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The genetic alteration of a cell resulting from the direct uptake and  incorporation of exogenous genetic material from its surroundings through the cell membrane(s).

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A type of virus that attacks only bacteria. It uses the bacteria to reproduce itself.

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The specific hydrogen between purines and pyrimidines in double stranded nucleic acids.

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The biological process of producing two identical replicas of DNA from one original DNA molecule.

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Those that are involved in template-directed synthesis of DNA from deoxyribonucleotide triphosphates. They are used to assemble DNA molecules by copying a template strand of DNA according to base-pairing interactions.

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A region of repetitive nucleotide sequences at each end of a chromosome, which protects the end of the chromosome from deterioration or from fusion with neighboring chromosomes.

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One of the three major biological macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life.

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A type of RNA that during protein synthesis carries the code for specific protein.

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An acid that, together with proteins, makes up the ribosome.

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Small RNA molecules that carry amino acids to the ribosome for polymerization into a polypeptide.

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The process by which the information in a strand of DNA is copies into a new molecule of messenger RNA

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AN enzyme that is responsible for making RNA from a DNA template.

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A non-coding, intervening sequence of DNA within a gene that is transcribed into mRNA bu t is removed from the primary gene transcript and rapidly degraded during maturation of the RNA product.

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Any part of a gene that will encode a part of the final mature RNA produced by that gene after intron have been removed by RNA splicing.

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Chains of amino acids.

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The set of rules by which information encoded in genetic material is translated into proteins by living cells.

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A sequence of three DNA or RNA nucleotides that corresponds with a specific amino acid or stop signal during protein synthesis.

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The process in which ribosomes in the cytoplasm or ER synthesize proteins after the process of transcription of DNA to RNA in the cell's nucleus.

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A sequence of three adjacent nucleotides located on one end of transfer RNA.

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A set of genes transcribed under the control of an operator gene.

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A segment of DNA where the repressor binds to, thereby preventing the transcription of certain genes.

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The process where s cell changes from one cell type to another.

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Any of group of genes that control the pattern of body formation during early embryonic development of organisms.

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One of the group with a common DNA sequence that code for homeodomain, and is involved in bodily segmentation and cell differentiation during embryonic development.

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A subset of homeotic genes, are a group of related genes that control the body plan of an embryo along the head-tail axis.

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When a DNA gene is damaged or changed in such a way as to alter the genetic message carried by that gene.

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A small-scale mutation characterized by a change of only on nucleotide base in the DNA or RNA molecule.

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A genetic mutation caused by insertions/deletions of a number of nucleotides in DNA sequence that is not divisible by three.

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A physical or chemical agent that changes the genetic material, usually DNA, of an organism and thus increase the frequency of mutations above the natural background level.

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The state of a cell or organism having more than two paired (homologous) sets of chromosomes.

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