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What is Universal Grammar? Chomsky has defined UG as “the system of principles,
conditions, and rules that are elements or properties of all human languages”
(Chomsky, 1976, p.29).This means that a native speaker of a language knows a set
of principles that can be applied to all languages and parameters that vary from one
language to another.

Universal grammar , theory proposing that humans possess innate faculties related
to the acquisition of language . The definition of universal grammar has evolved
considerably since first it was postulated and, moreover, since the 1940s, when it
became a specific object of modern linguistic research. It is associated with work in
generative grammar , and it is based on the idea that certain aspects of syntactic
structure are universal. Universal grammar consists of a set of atomic grammatical
categories and relations that are the building blocks of the particular grammars of all human languages, over which syntactic structures and constraints on those
structures are defined. A universal grammar would suggest that all languages
possess the same set of categories and relations and that in order to communicate
through language, speakers make infinite use of finite means, an idea that Wilhelm
von Humboldt suggested in the 1830s. From this perspective, a grammar must
contain a finite system of rules that generates infinitely many deep and surface
structures, appropriately related. It must also contain rules that relate these abstract
structures to certain representations of sound and meaning—representations that,
presumably, are constituted of elements that belong to universal phonetics and
universal semantics , respectively.

Principles and Parameters of UG

A principle principle of UG is a statement that is true for all human languages.
A parameter parameter must be set according to the requirements of the language
being acquired.

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Notional / functional dimension of language Applied linguists and philosophers addressed another fundamental dimension of language: the functional and communicative potential of language. The speech act theory showed that we do something when we speak a language. We use language ( cf Halliday 1975)
● to get things,
● to control behavior,
● to create interaction with others,
● to express personal feelings,
● to learn,
● to create a world of imagination,
● to communicate information.
Besides applied linguists emphasized a teaching of language based on communicative proficiency rather than mastery of structures. instead of describing the core of language through traditional concepts of grammar and vocabulary, they (Van Ek & Alexander, 1975; Wilkins, 1976) attempted to show the systems of meaning underlying the communicative use of language. They described two kinds of meanings.
● Notional categories: concepts such as time, sequence; quantity, location, frequency.
● Functional categories: requests offers, complaints, invitation … In other words, a “notion” is a particular context in which people communicate. A “function” is a specific purpose for a speaker in a given context. For example, the “notion,” of shopping requires numerous language “functions,” such as asking about prices or features of a product and bargaining.

Syllabus
Communicative language teaching syllabus organizes the teaching according to the
notional and functional categories of language rather than according to its
structures.It concentrates on the following:
● Interactions: using language to communicate,
● Tasks: using language to perform meaningful tasks
● Learner: putting the learner’s interests, needs in the forefront.

Merits of CLT

There are many advantages in teaching according to the communicative approach:
● CLT is a holistic approach. It doesn’t focus only on the traditional
structural syllabus. It takes into consideration communicative dimension
of language.
● CLT provides vitality and motivation within the classroom.
● CLT is a learner centered approach. It capitalizes on the interests and
needs of the learner.
● In a world where communication of information and information
technology have broken new considerable ground, CLT can play an
important role in education.
Criticism

● Notional syllabus was criticized as merely replacing one kind of list,
namely a list of grammatical structures, with another list of notions and
functions.

● The various categories of language functions are overlapping and not
systematically graded like the structures of the language.

● The communicative approach focuses on the use of language in everyday
situations, or the functional aspects of language, and less on the formal
structures. There must be a certain balance between the two.It gives
priority to meanings and rules of use rather than to grammar and rules of
structure. Such concentration on language behavior may result in
negative consequences in the sense that important structures and rules
would be left out.

● The approach relies extensively on the functional-notional syllabus which
places heavy demands on the learners.

● A major principle underlying this approach is its emphasis on learners’
needs and interests. This implies that every teacher should modify the
syllabus to fit the needs of the learners.

● The requirements are difficult. Not all classrooms can allow for group
work activities and for teaching aids and materials.

