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Ecofeminism is committed to interrogating and transforming domination that has historically been linked to sexism, racism, classism, heterosexism, ageism, and religious intolerance and extends the commitment to justice to the unjustified domination and ecological devastation of nature.It has roots in critical feminism, liberal feminism, radical and socialist feminisms, and black and third world feminisms. Ecofeminism not only recognizes the multiple voices of women; located differently by race, class, age, and ethnic considerations, it centralizes those voices. It builds on the multiple perspectives of those whose perspectives are typically omitted or undervalued in dominate discourses in developing a global perspective on the role of male domination in the exploitation of women and nature. An Ecofeminist perspective is structurally pluralistic, inclusivist, and ontextualist, emphasizing through concrete example the crucial role context plays in understanding sexist and naturalist practice”.

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Ecofeminism is an ideology and movement that sees climate change, gender equality, and social injustice more broadly as intrinsically related issues, all tied to masculine dominance in society. It holds that most environmental issues can be traced back to the global prioritization of qualities deemed masculine particularly the ones some would regard as toxic, like aggression and domination and those in power who embody those attributes. It also calls attention to the fact that women are disproportionately affected by environmental issues.

Regan, S. (2020, June 22). How gender & the environment are intrinsically linked. mindbodygreen. Retrieved December 16, 2021, from https://www.mindbodygreen.com/articles/ecofeminism-history-and-principles

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We're all familiar with the concepts of environmentalism and feminism. But there's a branch of these two ideologies that actually combines them both-called ecofeminism.

Ecofeminism is an ideology and movement that sees climate change, gender equality, and social injustice more broadly as intrinsically related issues, all tied to masculine dominance in society. Specifically, ecofeminism holds that most environmental issues can be traced back to the global prioritization of qualities deemed masculine (particularly the ones some would regard as toxic, like aggression and domination) and those in power who embody those attributes.

Ecofeminism also calls attention to the fact that women are disproportionately affected by environmental issues. According to one report from the United Nations, because women worldwide typically hold less monetary wealth and rely on the natural environment more, they are more likely to be displaced by climate change and have to travel farther for resources, like water, as dry seasons extend. Research shows women are also more greatly affected by radiation than men. One study has even suggested some men may have internalized aversions toward environmentalism, as it could be perceived as feminine.

There are several sub-branches of this movement, including vegetarian ecofeminism, spiritual ecofeminism, and materialist ecofeminism. But at their root, they all assert that masculine dominance has led to a disconnect between nature and culture, which has adversely affected marginalized groups as well as nature itself.

The origins of ecofeminism.

Feminism, in all its waves, has experienced evolutions and resurgences since it formally began in the mid-1800s. As climate change awareness and subsequent activism rose in recent decades, feminists began to identify the ways in which the movement for gender equality and the movement for environmental protection are related. The term "ecofeminism" was coined by French feminist Françoise d'Eaubonne in 1974. According to her, the disenfranchisement and oppression of women, people of color, and the poor are intrinsically linked to the degradation of the natural world, as both arose as a result of patriarchal dominance.

Over the years, many more have explored the sentiment behind ecofeminism-and begun advocating for it. Women such as Vandana Shiva, founder of the Research Foundation for Science, Technology, and Ecology, and Carolyn Merchant, author of Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution, are just two prominent names within this movement since its inception. Some other names of note include Val Blumwood, Greta Gaard, and Susan Griffin, just to name a few.

It's been nearly 50 years since ecofeminism was formally introduced. Nowadays, even where the word itself is not used, the principles of ecofeminism are interwoven into the modern-day climate change movement among those who actively advocate for equitable change for people and the environment.

Four main ecofeminist principles:

1. Both the oppression of marginalized groups and the oppression of nature are connected by cause.

Patriarchal dominance, which presupposes masculine attributes are more valuable, has led to the degradation of nature (land and animals), along with the marginalization of groups, including but not limited to women, children, and people of color. Capitalism further propels this oppression, as it places value on productivity by any means, and subsequently does not value many attributes considered feminine, including nature itself.

