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Adults cannot learn languages in the same way that children can.

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Adults cannot learn languages in the same way that children can.

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It is assumed that once childhood is gone, the progressive and natural learning that comes with a baby’s first language through social interactions cannot be replicated.

In reality, it is a little more complicated.

Indeed, learning a foreign language can still be achieved in adulthood via both classroom learning and exposure. If the ‘classroom’ option is usually preferred due to its more manageable structure, it does not mean that its alternative is obsolete. In fact, both methods – through teaching and social learning – have been found to be equally efficient when English native speakers were taught a simple made-up language until fluent, Brocanto2. In specific and mostly verbal settings, new vocabulary can be roughly acquired when words are linked to other signs already known by the learner – even without prior knowledge of any foreign language. The same phenomenon can be observed for syntax and grammar once the learner has a grasp on its basics.

In the end, the main difference between adults and children seems to be the time and the number of utterances of a word needed to reach fluency. Through repetition and constant exposure, even adults come to master a language via social interactions.

Bibliography:

Kara Morgan-Short, Karsten Steinhauer, Cristina Sanz, Michael T. Ullman; Explicit and Implicit Second Language Training Differentially Affect the Achievement of Native-like Brain Activation Patterns. J Cogn Neurosci 2012; 24 (4): 933–947. doi: https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_00119

Christine Dimroth, Marianne Gullberg, Peter Indefrey, Leah Roberts,  Kim Veroude; Adult Language Learning After Minimal Exposure to an Unknown Natural Language. Language Learning, A Journal of Research in Language Studies 2012; 60 (2): 5-24. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2010.00598.x

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Does language study lower risk of dementia?

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Does language study lower risk of dementia?

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Studies (Perani et al., 2017) have shown that people who utilise their brains more through furthering their language tend to have lower rates of dementia and memory problems later in life regardless of education levels, gender or occupation. As more research is being done, it is increasingly apparent that learning at least 1 more language can delay or stall the development process of Alzheimer’s and dementia. In the past, studies have shown that people who are bilingual show symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease and dementia around 4.5 -5 years later than people who speak just one language. It has been suggested that this is due to bilingual people having a greater cognitive reserve, meaning that the brain will be more resilient to the damage taking place from Alzheimer’s. MRI scans of patients who have been diagnosed with Alzheimer’s have shown that they retain more of their gray matter (which serves to process information in the brain) if they are bilingual.

Perani, D., Farsad, M., Ballarini, T., Lubian, F., Malpetti, M., Fracchetti, A., Magnani, G., March, A. and Abutalebi, J. (2017). The impact of bilingualism on brain reserve and metabolic connectivity in Alzheimer’s dementia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(7), pp.1690–1695.
Fischer, C.E. and Schweizer, T.A. (2014). How does speaking another language reduce the risk of dementia? Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 14(5), pp.469–471.

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“Dialects are inferior versions of the standard form of language.”

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“Dialects are inferior versions of the standard form of language.”

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The concept of the standard form of a language being the ‘correct’ version is widely circulated. Although regional communication may heavily use dialect terms, the standard language is used in formal circumstances - dialects are viewed as lacking validity on a national and global scale.

However, differences between standard language and dialect are not indisputable. For some dialects, it may simply be that different terms are used to refer to certain things. For others, they’re so distinct that speakers of the same standard language don’t understand each other’s vernacular. Switching between dialect and standard form can feel as if changing into a completely dissimilar language.

Borders between ‘separate’ languages are also blurred e.g., Portuguese speakers can understand Spanish without having learnt it, but does this make them dialects? If so, of what language?

We cannot clearly distinguish between dialect and standard form, especially as they often intersect; standard language may not be ‘clear’ of dialect. If dialects are used by people, and are a way of communication like the standard form, where does its inferiority come from? They may be versions of the standard form of language, but it is an invented concept that dialects are less valid.

