students how tone of voice-which includes pitch, volume, speed, and rhythm-can change the meaning of what a speaker says. Often, it's not what they say, it's how they say it that can lead to misunderstanding of motives and attitudes. Ask your students to be mindful of tone when they're trying to get a message across, and adjust their volume and pitch accordingly.

Attend to listening skills.

Ensure that your students are listening by using consistent cues to get their attention. You might use a phrase like "It's listening time" to give students a reminder. Some students might also benefit from written reminders posted prominently on your wall.

Incorporate a "question of the day."

During each school day's opening activities, ask a question to encourage talk. (You can even write one on the board so your students can read it and start thinking about their answer as soon as they come in.) Start with simple one-part questions like "What is your favorite animal?" If a student doesn't answer in a complete sentence, model a complete sentence and ask the student to repeat your model. Once your students are successfully answering these simple questions in complete sentences, move to two-part questions that require more complex answers: "What is your favorite animal? Why?"

Compile a class booklet of students' phrases.

Give your students a sentence to finish, such as "When my dog got lost I looked..." Have each student contribute a prepositional phrase to complete the sentence (e.g., at the grocery store, in the park, under the bed). Then have your students create a class booklet by writing and illustrating their phrases. When all the phrase pages are assembled into a booklet, students can practice reading the very long sentence with all the places they looked for the dog. Encourage them to come up with a conclusion to the story.

Some students may have difficulty with abstract concepts such as before, after, or following, and with sequences such as days of the week or months of the year. To help students learn and retain these concepts, you may need to present and review them many times and in multiple ways. For example:

You might ask students to identify which holiday comes in each month and then review holidays for other months in sequence: "Groundhog Day is in February. What holiday is in March? In April?"

Have students identify the month before or after a given month. "May is before June and after April." "May is between April and June."

Question to boost comprehension.

Asking questions before and after a reading assignment not only helps sharpen oral language skills, it also helps students think about what they're reading and absorb information from the words. You might try the following strategies to facilitate reading comprehension:

If there's an introduction to the story or passage, ask students to read it and answer purpose-setting questions: "Where does the story begin? "What kind of story or article is this? Why do you think so?"

Ask students to predict outcomes: "What will happen? How do you know?"

After the reading, ask students to reveal whether their predictions were correct and identify where the ending or conclusion begins.

Have students summarize the passage: "Who were the characters?" "What was the plot?" "What was the outcome?" "What was the main idea?" "What were the supporting details?"

Teach for oral reading fluency.

Oral reading fluency refers to how rapidly, smoothly, effortlessly, and automatically students read text. The goal is accurate and fluid reading with adequate speed, appropriate phrasing, and correct intonation. Here are a few activities that aid fluency:

Sentence completion: Read a phrase and signal for a student to complete the sentence. Then read another phrase and signal another student to complete the next sentence. This activity provides good modeling of rhythm and inflection and builds reading group skills.

Round-robin repeated reading: Each student reads a sentence, paragraph, or page, and then the next student gets a turn. Prompt each student to read with rhythm and fluency.

Partner reading: Paired readers choose a quiet, cozy spot to practice reading to one another. This activity provides additional practice after reading in small groups.

Monitored reading: Ask an aide or parent volunteer to listen to a student's oral reading and watch for good phrasing and rhythm.

Repeated reading: Parents may assist with repeated reading at home by asking students to read orally the same 150- to 200-word passage repeatedly over several days. Students do not have to spend more than 10 minutes rereading each night.

Never assume students understood your instructional talk.

You use oral language every day to teach-but some students may not be getting your message. In this chart from Berninger & Wolf's book, Beverly Wolf shares some examples of how students in her classroom misinterpreted sentences delivered orally:

Be aware of the potential disconnect between what you say and what your students hear. Go over your message and present it in multiple ways to be sure all students understand.

***

Oral language is one of the foundational building blocks of learning. Try the suggestions in today's post with your students, and give them the boost they need for future academic and social success.
Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, OWL LD, and Dyscalculia
By Virginia W. Berninger, Ph.D., & Beverly J. Wolf, M.Ed.

Learn how to provide effective instruction for students with learning disabilities while meeting the needs of all students! The first teacher training text to cover all four learning disabilities that require differentiated instruction, this book prepares educators to deliver explicit and engaging instruction customized to the needs of their students. Critical insights from diverse fields blend with lessons learned from actual teaching experience.

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14 Ways to Improve Your Students' Oral Language Skills - Brookes Blog

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UPDATED: 3/23/22 Oral language is one of the most important skills your students can master-both for social and academic success. Learners use this skill throughout the day to process and deliver instructions, make requests, ask questions, receive new information, and interact with peers. As a teacher, there's a lot you can do during your everyday [...]

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Aural Language Development Strategies and Information

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Aural Language Development Strategies and Information

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It is important to have a balance  development for both speaking (oral) and hearing (aural) language. This resource provides many helpful tips and informative points on how to develop both.

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Aural/Oral Communication

The four modalities of language are listening, speaking, reading, and writing. These are also referred to as the four language skills. Listening and reading are considered receptive skills or input, while speaking and writing are productive or output. Aural refers to hearing while oral refers to speaking. By providing an integration of each of these skills, we promote balanced language development and support multiple cognitive connections to new learning. The importance of activating prior knowledge or schema for students is based on the natural function of the brain to connect new understanding to existing understanding. New concepts are not dumped into an empty vessel called the mind. On the contrary, the brain, when presented new information, will search its existing schemata (plural for schema) to find something it can relate/connect the new information to. Physiologically, learning looks something like a tree with branches (existing neurons with dendrites that hold information) that stretch out connect to new concepts when they are presented. Visit this website to see an interactive view of how the neurological system is affected by learning. http://www.brainexplorer.org/

One of the most important concepts to keep in mind is that these 4 skills are correlated in pairs. Listening and speaking are paired in the oral area of communication, and reading and writing are in the graphic area. On the other hand, listening and reading are paired for the receptive area of communication, while speaking and writing are grouped in the productive area. Strategic development of listening, speaking, reading, and writing are essential in language acquisition.

How does this apply to language development?

Well, if we understand that new schema must chemically and physiologically "connect" to preexisting understanding (background knowledge) in order for a learner to make sense of it, then we understand why connecting to students' prior knowledge is a necessary part of cognition. What happens when background knowledge about a topic is nonexistent? For example, if a teacher is discussing the setting of a story that takes place in the Swiss Alps, a student who has lived and experienced only tropical climates may not be able to make a connection to the setting. This child has not yet developed schema about snowy, mountainous geography and climate. The teacher in this case, would have to expose the student to images and other resources that demonstrate climates like that of the Alps in order to build enough background knowledge for the student to put the story in the context of its setting.

You may be thinking, how does this relate to listening and speaking? Well, similar to the student who had not yet developed the schema about snow, English learners are in the process of developing the schema necessary to communicate effectively through a new code made of new sounds and structures, and for many, a new alphabet as well as social and cultural norms. When we discussed phonology, we established that one's ability to produce a sound is contingent upon his or her ability to hear that sound. If a student does not yet have the schema of a certain sound that is produced in English, he cannot yet connect to the sound in order to use it. His background knowledge must be developed. The problem is, as this student developed his first language as a child, his linguistic schemata was developed in a way that embodied a set of sounds that are specific to his first language. The process of adding new sounds to the established set, requires the physiological growth of new dendrites in the area of the brain that controls language and sends verbal commands from the brain to the mouth.

