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Introduction to barefoot/minimal shoe running (Lieberman et al., 2014)

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Introduction to barefoot/minimal shoe running (Lieberman et al., 2014)

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The debate between shod shoes and barefoot is often polarized, with some claiming modern shoes cause injuries and others dismissing barefoot running as a trend. Neither extreme is supported by strong scientific evidence. Confusion is worsened by the tendency to equate barefoot running with running in minimal shoes, which are not the same.

Habitually shod runners tend to keep heel‑striking even when barefoot, though with flatter foot placement.

Minimal‑shoe running can strengthen foot muscles and stiffen the arch.

Populations show varied strike patterns influenced by footwear and experience.

Many runners switch from heel‑striking in shoes to forefoot striking when barefoot.

Shock absorption patterns differ between rearfoot and forefoot striking.

After long ultramarathons, even minimalist runners tend to revert to heel‑striking.

Surveys show most runners who switch to barefoot/minimal running report fewer injuries or no harm.

Barefoot runners are more likely to forefoot strike than minimally shod runners.

Gait‑retraining with feedback can reduce impact forces.

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rearfoot running results in higher impact compared with forefoot

however tissues can adapt to support this so could be beneficial (RF)

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Becker, J., & Borgia, B. (2020). Kinematics and muscle activity when running in partial minimalist, traditional, and maximalist shoes. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 50, 102379.

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Eight weeks gait retraining in minimalist footwear has no effect on running economy

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Eight weeks gait retraining in minimalist footwear has no effect on running economy

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minimalist footwear may improve running economy in males

however gait retraining to improve familiarisation to minimalist footwear did not influence running economy

step frequency increased with minimalist footwear

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Running in minimalist shoes for 12 weeks led to significantly stronger abductor digiti minimi muscles in the foot, with around ~60% increased longitudinal arch stiffness (Miller et al., 2014). The minimal shoes shifted strike patterns towards midfoot/forefoot from previous rearfoot striking.

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Reduction in ground reaction force variables with instructed barefoot running (Samaan et al., 2014)

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Reduction in ground reaction force variables with instructed barefoot running (Samaan et al., 2014)

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Key Results Summary

Strike Pattern Changes: 92% of participants used rearfoot strike when shod, but 96% switched to forefoot strike during instructed barefoot running .

Impact Transient Reduction: Impact transients occurred in 98% of shod steps but only 25% of barefoot steps. Notably, 47% of participants eliminated impact transients completely in all eight analyzed steps

Loading Rate Decreases: Both average and maximum instantaneous vertical loading rates were significantly reduced (p < 0.0001), with average reductions of 57% and 51% respectively .

Stiffness Changes: Vertical stiffness during initial loading decreased by 33% in barefoot conditions .

Ground Reaction Forces: Peak lateral forces decreased by 53% and medial forces by 9.7%. Impulses in vertical (6.6%), lateral (44%), and medial (2.4%) directions all significantly decreased .

Gait Parameters: Step rate increased by 6% while step length decreased by 5.5% during barefoot running .

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The contrast between minimally shod and conventionally shod Tarahumara therefore supports the general observation that experienced runners who are habitually barefoot or minimally shod tend to land with a flatter foot and RFS less often than runners who habitually use modern running shoes that cushion and elevate the heel

no statistically significant differences in step frequency as well as the angles of the ankle, knee, hip, and trunk between the minimally and conventionally shod individuals, minimally shod Tarahumara had significantly less overstride (as measured by the orientation of the tibia at landing), which means that they typically land with their ankle nearly below the knee.

Previous studies have found that shod runners are more likely to FFS at higher speeds (Lieberman, 2014)

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References

Lieberman, D. E. (2014). Strike type variation among Tarahumara Indians in minimal sandals versus conventional running shoes. Journal of Sport and Health Science, 3(2), 86–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2014.03.009

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Kinematic and kinetic comparison of barefoot and shod running in mid/forefoot and rearfoot strike runners

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Kinematic and kinetic comparison of barefoot and shod running in mid/forefoot and rearfoot strike runners

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barefoot running shows a decreased stride length, plantarflexed position at ground contact and reduced impact magnitude

barefoot switches from using a rearfoot strike to mid/forefoot

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Strike type variation among Tarahumara Indians in minimal sandals versus conventional running shoes (Lieberman, 2014)

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Strike type variation among Tarahumara Indians in minimal sandals versus conventional running shoes (Lieberman, 2014)

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The study finds that Tarahumara runners who grow up wearing minimal sandals show much more variation in foot‑strike patterns and have stiffer arches and different lower‑limb kinematics than those who grow up wearing modern cushioned running shoes.

Minimally shod Tarahumara (huaraches):

40% midfoot strikers

30% forefoot strikers

30% rearfoot strikers

Conventionally shod Tarahumara (modern running shoes):

75% rearfoot strikers

25% midfoot strikers

0% forefoot strikers

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Gillinov, S. M., Laux, S., Kuivila, T., Hass, D., & Joy, S. M. (2015). Effect of minimalist footwear on running efficiency: A randomized crossover trial. Sports health, 7(3), 256-260.

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Minimalist prototype shoe proved to significantly improve running economy (p < 0.001) compared with 'state-of-the-art' marathon running shoes, with improvements ranging from 1.91-4.86% (Kuzmeski et al., 2026). Running economy in the study was quantified through significant improvements to step frequency (p < 0.001, n^2 = 0.42), contact time (p < 0.001, n^2 = 0.72), and braking/propelling impulses (p < 0.001, n^2 = 0.43) (Kuzmeski et al., 2026)

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Running economy in the FR3 was 3.15% ± 1.24%, 3.62% ± 1.25%, and 3.54% ± 1.16% (mean § SD) better than in the FR2, NIKE, and ADI (all p < 0.001), respectively, and every individual performed best in the FR3 shoes. While step parameters were similar between FR3 and FR2, the FR3 had a lower step frequency than the ADI (p = 0.013) and longer contact time than the NIKE and ADI (both p < 0.001) (Kuzmeski et al., 2026).

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We hypothesized that running in MRS does not alter lower leg kinematics compared to BF running (Hein & Grau., 2014)

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Hazda MALE hunter-gatherers ('even though they rarely run') predominantly used mid foot strikes (MFS), when landing.

Some level of exposure to running may be necessary to promote MFS or FFS.

MFS may have been common among hunter-gatherer groups in the past, even for those who did not engage in endurance running - essentially the study promotes 'natural' running.

The high rate of RFS among Hadza WOMEN (who didn't hunt at all) was also similar to that reported for habitually shod US adults. (reinforcing, less experienced runners = RFS)

It also suggests caution is needed when drawing conclusions about “average” or “typical” gait in unshod populations.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2014.03.010

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Gait Kinematics differed between minimalist and cushioned footwear. Minimalist footwear saw increased stride frequency with shorter lengths whilst Cushioned footwear saw longer strides. Minimalist footwear sees earlier and longer contractions of their plantar flexor muscles which counteracts the force of landing and stabilises the ankle joint. This enhances the capability of the foot and ankle structures to store elastic energy. The result of this is an increased force after active lengthening.

Overall, a difference can be observed between minimal and cushioned footwear muscle activation resulting in varying elastic energy storage.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2014.03.007

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Research Supporting Use of Shod Running Shoe Design 

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Research Supporting Use of Shod Running Shoe Design 

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Research Supporting Use of Minimalist Shoe Design 

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Research Supporting Use of Minimalist Shoe Design 