Bibliography

English, Fiona, and Tim Marr, Why Do Linguistics? : Reflective Linguistics and the Study of Language (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015), p.33
The Language Doctor, What’s The Difference Between Dialect And Language? (19 February 2021) <https://thelanguagedoctors.org/difference-between-dialect-and-language/> [accessed 18 January 2022]

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You don’t need to reach the level of a native.

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You don’t need to reach the level of a native.

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Achieving fluency is the main of goal of pretty much everyone learning a new language but reaching that point doesn’t necessarily mean you’d be mistaken for a native.

Fluency specifically refers to one’s general language proficiency, mostly when referring to eloquence and ease of use when speaking or writing. However, it is just one part of native level ability, though arguably the most important, alongside accuracy referring to the tendency to and severity of mistakes made, be they grammatical or phonological as well as complexity, commonly meaning the richness/diversity of language used. These two components whilst also important are comparatively much more difficult to master and are thus what often identifies someone as a non-native, whether it be a mispronunciation or an awkward turn of phrase.

I don’t believe it is absolutely necessary to master the accuracy and complexity of a second language to the level of a native speaker, when one’s fluency will allow you to easily sidestep any misunderstandings that could arise due to a small gap in knowledge.

References:
Alex Housen, Folkert Kuiken, Complexity, Accuracy, and Fluency in Second Language Acquisition, Applied Linguistics, Volume 30, Issue 4, December 2009, Pages 461–473, https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amp048

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You don't really need a 'native-speaker'

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You don't really need a 'native-speaker'

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The idea of the ‘native-speaker’ is everywhere in the language learning industry. Just think about any of the language learning apps. They all focus on the ‘native-speakers’ in their marketing. They seem integral to the learning process.

But what if you don’t get to learn with a native speaker– is it going to impair your language learning? Generally, no. But in practice, perhaps yes.

Indeed, ‘native-speakers’, someone from the place where the language you are learning is predominantly used, does add something to your language learning, if your target is to understand the specific language practice of such native-speaker. For instance, if you want to move to Paris, perhaps a choice of a native who speaks Parisian French would be practical and helpful. They can definitely give you insight into the sociolinguistic practises of that language.

However, not all ‘native-speakers’ would be good teachers of language. Perhaps, they would only benefit once you reach a certain level. Moreover, even within a language, there are so many ways it is used. Just think of English. There are so many varieties of English besides American and British ones, across the world- which all are real and grammatically correct variations. Therefore a ‘native-speaker’ does not even have to be a person from a dominant area.

Nevertheless, it is often true that the standard variation of a language is preferred in practice. Particularly for immigrants, obtaining a ‘native’ level of the  ‘standard’ variation of a language is socially encouraged. Therefore, learning it from a ‘native’ is highly desirable.

Bibliography:

Cook, V. (1999). Going beyond the Native Speaker in Language Teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 33(2), 185–209. https://doi.org/10.2307/3587717

Crystal, David (1999) “A New Linguistic World” in Keith Ryan (ed.), The Official Commemorative Album for the Millennium. London: Citroen Wolf Publications, 228-31

FluentU Language Learning.  Learn from the Best! 8 Resources to Learn a Language from Native Speakers. [online] Available at: https://www.fluentu.com/blog/learn-language-from-native-speakers/ [Accessed 17 January 2022].

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Language and culture are two names for the same concept

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Language and culture are two names for the same concept