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The four modalities of language are listening, speaking, reading, and writing. These are also referred to as the four language skills. Listening and reading are considered receptive skills or input, while speaking and writing are productive or output. Aural refers to hearing while oral refers to speaking.

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Guided reading is a valuable skill to improve reading development, which this article goes into great detail explaining.

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Kristen is our guest blogger today, joining us from A Walk in the Chalk. She's sharing her strategies for reaching ELLs in the classroom by incorporating modified guided reading strategies.

Guided reading is an important component of a balanced literacy program. It is when individualized reading instruction is provided to a small group of students. The group size is typically between four to six students, and each lesson is approximately 20 minutes. The teacher meets with each group several times a week and provides targeted instruction on reading skills and comprehension strategies.

Aren't guided reading lessons the same for ELLs (English language learners) as with native English speakers? Yes and no. The same effective strategies used with native English speakers are used with ELLs, but additional strategies are necessary in order to help ELLs navigate through their new language. Let's face it: Our ELLs are learning content and the English language at the same time. In order for them to fully understand and interact with the text, certain instructional strategies require more attention, and scaffolds need to be added to support the language. Let's take a look at how we can modify guided reading instruction to best support our English language learners.

Choosing the Right Text

When we choose a guided reading text for our ELLs, it's important to keep some questions in mind. Does the book topic provide cultural relevance? Will students have prior knowledge of the topic? What background knowledge will you need to provide the students? Choosing texts that students can relate to will add to their level of comprehension.

Additionally, as with any guided reading group, we want to choose books, or texts, that are at the students' instructional reading levels. For ELLs we also want to choose books that don't have a heavy language load. If I find a book at my students' reading level, but the language is heavy with a lot of new vocabulary or grammatically complex sentences, I may choose to find a different book.

It's also important to choose age appropriate books for our ELLs. Avoid "baby" books, especially for the older students. Students may be reading at a primary level in English, but providing "babyish" books can have a negative impact on a student's self-esteem. It can also be a source of embarrassment for them. It may be more challenging to find emergent leveled books for older ELLs, but they are out there.

When choosing a text, also note areas that might be confusing. Some areas that can hinder comprehension are the use of figurative language, homophones, multiple meaning words, and new vocabulary, as well as grammatically complex sentences. Addressing these before reading will greatly support students' understanding.

Lastly, whenever we are able to integrate reading with other content areas, the better it is for our ELLs. This provides multiple exposures of a topic, allowing students to gain a deeper understanding of the content. I love finding books or passages that tie into the Science and Social Studies curriculum, because this additional exposure also sets them up for further success in those classes.

English Explorer Books are excellent leveled books to use for integrating content with reading

Introduce the Text

As the text is introduced, clear and concise objectives should be provided. I post both content and language objectives at the beginning of each lesson. The content objective is "what" I want them to learn, and the language objective is "how" they will show their understanding. Setting clear objectives gives students a purpose for reading, as well as a goal that is clear and attainable.

Next, and one of the most important components of modified guided reading, is activating or building background knowledge as a pre-reading activity. ELLs often lack the background knowledge needed to fully understand a text. In order to bring cultural relevance to a topic, we need to activate the knowledge they already have, or when there is none, we need to build it for them. We can build this by using real world items (realia), videos, pictures, or shared readings. This component is crucial for setting ELLs up for success. Imagine your new student is from a tropical country, and the book you are reading with him/her is about a snowy winter. The student may not have background knowledge of what snow looks like, feels like, tastes likes, sounds like, or smells like. Using pictures, video clips, and realia can provide the background knowledge the student needs to gain a deeper understanding of the text.

As the text is introduced, we also want to frontload new vocabulary before reading. This includes both academic vocabulary, as well as any tricky everyday vocabulary. I always try to look at vocabulary through the eyes of an English language learner. A word that may not seem tricky to me could be for my ELLs.

Introducing the text, building background knowledge, and frontloading new vocabulary are critical to scaffolding the guided reading text. Spending extra time on this component will be extremely beneficial.

Check for Understanding

Next, monitoring student understanding as they read is done with quick comprehension checks. I listen to each individual child read, and then I will askhim/her open-ended questions or have him/her make a connection, a prediction, or an inference. The student then "turns off their volume" and continues to read silently while I listen to the next student. This continues as I get to each student in the group. We can't assume our ELLs understand; it's necessary to provide those comprehension checks to either help them navigate the text further or confirm that they are indeed understanding.

Respond to Reading

This is the "language objective." It's the "how" they will show what they know. You may choose to incorporate a guided writing activity, fill in a graphic organizer, use drama, participate in a discussion, or answer questions about their reading. This component will help solidify understanding and afford the use of language output in a low anxiety setting.

Students answer questions and engage in discussion with a fun Read-n-Roll activity

Word work is also an important part of reading instruction, and your guided reading lesson is a great time to incorporate it. Our ELLs need word work. Instructional time devoted to phonics, spelling patterns, and sight words will help build a foundation for learning English. I typically find areas of focus within the guided reading text. I also look for sounds in English that are different in my students' native language and focus on building awareness and pronunciation of these new sounds. Spending just a few minutes each lesson on word work will have a great impact on your ELLs' progress in both their reading and writing skills.

Integrating listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills within a guided reading lesson will provide opportunities for students to grow in all areas of literacy. The goal is to provide ELLs with the skills, strategies, and support they need to understand and interact with the content and curriculum at each grade level. By doing this, the ultimate goal of closing the achievement gap can be better realized.

Modified Guided Reading Lesson Plan Template

Modified guided reading instruction enables the reading and language skills of students to be developed. It targets the specific needs of ELLs and provides them with a deeper and broader understanding of text. Through this practice, the literacy skills, language development and self confidence of your English language learners will flourish.

I'm Kristen Vibas, an elementary ESOL teacher living in northern Virginia, teaching since 2005. I am passionate about teaching English language learners and creating fun and meaningful resources that support them in their mainstream classrooms. You can find me at my blog, "A Walk in the Chalk," or at my TPT store, "Kristen Vibas."

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Kristen is our guest blogger today, joining us from A Walk in the Chalk. She's sharing her strategies for reaching ELLs in the classroom by incorporating modified guided reading strategies. Guided reading is an important component of a balanced literacy program. It is when individualized reading instruction is provided to a small group of students.

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Good writing has to begin from simple sentences to express ideas in a straight forward way. This article breaks down writing into five easy to follow steps for beginners.

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Writers new to English begin by learning very simple sentence structures. These structures are used to express ideas in straightforward ways, but do not allow for much complexity. Because of this, they are often regarded as "low-level" English.

In school, native and non-native speakers of English are encouraged to use more "sophisticated" written English to reflect their growing proficiency in the language. Sophisticated language is especially important to use when trying to pass standardized tests of English. Using only "simple" sentence structures will result in a low score. This situation encourages the idea that more complicated grammar is evidence of more elevated thought. At universities around the world, students are taught to write with "powerful" words and "complex" grammatical structures.