2. We must replace our culture of domination with an ethic of care.

"Carolyn Merchant basically says ecofeminism is calling for an ethic of care and an ethic where decisions are made equitably," professor and ecofeminist scholar Heidi Hutner, Ph.D., explains to mbg. "When we poison the Earth, we are poisoned, and it all comes from this history of patriarchal domination where whoever holds the most power has this right to dominate, control, and exploit everyone else."

Ecofeminism advocates for overhauling this entire masculine system of domination and exploitation-and replacing it with an ethic of care, an approach to morality grounded in feminine characteristics of care and nurturing. This approach focuses on human benevolence and acting in a way that prioritizes care for others.

3. All forms of oppression are unacceptable-and interconnected.

Under ecofeminism, all forms of oppression are not acceptable. For environmentalism to be all-encompassing, it has to consider all people. Women, people of color, and the LGBTQ community all face particular issues-and when these issues overlap, their effects become compounded.

"If you are a person, a community, a family, or even a country that's already facing many threats, whether that's around health, inequity, whatever the case may be, climate change layers on and makes all of those threats more intense," Katharine Wilkinson, author and vice president of Project Drawdown, tells mbg. "In a patriarchal system, women and girls-particularly women and girls who are poor, women and girls of color, indigenous women and girls-are already on uneven footing. Layer on climate change, and those existing vulnerabilities become heightened."

Hutner adds, "With all environmental injustice, ultimately, POC suffer the most. Particularly women of color."

Nearly half of the heat-related deaths in New York from 2000 to 2012 were Black people, for example, and communities of color breathe 38% more polluted air than white folks on average. But those voices are often left out of the conversation and not considered with regard to policy, legislation, and environmental improvements. And yet, the environmental movement grows increasingly white.

"Part of the reason we need intersectionality is because white environmentalism, like white feminism, just doesn't work. It's not effective. We need compassion, connection, creativity, collaboration," Wilkinson says.

Environmentalism can't just be about protecting a white suburb from a new development, for example. It has to address clean water and air in Black communities, pipelines in Native lands, and so on.

4. Understanding these connections is necessary for equitable change.

In order to make a real, positive impact in both the cases of environmental degradation and the oppression of marginalized groups, ecofeminism says we have to understand their links to patriarchal society. Feminism must consider ecological concerns and vice versa. "It is really critical that we understand the gender dynamics around climate impacts," Wilkinson adds, "because we need to have strategies and approaches through adaptation and resilience that respond to those inequities."

5. The people most affected by environmental destruction must be the ones to lead the movement.

As ecofeminists push for an inclusive care ethic, there's also an emphasis on the importance of having diverse leadership at the forefront of the movement. In particular, the people who are most affected by environmental destruction-women, particularly indigenous women and other women of color-are the ones who are best equipped to address it and identify the right solutions.

"If what we're talking about is transformation of our economy and society, it's going to take transformational leadership to get us there. And that looks like leadership that's more characteristically feminine," Wilkinson says. "When you are close to the problem, you're necessarily close to the solutions."

Criticisms of ecofeminism.

The biggest criticism of ecofeminism comes back to the idea of essentialism, or "a belief that things have set characteristics." Some people believe equating women with nature reinforces the dichotomy of gender norms that feminism sought to avoid.

"Val Plumwood writes about this idea of binary structures and talks about how they're problematic-and part of this patriarchal structure that's not working," Hutner adds. "It's the idea that we need to break down all these binaries: man/woman; black/white, etc."

Nowadays, as more people begin to assert that we each have our own combination of feminine and masculine qualities, whether we are male or female, this criticism has lost some of its steam.

Ecofeminism aims to both empower the disenfranchised and restore the health of nature on this planet. Hutner has a great deal of information on the topic available on her website if you're interested in exploring more, in addition to the other ecofeminist writers listed previously.

And of course, there are tons of things all of us can do in our everyday lives to live more consciously and compassionately, from what we eat to empowering the women in our lives.