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Although in common usage, the terms 'language' and 'culture' are deceptively difficult to define. Attempts to do so skirt around notions of sociality and community. Linguistics and Anthropology deal with language and culture respectively, yet the disciplines (although they overlap sometimes) remain largely independent of each other. I propose, however, that reality does not make a distinction between language, the patterns of meaningful sounds created by humans, and culture, the practice and reception of meaningful texts and symbols. Both concepts centre around human interconnectivity: essentially a transfer of information between humans. Where language is concerned, the physiologically produced sounds represent packets of knowledge that the human brain attempts to translate into mutual understanding (though with varying success!). On the other hand, 'culture' initially deals with a broader category of signals that transfer this knowledge, but on the whole the process is identical to that of language. Indeed, culture might as well be a language in its own right. The two concepts certainly cannot exist without each other. Culture is created and maintained by human interaction, which cannot be fully realised without language; and, as Pragmatics and Sociolinguistics has shown, language is equally dependent on the underlying contexts within which discourses occur. In light of this, it is interesting to consider why two fundamentally linked notions are explored within separate disciplines. As most of the contemporary Anthropological and Linguistic canon has emerged from the western tradition, due to the Colonial European stranglehold on Academia, an answer to this could be found within the history of western European understandings of language and culture. It would be interesting to see whether cultures and societies who have been excluded from the overrepresented Eurocentric studies of language and culture would provide new insights into this phenomena. Linguistics and Anthropology are relatively new disciplines, therefore may still require more definition than their long-established counterparts, for instance the natural sciences. This does not mean that they are less developed, simply that their newness adds a malleability perhaps not so easily found within the natural sciences, one that provides opportunities to scrutinise and redefine the disciplines, which academics should, undoubtedly, explore.

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A language is a dialect with an army and a navy

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A language is a dialect with an army and a navy

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If you are a multilingual speaker, have you ever found yourself understanding snippets of a foreign language, and wondered what it would be like to speak that language? If so, you may have thought about the idea of mutual intelligibility, where speakers of related speech varieties can understand each other even without prior learning. This relationship is typically seen in languages that diverged from a common ancestral language e.g. Italian and Spanish, Swedish and Danish, Dutch and Afrikaans. Since mutual intelligibility can be used as a measure of language relatedness, there is the prevalent idea that two speech forms that are mutually intelligible are dialects of the same language which can be a problematic assumption to make.

Often when there are multiple varieties of a language, speakers of an adjacent language variety can understand each other but speakers from geographically separated varieties have a harder time — there is a dialect continuum. Thus while these speech forms are all dialects, some may be classed as different languages, seemingly disregarding their common ancestry. It can be said that on top of mutual intelligibility, the classification of varieties into languages is dependent on other factors that influence the variety’s perceived “independence” and “prestige” — namely, if a language is historically associated with a country. In instances such as the Nordic languages, while Swedish and Norwegian and even Danish are considered mutually intelligible given their common origin, they are unanimously classed as different languages given their separate ethnic identities and the existence of national boundaries. Meanwhile, varieties of the Sinitic linguistic family such as Mandarin and Cantonese that may not be mutually intelligible, but they are typically distinguished as dialects from China. Hence, sociopolitical and ethnic considerations may have significant weight in the language/dialect debate.

If languages have prestige and dialects seemingly don’t, then a language is a dialect with an army and a navy.

Bibliography:

Barnes, M.P. (2019). Linguistic  in the Nordics. [online] Nordics. Available at: https://nordics.info/show/artikel/linguistic-variety-in-the-nordic-region#:~:text=are%20relatively%20similar.- [Accessed 18 Jan. 2022].

Genetti, C. (2014). Language, Languages and Linguistics. In: How Languages work, an Introduction to Language and Linguistics. Cambridge University Press, pp.3–24.

Mandarin House (n.d.). What is the Difference Between Mandarin and Cantonese? | Mandarin House. [online] mandarinhouse.com. Available at: https://mandarinhouse.com/difference-between-mandarin-cantonese#:~:text=They%20are%20both%20tonal%20languages [Accessed 19 Jan. 2022].

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"When I speak another language, it gives me immediate access to another culture. "

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"When I speak another language, it gives me immediate access to another culture. "

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Language and culture are intricately linked. Language is culture, and culture is language. The link between language and culture is complicated and homogeneous. When we learn a new language, we have direct access to a different culture. Learning a language requires an understanding of the surrounding culture. Cultural values can also emerge and evolve thanks to the language. The cultural values of a social group are reflected in the meanings of a language. Interacting with a language entails interacting with the culture that serves as its reference point. Without initially knowing a language, it is impossible to comprehend a culture. You can't master one without first mastering the other. Language is intertwined with every aspect of human life in society.