Of course, using more complex, sophisticated English is not a bad thing in itself, but it can make complex ideas more difficult for less proficient readers to understand. This is particularly important to consider when we are writing up our research, because we often need to express complex ideas and arguments clearly. Writing in a simple way lets us distinguish between complexity of expression and complexity of meaning.

In this article, we'll look at some of the ways to write simply but still with authority in your field.

It is easy to write simple things simply. It is a bit harder to write simple things in complicated ways, but there are many courses that teach students how to do this. And, of course, most complex subjects will be written about in complicated and complex ways. Why? Because it is very difficult to write about complex subjects simply.

There are, however, some writing strategies to make your writing simpler without sacrificing your ideas.

We discuss 5 writing strategies below. We'll return with more strategies in later articles

5 strategies for writing simply but authoritatively

1. Use simpler words and phrases

2. Minimize the number of negatives in a sentence

3. Write shorter sentences, but avoid choppiness

4. Use important key terms consistently

5. Balance the use of simple and sophisticated language

1) Use simpler words and phrases

It's obvious that using simpler words while keeping the same sentence structure results in simpler writing. What's not obvious is that the more complicated words and phrases can sometimes mean something different than what they seem to mean.

The following table gives some examples. Each row of the table shows two words or phrases, one "high-level" and one "low-level", that can be found in the academic literature and notes any differences in use or meaning.

Utilize/utilization: To utilize a thing is to derive utility (or value) from it. The utilization of a vehicle is a measure of how much value the vehicle provides, and how.

Heretofore: Until the 1980s, "heretofore" was actually more common than "until now." Even then, "until" was 150 times as common as "heretofore."

A great number of

Not only A but also B

Use: To use a thing is to derive some use (or capability) from it. The use of a vehicle allows traveling to places that might otherwise be inaccessible.

Until now: One advantage of using "until now" is that it becomes easier to create parallel structure by writing, for example, "until 20 years ago..., until 5 years ago..., until now...."

Many

A and B

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2) Minimize the number of negatives in a sentence

Sometimes, we need to write about what is not possible. However, whenever a negative form (not, un-, im-) is used, the reader must mentally "flip" the meaning of the statement as they read along. Although this is quite easy when only one or perhaps two negatives are used, any more than this increases the cognitive load on the reader and makes the sentence more difficult to understand. Consider the following example.

A statistical test did not reject the null hypothesis, and so the hypothesis that students cannot perform as well when they do not have less expensive sporting equipment was not supported.

The phrase "did not reject the null hypothesis" is a standard statistical phrase, but it is only the first of several negative statements. In many cases, pairs of negative statements can cancel each other out to form a positive statement: "was not impossible" can become "was possible", "stopped being impermeable" can become "became permeable", and so on. Eliminating negative phrases in this way improves clarity:

A statistical test did not reject the null hypothesis, and so it is unclear whether student performance is improved by using more expensive sporting equipment.

The second part of the sentence now has only one negative phrase, making it easier to read without sacrificing meaning.

3) Write shorter sentences, but avoid choppiness

Shorter sentences are usually easier to read. However, when taken to extremes, writing shorter sentences leads to very choppy writing. Ideally, the sentences used should be a mix of long and short. The best balance differs between fields, but an interesting and novel idea written in short, simple sentences is more readable than the same idea written in long sentences. Err on the side of brevity.

Here are some examples of when shorter sentences are clearer.

We heated the sample to 100 °C, after which we kept it at that temperature for 2 h and then cooled it for 1 h before assessing crystallization.

Because substitute teachers often work with students without knowing what those students actually know as they have not been teaching them throughout the year, they are likely to be worse at assessing student performance.

Compact cars and commercial delivery trucks are smaller and larger than average-sized vehicles and therefore require less and more resources, respectively.

We heated the sample to 100 °C and kept it at that temperature for 2 h. We then cooled it for 1 h and assessed crystallization.

Substitute teachers often work with students without knowing what those students actually know. This is because the substitute teachers do not teach the students throughout the year. Because of this, they are likely to be worse at assessing student performance.

Compact cars are smaller than average-sized vehicles and therefore require less resources. In contrast, commercial delivery trucks are larger than average and require more resources.

But, as we've said before, balance is key! Too many short sentences in succession creates choppiness in your writing and can make the writing seem too simple.

As a rule of thumb, limit the number of new ideas in a sentence to one or two. Using two ideas in a sentence creates a sense of rhythm and progression that can be lacking when using only one idea per sentence. One simple way to spot areas that can be smoothed is to look for sentences that have the same grammatical subject.

Here are some examples of successive short sentences that can be improved by combining them.

We heated the sample to 100 °C. We kept it at that temperature for 2 h. We cooled it for 1 h. We assessed crystallization.

Substitute teachers often work with students they have not been teaching throughout the year. Substitute teachers often do not know what the students know. Substitute teachers are likely to be worse at assessing student performance.

Compact cars are smaller than average-sized vehicles. Commercial delivery trucks are larger than average-sized vehicles. Compact cars require less resources than average-sized vehicles. Commercial delivery trucks require more resources than average-sized vehicles.

We heated the sample to 100 °C and kept it at that temperature for 2 h. We then cooled it for 1 h and assessed crystallization.

Substitute teachers often work with students without knowing what those students actually know. This is because the substitute teachers do not teach the students throughout the year. Because of this, they are likely to be worse at assessing student performance.

Compact cars are smaller than average-sized vehicles and therefore require less resources. In contrast, commercial delivery trucks are larger than average and require more resources.

4) Use key terms consistently

Generally, fluent speakers of a language have more words available to them, and they often know many different ways to express the same idea. Especially in literary writing, such as in fiction, writers are encouraged to vary their prose by using many close synonyms, instead of repeating the same word many times.

However, research papers should be written with the primary aim of conveying the content, rather than showing off writing ability. Because the standard assumption in research papers is that technical terms will be used consistently, it can create confusion when the same idea is referred to with inconsistent terminology.

For example, "solar cells" and "photovoltaic cells" have the same meaning, but if you switch between them, you may unintentionally imply that they are different things. Especially when making a contrast-for example, "Increasing the efficiency of solar cells is an ongoing challenge. However, photovoltaic cells are a rapidly growing technology"- probably the reader will assume you are making a distinction between the two terms.

By writing simply-focusing on ideas first and language only secondarily-authors at varying levels of skill can produce strong, clear, coherent papers. Simple writing can make the process of writing easier and improve the readability of the paper.

To avoid possible confusion, choose one word or phrase for each of the key concepts of your paper and use that word each time, rather than cycling among synonyms.

If more than one word/phrase is commonly used in your field, you can specify which one you are choosing where it first appears and list the other parenthetically on the first mention. Writing "Increasing the efficiency of solar cells (also known as photovoltaic cells) is..." will clarify that you will be using "solar cells" throughout, but also presents the alternative term clearly to readers. It also has the added benefit of keeping the alternative term in your paper for the purpose of text searches and web indexing.