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https://www.mindbodygreen.com/articles/ecofeminism-history-and-principles

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How Gender & The Environment Are Intrinsically Linked

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We're all familiar with the concepts of environmentalism and feminism. But there's a branch of these two ideologies that actually combines them both-called ecofeminism. Ecofeminism is an ideology and movement that sees climate change, gender equality, and social injustice more broadly as intrinsically related issues, all tied to masculine dominance in society.

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Ecofeminism is a branch of feminism that examines the connections between women and nature. It uses the basic feminist tenets of equality between genders, a revaluing of non-patriarchal or nonlinear structures, and a view of the world that respects organic processes, holistic connections, and the merits of intuition and collaboration to emphasize the ways both nature and women are treated by patriarchal society. Ecofeminists examine the effect of gender categories in order to demonstrate the ways in which social norms exert unjust dominance over women and nature and lead to an incomplete view of the world. Its practitioners advocate an alternative worldview that values the earth as sacred, recognizes humanity’s dependency on the natural world, and embraces all life as valuable.

Miles, K. (n.d.). Ecofeminism. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved December 16, 2021, from https://www.britannica.com/topic/ecofeminism

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Ecofeminism, also called ecological feminism, branch of feminism that examines the connections between women and nature. Its name was coined by French feminist Françoise d'Eaubonne in 1974. Ecofeminism uses the basic feminist tenets of equality between genders, a revaluing of non-patriarchal or nonlinear structures, and a view of the world that respects organic processes, holistic connections, and the merits of intuition and collaboration. To these notions ecofeminism adds both a commitment to the environment and an awareness of the associations made between women and nature. Specifically, this philosophy emphasizes the ways both nature and women are treated by patriarchal (or male-centred) society. Ecofeminists examine the effect of gender categories in order to demonstrate the ways in which social norms exert unjust dominance over women and nature. The philosophy also contends that those norms lead to an incomplete view of the world, and its practitioners advocate an alternative worldview that values the earth as sacred, recognizes humanity's dependency on the natural world, and embraces all life as valuable.

Origins of ecofeminism

The modern ecofeminist movement was born out of a series of conferences and workshops held in the United States by a coalition of academic and professional women during the late 1970s and early 1980s. They met to discuss the ways in which feminism and environmentalism might be combined to promote respect for women and the natural world and were motivated by the notion that a long historical precedent of associating women with nature had led to the oppression of both. They noted that women and nature were often depicted as chaotic, irrational, and in need of control, while men were frequently characterized as rational, ordered, and thus capable of directing the use and development of women and nature. Ecofeminists contend that this arrangement results in a hierarchical structure that grants power to men and allows for the exploitation of women and nature, particularly insofar as the two are associated with one another. Thus, early ecofeminists determined that solving the predicament of either constituency would require undoing the social status of both.

Early work on ecofeminism consisted largely of first documenting historical connections between women and the environment and then looking for ways to sever those connections. One founder of ecofeminism, theologian Rosemary Ruether, insisted that all women must acknowledge and work to end the domination of nature if they were to work toward their own liberation. She urged women and environmentalists to work together to end patriarchal systems that privilege hierarchies, control, and unequal socioeconomic relations. Ruether's challenge was taken up by feminist scholars and activists, who began critiquing not only ecological theories that overlooked the effect of patriarchal systems but also feminist theories that did not interrogate the relationship between women and nature as well.

By the late 1980s, ecofeminism had grown out of its largely academic environment and become a popular movement. Many scholars cite the feminist theorist Ynestra King as the cause of that popularization. In 1987 King wrote an article titled "What Is Ecofeminism?" that appeared in The Nation. There she challenged all Americans to consider the ways in which their belief systems allow for the exploitative use of the earth and the further oppression of women. With the help of King's article, the concept of ecofeminism grew both in support and philosophical scope.