When studying or teaching a language, it is critical to consider the culture in which the language is spoken, as language is deeply embedded in the culture. You can't master one without first mastering the other. Language is intertwined with every aspect of human life in society. Learning a language requires an understanding of the surrounding culture. Cultural values can also emerge and evolve thanks to the language.

Do you every find yourself turning into a completely different person when speaking your second or third language? Personally I do and that is because learning a new language entails not just learning the alphabet, word order, and grammatical rules but also learning about the conventions and behavior of the target community. "Language is the flesh, and culture is the blood. You put the two together, and you have a whole person." Hence this expression summarizes the power of this relationship and enables us to comprehend that every time you learn a new language easily, you can acquire a new cultural background.

Bibliography:

https://bilingualkidspot.com/2019/06/12/relationship-between-language-and-culture/

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Spelling and Grammar Discourage Creativity

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Spelling and Grammar Discourage Creativity

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Grammar and spelling is a key component to communicating in a clear, coherent way. From an early age we are taught grammar at school. As students, one constant component of our work that either allows us to gain marks or loose marks is the grammar and spelling. When learning a foreign language from scratch in a formal environment, grammar is immediately introduced. Obviously it is important, we rely on grammar so much to tell us about a certain situation, especially when the situation is being written about and is not being communicated orally. But there is an idea that when you don’t use grammar or spelling in the conventional, agreed way you are making an error, and that you are communicating “incorrectly” or that you sound “strange”.

Often we assume the intelligence or capability of a person based on their grammar and spelling, we use it to determine what type of person they are, but just like in the case of language and culture, we shouldn’t use it to form stereotypes and prejudices. Just because the correct grammar is not used by someone shouldn’t invalidate the ideas they are communicating.

Additionally, grammar and spelling rules, although useful in getting ideas across clearly and reduce misunderstandings, can be inhibiting. Languages are said to have purposely evolved to make space for human creativity. (1) Language should allow limitless possibilities which in turn allows new ideas and means of communicating to flow naturally. I feel like sometimes fixed grammar and spelling rules discourage that.

References:

1. How Languages work, an introduction to Language and Linguistics, ed. by Carol Genetti (Cambridge, CUP, 2014), pp 6

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‘Is Translation really that difficult?’   

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‘Is Translation really that difficult?’   

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As the world has become more interconnected, translation is extremely vital. We often hear the expression “this phrase doesn’t exist in my language,” emphasising the complexity of interpretation.

Do you ever wonder how certain phrases are translated so poorly? Homonyms can help explain this. These are words spelt the same, but with different meanings, making translation more complex. For instance, if we analyse the sentence, ‘I left my phone on the left cupboard,’ the word ‘left’ has completely different connotations depending on its context. Therefore, it’s essential that the translator understands the logic and background behind the text, to produce an accurate translation.

Another convolution arises from cultural-specific words that may be related to a particular religion or moral value. For example, In English, the word ‘conscience’ resembles the difference between good and bad, whereas in Russian it’s interpreted as the presence of God in one’s soul.

To conclude, my overall answer is yes, since translation demands a deep understanding of both grammar and culture, without losing the authenticity and accuracy of the original meaning.

Bibliography

‘What Makes Translation So Difficult’ by Joshua Binfor, published on July 4th 2019 https://www.wetranslateontime.com/en/blog/post/what-makes-translation-so-difficult

‘Why Translation Can be Difficult’ by John Xavier published in 2021 https://www.streetdirectory.com/travel_guide/106477/languages/why_translation_can_be_difficult.html

‘What Are the Problems of Translation?’ published on June 25th 2021 https://vnlocalize.com/what-are-the-problems-of-translation/