5) Balance the use of simple and sophisticated language

A simple way to use some sophisticated language in your writing while also keeping your concepts and arguments easy to understand is to use more complex connectors and transition words appropriate to your field. For example, "Because X occurred..." can become " Given that X occurred..."

Here, more "sophisticated" synonyms of connectors and transitions-but not of key technical terms-can be used in your writing. The key to their effective use is balancing clarity with authority so that your specialist readers, with different levels of English proficiency, can still understand your message quickly and clearly.

You can read more about this strategy in our article "How to write authoritatively in your field from the outset."

Learning any language can be a daunting task. Even for native speakers, there is always more to learn. However, by writing simply-focusing on ideas first and language only secondarily-authors at varying levels of skill can produce strong, clear, coherent papers. Simple writing can make the process of writing easier and improve the readability of the paper.

At ThinkSCIENCE we strive to make research writing as clear as possible when we edit or translate your manuscript, without sacrificing your ideas or your authority as a specialist author. Because we know that some people enjoy explanations of the changes made during editing, we offer our EditingPLUS service. With EditingPLUS, we explain the reasoning behind wording changes made, suggest ways you can improve your writing immediately, and give you the chance to ask specific questions about the editing.

If you have any comments or questions about the writing strategies we mention above, please contact us (in English or Japanese) and our specialist editors will get back to you.

Our monthly newsletter offers valuable tips on writing and presenting your research most effectively, as well as advice on avoiding or resolving common problems that authors face.

Our online Q&A support service offers researchers, physicians, and academics quick and easy online access to specialist editors.
Ask questions and receive the answers in English or Japanese.

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5 strategies for writing simply: Focusing on ideas first

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ThinkSCIENCE's global team of expert translators and native editors will support you in communicating your research clearly, accurately, and authoritatively. Most of our subject-area specialists have advanced degrees or professional licenses and are published authors themselves. All are excellent writers.

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Unlike most English-speaking students, ELLs have the task of learning a second language and learning content simultaneously. This resource shares ten ways to teach ELLs math skills while simultaneously grasping their oral and writing skills.

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Often times math curriculum in schools does not support the needs of ELLs, but this resource provides many methods to collaborate and determine student needs.

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Rachel, a passionate leader in a New York City-based public school, was concerned about the math outcomes at her school, especially for English language learners (ELLs), who made up about a third of the school community. Rachel knew that the students at her school had tremendous learning potential and that their teachers were motivated. The students had improved in English language arts, but mathematics scores had remained stagnant, particularly for ELLs.

Several math teachers said that the school's adopted curriculum didn't support the kind of instruction required for ELLs and they were creating supplemental resources, but the resulting units lacked cohesion.

Research points to the role of carefully designed, high-quality learning materials. High-challenge, high-support materials allow great teachers to engage students in quality interactions that scaffold and motivate students. Creating a curriculum inquiry team is a way to leverage the knowledge and expertise of educators from different disciplines to establish a more inclusive, engaging, and effective curriculum.

Collaborate and Determine Student Needs

Rachel built a core team of motivated math and ELD teachers, and together they conducted a four-step needs analysis.

1. Explore where the current needs are by surveying teachers. The English Learners Success Forum provides a simple questionnaire, "Taking the Pulse," which helps educators to reflect on their practices and students.

2. Analyze current data. In reviewing test scores of EL students, ask if there is a disparity between these students and their peers. Why might that disparity exist? Look at evidence of student reasoning as they solve problems. What can they already do well? Are difficulties related to language, or are they mathematical reasoning issues that are creating the challenge? Are students able to productively struggle with cognitively demanding problems, or do they give up easily?

3. Capture evidence of students' classroom language use by collecting and analyzing writing. Writing notes about student conversations or regularly recording conversations can be useful in assessing how students work together. Do EL students get equitable opportunities to speak? Are students held accountable for explaining their reasoning? How are students writing about math? Do they become more mathematically formal and precise in their language over time? Do they revise and improve their reasoning and mathematical language as they negotiate concepts together?

4. Formulate goals based on data. One obvious goal would be to improve the test scores of ELLs relative to their peers, but assessment results are not the only objectives. More nuanced goals might include moving students from informal, everyday ways of talking about mathematics into the registers that construe more technical and precise meanings, or providing learning materials that promote engagement in math for all, but particularly for those who are struggling.

Once the team has a better sense of the strengths and needs of both their teacher practices and students' learning, it is easier to identify what curricula are needed.

Dig Into Instructional Materials

Rachel and her team studied current literature on what constitutes a high-quality curriculum responsive to ELLs' needs. Responsive learning materials include some essential components, such as the following:

Rich, intellectually demanding content that provides both mirrors and windows to diverse experiences.

Opportunities to use mathematical language in real-world applications or to solve problems using familiar contexts as a stepping-stone to mathematical concepts.

Opportunities to learn language and content simultaneously through deliberate scaffolding, and opportunities for reasoning using students' home languages and English.

A rubric can guide the team through a series of prompts about the curriculum content, structure, and activities to ensure that essential components are included. Some helpful questions include the following:

Are units explicitly sequenced to strategically build language proficiency alongside content knowledge?

Do language goals help students to develop mathematical words and phrases and syntax and the ability to engage in mathematical practices?

Do materials include ample opportunities for students to use math language in different modalities (listening, speaking, reading, writing) and to refine that language over time?

A rubric may also include ways to assess the usefulness of materials in scaffolding:

Do the materials guide teachers on how to facilitate mathematical discussions among those with varying levels of language proficiency?

Do the materials provide strategies to contextualize math language, connect to students' lives, and build on their background knowledge?

Do the materials draw on multiple resources and mathematical representations-such as objects, symbols, graphs, tables, anchor charts, models?

Do the materials encourage students to build on their existing language resources to communicate their mathematical thinking?

High-quality materials will also include formative assessment tools that capture the range of ELLs' language and content knowledge over time, including writing, work samples, and oral language.

Implement the Changes

After using a rubric to evaluate materials, a team will be able to identify areas for refinement and redesign. For example, if the learning materials provided by the district provide few opportunities for students to use mathematics for real-world purposes, the inquiry team can work together to build those opportunities into units.

Once changes are enacted in the lessons, team members can document new teaching practices and student learning and engagement. This feedback can be used by the group to collaboratively analyze and further refine.

When teachers cooperate in cycles of curriculum study, refinement, and teaching, they can provide content-rich, engaging lessons with high levels of challenge and support. Like Rachel, they can watch their EL students begin to thrive academically and see themselves as mathematicians, regardless of whether they've fully mastered the language of instruction.

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Improving Math Curriculum for English Language Learners

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Rachel, a passionate leader in a New York City-based public school, was concerned about the math outcomes at her school, especially for English language learners (ELLs), who made up about a third of the school community. Rachel knew that the students at her school had tremendous learning potential and that their teachers were motivated.

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This article includes many methods including graphic organizers, group projects, road maps, and hands on activities to aid in the development of science skills.