Radical ecofeminism and cultural ecofeminism

As ecofeminism continued to develop, it witnessed the first of several splinterings. By the late 1980s ecofeminism had begun to branch out into two distinct schools of thought: radical ecofeminism and cultural ecofeminism. Radical ecofeminists contend that the dominant patriarchal society equates nature and women in order to degrade both. To that end, radical ecofeminism builds on the assertion of early ecofeminists that one must study patriarchal domination with an eye toward ending the associations between women and nature. Of particular interest to those theorists is the ways in which both women and nature have been associated with negative or commodifiable attributes while men have been seen as capable of establishing order. That division of characteristics encourages the exploitation of women and nature for cheap labour and resources.

Cultural ecofeminists, on the other hand, encourage an association between women and the environment. They contend that women have a more intimate relationship with nature because of their gender roles (e.g., family nurturer and provider of food) and their biology (e.g., menstruation, pregnancy, and lactation). As a result, cultural ecofeminists believe that such associations allow women to be more sensitive to the sanctity and degradation of the environment. They suggest that this sensitivity ought to be prized by society insofar as it establishes a more direct connection to the natural world with which humans must coexist. Cultural ecofeminism also has roots in nature-based religions and goddess and nature worship as a way of redeeming both the spirituality of nature and women's instrumental role in that spirituality.

Not all feminists favoured the bifurcation of ecofeminism. Some women, for instance, worried that cultural ecofeminism merely enforces gender stereotypes and could lead to further exploitation. Others wanted a greater emphasis on nature-based religion, while still others insisted that a celebration of Western organized religions could accommodate nature-based worship. Those same groups also differed with regard to the romanticization of nature and the roles that various practices (such as vegetarianism or organic farming) ought to play in the application of ecofeminist principles. As a result, the movement continued to grow and expand in order to accommodate those variations, and most self-identified ecofeminists celebrate the myriad definitions and applications available under the general rubric of ecofeminism.

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Ecofeminism | sociology and environmentalism

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Ecofeminism, branch of feminism that examines the connections between women and nature. Its name was coined by French feminist Françoise d'Eaubonne in 1974. Ecofeminism uses the basic feminist tenets of equality between genders, a revaluing of non-patriarchal or nonlinear structures, and a view of

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Ecofeminism seeks to reexamine both the feminist and environmentalist movements and augment each of their arguments. It examines how gender and nature intersect, specifically how binary definitions falsely categorise opposing groups, assigning disproportionate value to one grouping and encouraging hierarchical thinking. Ecofeminism sees hierarchies exhibited in gender relations through patriarchal social structures, and in relations with nature through an anthropocentric view that humanity is more valuable than nature and all other living beings. It cites hierarchical thinking and oppositional definitions as reasonings behind the subjugation of both women and nature.

Bove, T. (2021, July 19). Ecofeminism: Where gender and climate change intersect. Earth.Org. Retrieved December 16, 2021, from https://earth.org/ecofeminism/

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Elevating women ranks among the most substantive measures governments can take to mitigate the climate crisis. Educating and empowering women can have a quantifiable effect on reducing a country's emissions, and actively involving women in discussions on climate policy can often lead to much more impactful outcomes. The e cofeminist movement has for decades been highlighting how gender inequality intersects with the environmental crisis. The lessons we can learn from ecofeminism may hold the key to recognising how elevating women can help reduce emissions and create more equitable societies.
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E cofeminism first emerged in North American and European academic circles in the 1970s as an offshoot of the feminist movement, and specifically linked the subjugation of women to humanity's oppressive relationship with nature. It was employed as a theoretical framework to better understand how hierarchical and dualist definitions of gender could explain humanity's dominating role in its relationship with the environment.

Beginning in the 1980s, ecofeminism began to inform feminist and environmental activist and artistic movements. Heroes of the ecofeminist movement include several major intellectual and political figures. Françoise d'Eaubonne , a French author considered a leader in her country's feminist movement, coined the name "ecofeminism" in 1974. Petra Kelly was a German politician who co-founded the German Green Party, the first political party with a predominately environmental platform to achieve national prominence.
What Exactly is Ecofeminism?
Today, the relevance and use value of ecofeminism has largely faded from activist and intellectual circles. However, the concepts behind the framework can still be applied to understand why elevating women can intersect with achieving equitable sustainability targets, and have such a measurable effect on mitigating environmental impacts.