In spite of its critics, CLT has gained widespread acceptance in the world of
language study. CLT can succeed, as long as teachers don’t completely reject the
need for the structure provided by grammar. Teachers must strive for moderation
and shouldn’t neglect the merits of other methods. CLT, in the hands of a balanced
teacher, can bring new life and joy to the classroom. Its vitality makes it an important
contributor to language learning approaches.

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Natural Approach  - Adquisition and learning Hypothesis

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Natural Approach  - Adquisition and learning Hypothesis

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The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis Krashen makes a distinction between acquisition and learning.
● Krashen defines acquisition as developing competence by using language for real communication. It is the natural way, paralleling first language development in children and refers to an unconscious process that involves the naturalistic development of language proficiency through understanding language and through using language for meaningful communication.
● Learning, however, refers to formal knowledge of a language. It is the process in which conscious rules about a language are developed. It results in explicit knowledge about the forms of a language and the ability to verbalize this knowledge. Formal teaching is necessary for “learning” to occur, and correction of errors helps with the development of learned rules.

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Disadvantanges and Advantages of Interlanguage

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Disadvantanges and Advantages of Interlanguage

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The Interlanguage hypothesis sees errors as evidence of L2 learners‘ strategies of learning, rather than as signs of interference or as the persistence of "bad habits" which should be eradicated as quickly as possible through practice, drill and overlearning of the correct forms.

The making of errors helps the learner to test hypotheses about the TL system.

A study of errors should help to uncover the learner's buiIt-in syllabus and his learning strategies. Errors are a part of the learning process.

It looks at the L2 learner as an active participant because he/she has the ability to form rules from the data he/she might encounter.

The study of IL theory might help us in determining what a FL leaner knows at a particular point in time and what he/she should be taught.

IL theory helps in understanding the L2 learners' problems better and in providing timely help to such learners, so they can achieve competence in their TL.

IL theory has brought significant changes in the teaching methodology, with communicative teaching making its way into the teaching system.

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The term interlanguage (IL) was introduced by the American linguist Larry Selinker in 1972 to refer to the linguistic system evidenced when an adult second language learner attempts to express meanings in the language being learned.

The interlanguage is viewed as a separate linguistic system, different from both the learner’s ‘native language’ (NL) and the ‘target language’ (TL) being learned, but linked to both NL and TL by interlingual identifications in the perception of the learner.

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Universal grammar, theory proposing that humans possess innate faculties related to the acquisition of language. The definition of universal grammar has evolved considerably since first it was postulated and, moreover, since the 1940s, when it became a specific object of modern linguistic research. It is associated with work in generative grammar, and it is based on the idea that certain aspects of syntactic structure are universal. Universal grammar consists of a set of atomic grammatical categories and relations that are the building blocks of the particular grammars of all human languages, over which syntactic structures and constraints on those structures are defined. A universal grammar would suggest that all languages possess the same set of categories and relations and that in order to communicate through language, speakers make infinite use of finite means

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The natural approach developed by Tracy Terrell and supported by Stephen Krashen, is a language teaching approach which claims that language learning is a reproduction of the way humansnaturally acquire their native language.

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Behaviorist Approach - Edward Thorndike and John Broadus Watson

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Behaviorist Approach - Edward Thorndike and John Broadus Watson

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Behaviorism is concerned with how environmental factors (called stimuli) affect observable behavior (called the response). The behaviorist approach proposes two main processes whereby people learn from their environment: namely classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

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Cognitive Approach - Ulric Neisser Jean Piaget

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Cognitive Approach - Ulric Neisser Jean Piaget

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The cognitive approach in psychology is a relatively modern approach to human behaviour that focuses on how we think. It assumes that our thought processes affect the way in which we behave.

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The communicative approach is based on the idea that learning language successfully comes through having to communicate real meaning. When learners are involved in real communication, their natural strategies for language acquisition will be used, and this will allow them to learn to use the language.