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(exerpt from chapter 24)

In 2003, 42 percent of American public school students were of racial or ethnic minorities, up 22 percent from 30 years before. Most of this increase in diversity was due to immigration from Latin America and Asia, and with this increase in ethnic diversity came a corresponding increase in linguistic diversity. For example, in 2002, nearly 42% of students in Los Angeles Unified School District, the second largest district in the country, were classified as English language learners.
The Institute of Education Sciences of the United States Department of Education defines English language learners (ELL) as: "Individuals who (1) were not born in the United States or whose native language is a language other than English; or (2) come from environments where a language other than English is dominant; or (3) are American Indians and Alaskan Natives and who come from environments where a language other than English has had a significant impact on their level of English proficiency; and who, by reason thereof, have sufficient difficulty speaking, reading, writing, or understanding the English language, to deny such individuals the opportunity to learn successfully in classrooms where the language of instruction is English or to participate fully in our society." Today's science teachers must be prepared to teach students whose first language is not English. In this section we reference ELL strategies and activities that are found throughout this book.

The science classroom is often a frustrating place for English language learners. Science has a complex vocabulary that is difficult even for native English speakers to learn. Difficulty learning English should not be confused with an inability to think scientifically. Many of the strategies that are useful for English language learners are effective for differentiating instruction for other students as well. Use a variety of methods to see which work best with your teaching style and students.

24.7.1 - ELL: Listening

Speak slowly, distinctly, and write down key terms - Anyone who has learned a foreign language in class, then traveled to a country where the language is spoken, has noticed that it is difficult to understand natives because they seem to "talk too fast". What seems normal speed to a native speaker is extremely fast to a language learner or to a student with a hearing impairment. The addition of the complex terms and concepts of science can make learning even more difficult. Write down key terms so students can see them and connect them to the spoken word.

Closed Captioning - Most science videos are equipped with closed captioning. Turn on the closed captioning so students can see what narrators and actors are saying (16.5.4). This helps English language learners correlate written and spoken English, and helps them see spelling and sentence construction. Closed captioning is also invaluable for the hearing impaired.

24.7.2 - ELL: Visualization

Emphasize visual literacy - It is often said that math and music are universal languages -ones that can be read regardless of one's primary language. Although these claims are debatable, it is clear that an English-speaking student can read and understand an equation in a Swahili textbook, and a Greek musician can play a score drafted by a Japanese composer. Regardless of linguistic background, people around the world can interpret mathematical equations and musical scores. In addition, they can also interpret pictures, and with minimal linguistic skills, can interpret charts and graphs. Visual literacy, or the ability to evaluate, apply, or create conceptual visual representation, is relatively independent of language, and is therefore invaluable to learning science and English simultaneously. Vector diagrams (16.1), scientific diagrams (16.2), pictorial riddles (16.3), photographic analysis (16.4), movie analysis (16.5), and map development and analysis (21.1-21.7), are a few of the many activities that can be used to build visual literacy.

Graphic Organizers - Graphic organizers are a means of introducing and assessing concepts in a manner that encourages meaningful learning. Graphic organizers are diagrams or maps that show the relationship between new and existing concepts, thereby facilitating integration of new and familiar ideas. They require minimal language and are therefore helpful tools when teaching science to English language learners. Conceptual grids (9.1), Venn diagrams (9.2), flow charts (9.3), mind maps (9.4), and concept maps (9.5) are some of the more common graphic organizers.

Use charts, graphs and figures - Scatter and line graphs (20.4), column and bar charts (20.5), pie and area graphs (20.5), and high-low, combination and log plots (20.7) can communicate concepts with minimal use of spoken or written language. The layout of such visual aids should be clear and uncluttered.

Manual video control - Science videos often introduce a variety of new terms and concepts, most of which even native speakers never remember. Pause the video to discuss key concepts. Use the bookmark and video clip features to return to precise sequences for review (16.5.4). Use the step-frame, slow motion, and replay features to focus student attention on key concepts.

24.7.3 - ELL: Interpersonal strategies

Group projects & cooperative learning - Many of the activities in this book employ group work and cooperative learning. Such activities provide opportunities for students to exchange, write, and present ideas. Projects use a variety of skills that work together to increase understanding and retention.

Partner English learners with strong English speakers - The best way to learn something is to teach it. Partnering English learners with strong English speakers benefits both. It may be particularly beneficial to pair English learners with bilingual students who can translate laboratory and activity procedures. Develop your seating chart so English language learners are sitting near the front of class and adjacent to bilingual students who can assist them.

Think/Pair/Share - Students learn to speak English by speaking English, but it is often counterproductive to ask English language learners to read passages or give descriptions to the entire class. Students are often embarrassed by their minimal science knowledge and English skills, and public exposure may make them more uncomfortable and reserved. By contrast, English language learners are often eager to share their ideas in their new language with their peers. The think/pair/share strategy gives all students the opportunity to practice English by explaining science concepts. Provide students with time to write a response to a thought provoking question, then additional time to discuss it with their neighbor before sharing their conclusion with the class. The think/pair/share technique increases student participation and involvement, and is a particularly effective way of encouraging English language learners to express science concepts in English.

Encourage participation- Many English learners come from countries in which student participation is not encouraged. They may be reluctant to speak, not only because of their lack of proficiency in English, but also because of they are uncomfortable in an environment where they are asked to share their ideas. A positive and supportive environment has a significant influence on student comfort level, participation, and success. Requiring English language learners to speak in front of class may be counter-productive and cause great anxiety. Encourage them to express themselves, but don't force them onto the stage prematurely.

24.7.4 - ELL: Structure

Consistent routines - English learners are freer to concentrate on new concepts if they are familiar with classroom routines.

Road map to science - English language learners benefit greatly from a "road map" that shows where they are in the science curriculum. Use organizational structures when teaching earth and space science (8.2), biology (8.3), chemistry (8.4), or physics (8.5) to English language learners.

Outlines - Provide students with a copy of your lecture/discussion outline. This will help ELL students know where you are, and where you are going with your lesson.

Relate to prior knowledge - Make use of student background knowledge of science concepts. Discover what your students already know about a given topic and build upon this knowledge.

24.7.5 - ELL: Laboratory

Hand-on activities - Kinesthetic learning events provide an excellent learning environment for English language learners. Hands-On Chemistry Activities with Real-Life Applications, and Hands-On Physics Activities with Real-Life Applications by Norman Herr and James Cunningham provide numerous hands-on activities of benefit for English language learners.

24.7.6 - ELL: Demonstrations

Clear, procedural steps - The science laboratory can be a confusing and potentially dangerous setting for English language learners. Present procedures clearly using flow charts, pictures, and outlines.

Model laboratory activities - Demonstrate activities in front of class to ensure that English language learners can see the procedures before engaging in an activity.

Pictorial guide - Provide a visual reference to glassware and other materials used in experiments and activities. Review safety symbols and post them in the room and in the lab handout.

24.7.7 - ELL: Reading and Writing

Journaling - Students become better writers by writing. Require English language learners to keep science journals (3.2.1) in which they write lecture notes, new terms, and responses to prompts.

Science reading comprehension activities - Cloze (2.1) and jigsaw (2.2) are two techniques for developing and assessing reading comprehension, and can be used when making formative assessments of language and science learning.