Ecofeminism seeks to reexamine both the feminist and environmentalist movements and augment each of their arguments. The framework examines how gender and nature intersect, specifically how binary definitions falsely categorise opposing groups, assigning disproportionate value to one grouping and encouraging hierarchical thinking.

Binary definitions are used to easily distinguish between what is dissimilar. Within the context of gender, binaries are used to distinguish between male and female. When examining humanity's relationship with nature, a similar binary exists wherein man-made creations are considered entirely separate from nature.

Binary definitions give rise to oppositional dualism, where one side is not only described as different from the other, but as its complete opposite, such as opposite genders. Ecofeminism claims that a similar oppositional dualism exists in conventional definitions of humanity's relationship with nature. When humans look to develop further, natural environments are seen either as obstacles to be overcome or resources to be exploited. Within this framework, human development is seen as opposite to the preservation of nature. Urbanisation, for instance, necessitates environmental loss.

Oppositional dualism is complemented by the creation of hierarchical structures where cultures assign more value and power to one side of the binary. Ecofeminism sees hierarchies exhibited in gender relations through patriarchal social structures, and in relations with nature through an anthropocentric view that humanity is more valuable than nature and all other living beings.

An ecofeminist framework cites hierarchical thinking and oppositional definitions as reasonings behind the subjugation of both women and nature. These constructs can often justify masculinised acts of violence and domination towards women, animals and the natural world. These acts are often expressed through masculine cultural norms, such as hunting, domesticity and exploitation.

Ecofeminism was at a time quite popular in universities, but was never really able to break out of scholarly circles. The theory was also criticised for its shortcomings. By only considering the connection between women and nature, ecofeminism failed to account for the differences between individual women that can only be understood through more comprehensive frameworks analysing race or class.

In the 1990s, the environmental justice emerged as a framework employed by scholars and activists alike. Environmental justice refers to the fair treatment of all people, regardless of identity, in the development and implementation of environmental laws, and often addresses environmental concerns of direct relevance to society, such as pollution and food security. Environmental justice's broad scope internalised what ecofeminism could not, and became the primary tool for a new generation of climate activists.

But in spite of environmental justice movement's successes, its broad nature means that gender is rarely specifically addressed as a key to understanding the climate crisis and how to solve it. Highlighting gender inequalities and improving women's access to healthcare, education and support resources has a measurable impact on reducing emissions and minimising environmental degradation. Studies also show that elevating women in legislative fields yields better outcomes in environmental policymaking, as well as more coherent efforts in international environmental cooperation. Despite its limitations, ecofeminism may provide a framework that addresses not only gender inequality, but also indicates what social stigmas need to be removed for nations to pursue more robust and impactful environmental action.
Ecofeminism's Role in Elevating Women
Failure to recognise the intersections between climate change and social issues damages the prospects of finding solutions to either. In the case of gender equality, elevating women through social initiatives, specifically improved access to healthcare and education, has a direct impact on reducing emissions by reducing a country's total fertility rate.