24.7. 8 - ELL: Instruction

Wait time - Teachers are often uncomfortable with silence and either call on the first student to raise their hand, or answer questions themselves, thereby short-circuiting the thought processes of most students, particularly English language learners who are trying to translate terms while formulating an explanation. Let students know that you expect all to be mentally engaged, and for this reason you provide wait-time sufficient for the majority to develop an answer before calling on any individual.

Analogies - Use analogies to relate new concepts to previously learned concepts (10.2, 10.3, 10.4, 10.5).

24.7.9 - ELL: Vocabulary

Language-based science games - Reinforce vocabulary with Science Bingo (13.3), and concepts with Science Pictionary (13.4). These games require minimal spoken language and provide an excellent review of science vocabulary.

Picture glossary - One of the best ways to learn the vocabulary of a new language is with pictorial flash cards. A picture of the concept is on one side while the term (in the language to be learned) is on the reverse. The student learns to correlate concepts directly with words, eliminating the need for translation.

Common lexicon - People construct understanding by integrating new ideas with pre-existing knowledge. Ask students what they already know, then develop a common classroom vocabulary that can be used to develop new understandings.

Root words - A knowledge of Greek and Latin prefixes, suffixes, and roots can greatly enhance student understanding of scientific terms and facilitate a better understanding of English and other European languages. Approximately 50% of all words in English have Latin roots, many of which are shared with Spanish, French, Portuguese and Italian. Learning scientific root words thereby helps one understand the vocabulary of a variety of languages, particularly English (1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4).

Cognates - Many science terms are used internationally. Identify such terms (2.3, 2.4) and ask your students to notify you whenever they recognize a new term that is pronounced or written similarly in their first language. This helps build your knowledge of cognates (words that are similar in two or more languages) so you can help future learners master science vocabulary.

Mathematics translation - English language learners find word problems much more challenging than symbolic math problems. The English language is exceedingly complex, with numerous nuances that must be learned. Students need to be able to translate common words to math symbols (14.1), natural language to algebraic expressions (14.2), and algebraic expressions to natural language (14.3). The activities in this book help students develop such skills.

Word wall - Post new vocabulary terms on the wall in an organized, grouped manner. For example, you may wish to post new biology terms in columns according to the level of organization (cell, tissue, organ, etc.) (8.3).

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Strategies for English Language Learners

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(exerpt from chapter 24) In 2003, 42 percent of American public school students were of racial or ethnic minorities, up 22 percent from 30 years before. Most of this increase in diversity was due to immigration from Latin America and Asia, and with this increase in ethnic diversity came a corresponding increase in linguistic diversity.

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One of the greatest challenges in helping English language learners (ELLs) master Social Studies content is the role of background knowledge. The resources below provide ideas and guidance for planning effective Social Studies lessons for ELLs as well as for choosing appropriate academic language and vocabulary.

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One of the greatest challenges in helping English language learners (ELLs) master Social Studies content is the role of background knowledge. The resources below provide ideas and guidance for planning effective Social Studies lessons for ELLs as well as for choosing appropriate academic language and vocabulary.

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One of the greatest challenges in helping English language learners (ELLs) master Social Studies content is the role of background knowledge. The resources below provide ideas and guidance for planning effective Social Studies lessons for ELLs as well as for choosing appropriate academic language and vocabulary.

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Teaching Social Studies to English Language Learners

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Teaching Social Studies to English Language Learners

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The authors offer context-specific strategies for the full range of the social studies curriculum. These practical instructional strategies will effectively engage learners and can be incorporated as a regular part of instruction in any classroom.

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When students are able to state a position or an opinion and provide evidence to back it up, teachers can better understand their comprehension levels. This article breaks down the components of a formative assessment and gives many helpful examples of different assessments.

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5 Non-Test Alternatives for Assessing English Language Learners

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5 Non-Test Alternatives for Assessing English Language Learners

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Seeing growth and improvement can be a huge motivator for ELL students.

But you can't see growth if you don't measure it.

That's why no great class is complete without some way of assessing students.

Not only is it a fantastic way for both you and your students to see what they've learned, but you can also use the results to help you plan future lessons.

However, don't rely solely on tests to assess your students!

They're not always an accurate way to measure their skill levels. Instead, I have five alternative ways you can assess your ELL students, and examples of what each might look like. But first, let's take a closer look at the issue with tests.

Contents

Download: This blog post is available as a convenient and portable PDF that you can take anywhere.Click here to get a copy. (Download)

Why Tests Aren't an Accurate Way to Measure Performance

One of the most common reasons why teachers shouldn't only use tests is because students may have test anxiety. What tends to happen is that students are so nervous when presented with a test that they don't do as well. You then aren't able to see what the student is really capable of. For ELL students, they can be extra nervous because not only do they have to recall information they've learned, but they may have to decipher what the test question is asking in the first place.

Also, tests really only measure what students can memorize or recall, not necessarily what work they can produce. For example, if you give a multiple choice test about vocabulary they learned, it really only tests if they understand one meaning of the word, and not necessarily whether they understand how to apply the same word in different contexts.

Another example would be oral skills. If students understand certain phrases you've taught them, they may not understand if another person outside the classroom says it, especially if that person has an accent.

If an ELL student is a little slower to read or decipher material (especially if they've had lots of support in their class), a time constraint on a test won't give them sufficient time to complete the test. Just because a student didn't finish a test, doesn't mean they don't understand the material. You then are left guessing as to whether or not your student actually understood what you were testing them on.

So how can you start assessing English language learners without tests?

5 Alternative Ways to Assess English Language Learners

1. Rubrics and Performance Criteria

Using rubrics and performance criteria is a great way to assess a variety of student work. It's usually based on language proficiency and academic progression through work such as presentations, written assignments and reading activities. You can not only use these to grade your students, but to chart their growth over a set period of time.

Both tools feature a list of criteria or standards that students know you're assessing. Rubrics show what is considered below level, at level and above level. A performance criteria can simply be a checklist of what to assess for each student. With either of these assessment tools, it's important to develop your own, as assessments are based on the teacher's judgment.

A tool like RubiStar is helpful, as it can show you sample rubrics other teachers have developed, and anyone can modify them for their own use.

When creating rubrics or performance criteria, make sure that what you're assessing is clear and fair from the beginning. As well, don't assess too much at once, as it'll not only overwhelm you but your students as well. If it helps, ask other teachers how they created their rubrics, or simply have someone look over yours to see if it looks okay.

You can even take it a step further by bringing FluentU into the classroom.

Using authentic content in the target language is a great way to let your students see the language used in context-and FluentU has a wide array of videos to choose from. From music videos and movie trailers to interesting talks, you can use these videos in your English lessons to help immerse your students in the language. You can even assign homework for your students to complete outside of the classroom and monitor their progress.

2. Oral Presentations or Performances

Many students who have test anxiety might get nervous because their reading or writing skills aren't very good. That doesn't mean, however, that they aren't proficient in oral skills.

Assessing oral presentations or performances typically include role-plays, interviews, oral reports and summarizing/paraphrasing pieces of text. When used on an ongoing basis, it's a great way to monitor a student's comprehension through a longer period of time.

Here are some ideas to incorporate oral presentations or performances as part of your assessments:

Role-plays: Role-plays can be used to assess students individually or as a group. Some ideas include having students write a play and performing it or even having the students teach the teacher as part of a review class.

Interviews: This type of assessment is very helpful if you have students that are early English learners. To help test students on content knowledge, try to use a lot of visual cues. For example, have students pick from a pile of pictures, and ask questions to elicit responses from them. You can assess the student based on vocabulary used or comparing concepts.

Describing/explaining/retelling/paraphrasing/summarizing texts: Instead of a written book report or summary of a piece of text, you can have your students retell the plot in front of the class or just to you. Other ideas can include asking the students to pick a character in the book and tell a story from their point of view, or even to describe their favorite part of the text.

When assessing oral work, it's helpful to use a checklist of things to look for, such as pronunciation, volume, pace and content. Use the same checklist for the same types of oral presentations to see the progression over time.

3. Non-verbal Assessments

For students who are shy or aren't as proficient in English, using non-verbal assessments is a great way to see a student's academic progress. What you're looking for in this type of assessment is their understanding of vocabulary.

Examples include:

Charades: Give a student vocabulary words you've taught, and have them act it out to see if they understand what the word or concept is. You could even have them summarize a text by miming it.

Pictures: You can ask students to draw or collect pictures to show their knowledge on a topic. For example, if you're assessing a student on their knowledge of nouns, ask students to pick out pictures of nouns in a magazine. Pictures can also be used to assess reading comprehension. Students can read a paragraph and then draw a picture to show their understanding of the text. If the picture is mostly accurate except for a few details, it could be a vocabulary issue.

4. Written Assessments

Written assessments are a nice way to see how students can apply their knowledge of English over a wide variety of concepts. For example, you can use assignments to see just how well they understand a text, or even different forms of writing.

Some different ways to incorporate written assessments in your class include:

Creative and structured writing assignments: Ask students to write a creative story, or even give them a writing prompt-where students read the beginning of a story and are asked to write the ending.

Editing writing: Give students a piece of text with grammatical mistakes and ask them to correct it, to test their knowledge of grammar.

Reading response logs: Give students a list of questions, such as how do they know a character is evil, or how would they change the ending of a story. When students are finished reading a book or article, have them write down the answers to these questions. Make sure to only assess for content, and not spelling or grammar, unless you specify to your students that you're doing so.

Content logs: Have students write down facts they learned about a text. You can also have them write what parts they didn't understand. This is helpful for you to see if there are concepts you may need to reteach or review, particularly if a lot of students are confused about similar parts of the same text.

With writing, don't assess too much at once. For a writing piece, you could assess just spelling, complete sentences or unity in paragraphs. Build it up to assess more than a few criteria once you see that your students have mastered what you have taught them.

5. Portfolios

Portfolios are powerful assessments and are used to gather various samples of student work to track their development over a period of time. In order to maximize the potential of using a portfolio as an assessment tool, you should regularly curate student work to include in them, and have scheduled conferences with students about their work.

You should also have a checklist of qualities that are important to showcase student achievement. Not only do you critique and assess the work, but so should the students. That way, they're responsible for their learning and take more ownership of making sure they improve.

Material you can include in a portfolio can include the following:

performance criteria or rubrics

recording of oral presentations

tests

writing samples, drafts and final copies

book reports

interview checklists

In order to best assess a student, you should include more than one kind of student work in the portfolio. The work does not have to be the best work they've done, rather a wide variety is best. Based on your judgment, you can even ask students for their opinion as to what types of work they should include.

In a portfolio, you are looking for any type of improvement in their work. For example, if you keep a couple of a student's writing pieces, look to see if their sentence or paragraph structure gets better. When looking at tests, see if their spelling tests, for example, have gotten higher scores over time. If you notice that they continually lack in certain skills, this would be the time to address it. You can either give the student extra support in class or find ways for them to practice with extra work at home.

Tests aren't bad, but they're not the only way to assess student achievement.

If you use a wide variety of assessments, you'll be able to portray an accurate picture of your student's English abilities.

In turn, you, your students and their parents will be able to see their progress, which can greatly motivate students!

Download: This blog post is available as a convenient and portable PDF that you can take anywhere.Click here to get a copy. (Download)

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Measuring Growth: 5 Ways to Start Assessing English Language Learners Without Tests | FluentU English Educator Blog

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Assessing English language learners with a range of assessments will help demonstrate your students' abilities. From written assessments and portfolios to speaking assessments and activities, there are so many options available! Click here to see 5 simple alternatives to tests for assessing English language learners!

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Strategies for Teaching Academic Language to ELLs

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Strategies for Teaching Academic Language to ELLs

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David Francis says, “Mastery of academic language is arguably the single most important determinant of academic success for individual students." This article goes over why exactly this fundamental step is important for ELLs' success in the academic world.

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English Language Learners (ELLs, ELs ELDs) face a variety of challenges in the mainstream classroom. Along with social and cultural differences, ELLs may also struggle with the language used in the classroom. This academic language can be difficult for ELLs to grasp and can pose a stumbling block when it comes to classroom success.

"Mastery of academic language is arguably the single most important determinant of academic success for individual students," says David Francis in Practical Guidelines for the Education of English Language Learners: Research-Based Recommendations For Instruction and Academic Interventions. "Unfortunately, ELLs often lack the academic language necessary for success in school. This lack of proficiency in academic language affects ELLs' ability to comprehend and analyze texts in middle and high school, limits their ability to write and express themselves effectively, and can hinder their acquisition of academic content in all academic areas."

So what can mainstream teachers do to help ELLs master academic language? First, it's important to understand the key components of academic language. Linguist Jim Cummins distinguished between two different types of language: Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) and Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP).

Recognizing the differences between these elements of second language acquisition will help you develop effective strategies for teaching academic language to ELLs.

Understanding BICS

Cummins classifies Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) as the language system that a person uses in everyday, informal types of communication. The language used for BICS is typically cognitively undemanding and developed largely through social interactions.

This type of language is typically developed well before students become proficient in academic language; English learners can become proficient in BICS as quickly as a year. BICS is predominantly oral and uses Tier 1 vocabulary.

For this reason, it is important not to judge students' language proficiency on their speaking abilities alone. Students with a high level of BICS might be able to hold a conversation about a familiar topic or converse well in high-context situations. However, they may not have the linguistic sophistication to engage in academic discussions without the intentional development of academic language.

Understanding CALP

Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) measures mastery of the rigorous, intellectual vocabulary of content areas, which Cummins states is a key distinction from BICS. Academic language refers to the language needed by students to conquer classroom tasks, from understanding basic content vocabulary and directions to navigating advanced textbooks.

"To me, academic language is when teachers use keywords and important content area concepts when working with ELs," says Dara Schmick, an ESL teacher at Rutherford Elementary School and the Elementary ESL Department Chair for the Central Dauphin School District in Harrisburg, PA. "It is important for teachers to speak to students in a way that promotes language in every aspect of their school day."

Mastering academic language is critical to the academic success of ELLs. Cummins theorized that the development of CALP can take from four to seven years, independent of other factors such as language proficiency level, age and time of arrival in a school setting, degree of academic language proficiency in the student's first language, and the level of in-school language support.