Population growth accompanying economic expansion in developing countries is neither unnatural nor undesirable, although it will inevitably lead to higher individual carbon footprints and rises in nations' overall emissions. To mitigate the environmental impact of population growth, states can pursue social initiatives that promise equal access to healthcare and education opportunities regardless of gender.
You might also like: How Some International Treaties Threaten Our Ability to Meet Climate Targets Fig. 1 : Relationship between female education and fertility rates in Ethiopia, Kenya and Ghana; World Bank; 2015.
Policies that can achieve these outcomes include making schools more affordable, granting girls easier access to healthcare and contraceptives, reducing the time and effort for youth to get to school and making schools safer spaces for young girls overall. Social initiatives that allow young girls better access to healthcare and education can empower and elevate women to make their own career and life decisions. This can have cascading positive effects on the environment by reducing total fertility rates over time. It is important that any social initiative addressing fertility rates or the roles of women not act as a form of forceful population control, such as a one-child policy, which can entail unintended and severe social consequences.
Fig. 2 : Percentage of agricultural land controlled or owned by women by country; FAO Gender and Land Rights Database, sourced by BBC; 2017. The Importance of Women in Environmental Policymaking
These inequities create what is called the agricultural gender gap . Because of cultural restrictions and economic limitations, women tend to produce less from the same amount of land as men and are forced into a low productivity trap. This leads to unnecessary demand for further land development and deforestation. Worldwide, if women farmers had the same economic and legal rights as men, global crop yields could increase by up to 30% , making agricultural production more efficient and limiting further environmental loss. In addition, closing the agricultural gender gap could save up to 150 million people worldwide from hunger.

The agricultural gender gap serves as an example of how social initiatives can yield positive environmental outcomes. Ensuring better access to quality education and healthcare, and therefore elevating women to become more active decision-makers in their communities, can be a uniquely effective force in economic growth and development.

It is critical for legislators to understand how social issues are linked to environmental impacts. Climate change does not affect people equitably, and policymakers need to understand how to account for these inequities with climate legislation that spurs fair socio-economic growth while tackling the climate crisis.

Elevating and empowering women should not stop at ensuring access to education and healthcare. Women should have their voices heard at all levels, and actively participate in environmental policymaking. Permitting women to do so tends to lead to more effective environmental policy outcomes.

There are a growing number of studies and reports worldwide that indicate how women tend to prioritise environmental protection and strong climate action. A 2014 Australian study found that women tend to consider environmentalism a stronger part of their personal identity than men. A study of US homeowners affirmed that women are often more conscious about the environmental footprint of the products they consume. A review of research done between 1988 and 1998 concluded that women have stronger environmental attitudes and behaviours than men, regardless of age or country of origin.

A 2021 study analysed the demographics of current environmental activists by surveying 367 respondents across 66 countries. The study concluded that the newest generation of climate activists skews female. Of the study's respondents who were over 65, only one quarter were women. Of respondents under 25, two thirds were female. This trend reflects a demographic shift of climate activism. The newest generation of climate activists tends to be young, female and highly educated. Developed and developing countries alike need to harness these trends and elevate today's female youth to become political leaders in the climate movement.
Fig.3 Revisiting Ecofeminism: Age and gender demographics of climate activists across 66 countries worldwide; Boucher et al; Energy Research and Social Science; 2021.
The ecofeminist movement attempted to define how binary definitions and hierarchical structures define gender relations and humanity's relationship with the environment. Perhaps the theory was too far ahead of its time, as the disproportionate impacts of climate change on women could not yet be visualised.
Featured image by: Flickr
While modern approaches such as environmental justice are able to broadly define how climate change affects different people in different ways, the relationship between the environment and gender can shed light on very substantive solutions to both issues, and should be addressed specifically by policymakers. Understanding the connection between the environment and gender is not only important because of the disproportionately gendered impact of climate change, but also because of the potential environmental solutions that can emerge by elevating women.

By empowering women and granting them equitable access to critical services, countries can improve their economies, improve the efficiency of their economic and material output and markedly reduce their emissions. Elevating women to actively participate in environmental policymaking at all levels also allows for a more determined and proportionate political voice.

A framework such as ecofeminism can help acknowledge how social issues and the environment are intertwined, and how solutions in one area can influence positive outcomes in the other. Where social inequalities and climate change intersect is often where the most impactful resolutions and policy measures can be found. Recognising where these intersections lie and how to meet them is critical to ensuring equitable sustainability and understanding humanity's relationship with the environment.

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Ecofeminism: Where Gender and Climate Change Intersect

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Ecofeminism has informed the modern environmental justice movement, and may hold the key to recognising how elevating women can help reduce emissions.