How Can You Help Students Achieve Academic Language Mastery?

Successful understanding of academic language requires a partnership between mainstream teachers and ESL teachers, Schmick says, noting, "Teachers need to all be on the same page so that the academic language is comprehensive."

Working together, mainstream and ESL teachers can help ensure English Language Learners have success when it comes to conquering academic language.

"Some mainstream teachers have the skills and strategies to work with ELs and can use these with all of their students," Schmick says. "However, there are times when teachers are unsure of how to work with these students."

If you're teaching ELLs in your classroom, consider these tips for teaching academic language:

Introduce and reinforce academic language regularly.

It's important to preview text and identify words that might be new to students, says ELLs specialist Kristina Robertson on Colorin Colorado!, a bilingual site for educators and families of English Language Learners. She suggests writing words and phrases on the board and having students write them on index cards. She also recommends using visuals, acting, or synonyms to help students understand the meaning of a word. "Reinforce the newly learned language by asking the students to draw it, act it out, or use it in an appropriate sentence," she says.

Provide opportunities for review.

Consider creating a "word wall" of academic language terms so that students can refer to what they've learned throughout the year. Students can also use journals or word logs to reference academic vocabulary that they've learned throughout the year

Use academic language throughout all content areas.

"As the classroom teacher, it's important to integrate academic language into your daily classroom practice," says teacher Marine Freibrun on Minds-in-bloom.com. "Use the words in your objectives for other lessons, use the words in classroom discussions, and ask students to use them in their writing across disciplines. I also use academic language tickets to have students practice their words after lessons have been taught. I use them for tickets out, as morning work, or as independent practice. Just because you teach the lesson, doesn't mean you or your students are done with the word. It's important to continue the practice throughout the year."

Use resources for support.

Mainstream teachers should feel comfortable relying on other teachers or resources to help ELLs in their classrooms.

"It is imperative that mainstream teachers continue to use professional development opportunities in order to enhance the necessary skills needed to work with ELs," Schmick says. "If this is not possible for them, they can also use their ESL teacher as a resource for their own classroom. ESL teachers are there to not only help ELs succeed but to help classroom teachers with the challenges of educating ELs."

Resources such as Continental's TEAM Toolkits: Teaching ELs for Academic Language Mastery can be useful go-to supports when it comes to academic language and ELLs. The kits feature structured activities in listening, reading, writing, and speaking to help English learners develop grade-level academic language skills.

Academic language is an essential component of education and is critical for success in school-and it poses unique challenges for English language learners. By intentionally developing academic language for your ELLs, you will support their academic success.

Looking for more ESL/ELD/ELL resources for your classroom? Check out Continental's wide variety of instructional materials for K-12 students.
This blog was originally published on September 13, 2017. It was updated on October 19, 2022.

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Strategies for Teaching Academic Language to ELLs | Continental

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It's important for mainstream teachers to know the basics of academic language and develop strategies for teaching academic language to ELLs.

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8 Strategies for Teaching Academic Language

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8 Strategies for Teaching Academic Language

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This article provides ideas for developing students’ capacity to use discipline-specific terminology and the language used in instruction.

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Edutopia is a free source of information, inspiration, and practical strategies for learning and teaching in preK-12 education. We are published by the George Lucas Educational Foundation, a nonprofit, nonpartisan organization.

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Technology for Speech and Language Development: Apps for Kids

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Technology for Speech and Language Development: Apps for Kids

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Kids are very tech savvy in a world run by technology, so incorporating educational games and activities can be an easy and effective way to get children to get extra practice.

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Written by Natalie Erling M.A., CCC-SLP

We live in a world run by technology. There is no denying that kids are much more tech-savvy now than they ever were. I often get the questions, "how much is too much?" and, "what are some GOOD apps for my kids to use?" There are some fantastic apps that are available to you that can help support your child's speech and language development and all the skills that go along with it (academic, fine motor, social skills). Provided below is a list along with ideas on how to help your child use them to learn and grow. Please note, these apps are not a replacement for therapy. If you have concerns about your child's speech and language development, contact us at Ally Pediatric Therapy and we can help! A skilled speech-language pathologist will conduct an evaluation to determine if a speech or language delay/disorder is present and warrants therapy.

How much is too much? Stick with the saying "everything in moderation." This is the key to technology and iPad use for children. While some apps (like the ones in this post) can be helpful and educational for children, too much screen time may mean they aren't getting the social interaction that is necessary for development. Nothing replaces conversations, reading, and playing with your child. You are an important part of their exposure to this world through communication!

Receptive/Expressive Language Development

My PlayHome apps (Hospital, School, Home, and Store) are a fantastic way to help kids grow their language and vocabulary like understanding items in a category, how items go together, making connections in their own home, and typical places they may visit. It also helps with cause and effect as the app is very interactive and everything in the buildings, "work." Kids love it and are a favorite amongst my patients here at the clinic. Playing with your child is a great opportunity for you to elicit some expressive and receptive language responses. Asking "wh" questions while your child plays and creates can help connect the understanding of new vocabulary and concepts. Stick with the basics: who, what, when, where, why, and how. Understanding spatial concepts (in, under, on, next to), quantitative (more, less, many, few) are foundational for following directions. Additionally, when you ask your children "wh" questions you are eliciting expressive language by giving them opportunities to share and respond.

Following Directions and Basic Concepts

With this app underwater life comes to your living room! Kids can learn about new animals and objects under the sea while creating scenes with interactive characters.

Vocabulary

Sort It Out 1, Sort It Out 2: With this app children can put items into categories and group them based on function, description, where they are located, shape, size, and color. This is a great way to practice how objects are related which in turn helps to build vocabulary.

Opposites 1: Children can learn early opposites with this game; this is a very important beginning vocabulary skill.

Grammar and Syntax

Super Duper Inc "Pronoun": I have a lot of parents who ask me about pronoun use. Does your child say "My like that" instead of "I like that"? Or do they use he/she or him/her incorrectly? Here is an app that helps children learn all of the main subjective and objective pronouns.

Early Literacy and Spelling

ABC-My 1st Words: This is an engaging and fun app geared towards kids ages 4-7. It helps them learn early words that are functional to their world while building literacy and spelling skills.

Speech Articulation

Speech Stickers: While using this app, children can listen to and repeat different sounds while keeping track of their productions with fun stickers.

Social-Emotional/Self-Regulation

Sesame Street's "Breathe" App: This app gives a child real-time help through difficult emotions. Choose the appropriate situation or event and cute cuddly monsters help walk you through breathing exercises and problem-solving techniques. Great for preschool or early elementary!
Natalie Erling M.A., CCC-SLP, is a licensed and certified speech-language pathologist at Ally Pediatric Therapy. Her clinical focus includes treating patients with Autism Spectrum Disorder and other developmental disorders, apraxia therapy, feeding and swallowing, language disorders and speech sound disorders.

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Technology for Speech and Language Development: Apps for Kids

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Written by Natalie Erling M.A., CCC-SLP We live in a world run by technology. There is no denying that kids are much more tech-savvy now than they ever were. I often get the questions, "how much is too much?" and, "what are some GOOD apps for my kids to use?"