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Week Six
Word count: 645

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The Australian Human Rights Commission remarks the prevalence of violence against women in Australia as “disturbingly high” (2017, 3). Campaigns such as the #MeToo movement have created a platform to expose the commonness of violence against women in the world today. In Australia, the Federal Government’s ‘Respect’ initiative highlights the need to make a social change, by encouraging conversations between parents and young people around violence against women.  The Australian public are being confronted with the reality of the violence against women epidemic within their country. It is clear that resourcing must be prioritised in order to combat the threat of violence faced by women.

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The ABC reports that Australia is in a domestic, sexual and violence crisis (Wood, 2018). The statistics are frightening. One woman dies as a result of domestic violence each week. This figure only reported in February 2018.  Confronting, the prevalence of violence against women has continued to be unravelled to the public through social media, and official responses to demands for change from the public. What is clear is that the issue requires significant multidisciplinary approaches to changing the Australian attitude towards violence against women. Significant assistance is required to educate and change the attitude of Australians on the issue of violence against women. Until an attitude shift is obtained, Signiant support must be provided to the front-line issue.

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The State of Victoria notably ordered a Royal Commission in to Family Violence. In reporting of crime statistics, the Royal Commission’s report detailed that three out of four victims of family violence are female (2016, p27).  The final report delivered 227 recommendations for improvement in the State’s responses to family violence. The Royal Commission recommended the State open Family Violence Hubs, for the purposes of providing a single location containing vital services to those experiencing family violence. This recommendation has been accepted, and construction is underway on these sites. The Family Violence Hubs will be able to provide instant support to victims such as access to police, counselling and accommodation arrangements. Seeking support following intimate partner violence is reported to be as low as less than one in five (Poyton and Weatherburn, 2016). In considering intimate partner violence, Poyton and Weatherburn (2016) report that women are likely to experience violence of this kind if they lacked support, and the absence of anyone to support a victim increases the risk of the violence occurring.  The Hub will serve to counteract this, by providing a central place for support following instances of family violence.

Within the recommendations, the need to retrieve more data regarding family violence was made. While the recommendation is yet to be inforce, it is underway. Prevention is of significant importance to the issue of violence against women. To develop strategies, sound data of course must be consulted.  Powell and Webster (2016), consider data relating to the attitudes towards family violence as minimal.  With a better understanding of social perspectives, actions can be taken to eliminate those which contribute towards an acceptable attitude of violence towards women. The Family Violence Hub will be tasked with a significant contribution to obtaining data and data sharing between relevant organisations. The obtaining of such data will provide significant use in identifying information around violence against women, and perpetrators.

It is the role of both State and Federal governments to provide efficient resourcing to tackling the crime and its consequences. Social media has proved a useful tool in expanding upon the many areas women experience violence. The move by Victoria to condense the key services needed by female domestic violence victims demonstrates a commitment to tackling the issue of violence against women. The ability to provide much needed support to female victims as well as collect and share valuable data will be of great use. However, resourcing must continue, and appropriate action must be taken to stop and prevent sexual violence towards women.

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Powell, A., & Webster, K. (2016). Cultures of gendered violence: An integrative review of measures of attitudinal support for violence against women. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology

Family Safety Victoria. Family Safety Victoria Logo [Image]. Retrieved from https://www.vic.gov.au/system/user_files/Images/fv/FamSafVic_Logo_VERT_CMYK_2.png

State of Victoria. (2016). Royal Commission into Family Violence Volume 1. Victorian Government.

Stavrou, E., Poynton, S., & Weatherburn, D. (2018). Intimate partner violence against women in Australia: related factors and help-seeking behaviours. BOCSAR NSW Crime And Justice Bulletins, 16.

Styled to Sparkle. (2018). MeToo Hashtag [Image]. Retrieved from https://cdn.styledtosparkle.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/MeToo-Main2.jpg

The Australian Human Rights Commission. (2017). Violence against women in Australia: Submission to the special rapporteur on violence against woman. Sydney.

Wood, P. (2018). Landmark report reveals a woman dies every week due to Australia's domestic violence crisis. ABC News. Retrieved from http://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-02-28/landmark-report-reveals-extent-of-domestic-violence-crisis/9492026

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Week Seven
Word count: 739

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The absence of data concerning men as victims of domestic violence and victims of sexual assault are consistently reported as minimal. A deficit of resources, as well as the social standards imposed on men plays a role in the absence of such data. It is clear that the attitudes towards men as victims in Australia and western culture must change in order to see an increase in the reporting of crimes against men. Of course, an increase in reporting will result in more reliable data, enabling the issue of men as victims to be appropriately dealt with.

Javaid (2017) considers the role of hegemonic masculinity in instances of gay rape.  It is understood that hegemonic masculinity can be expressed through acts of power displayed over subordinate persons, often women, and gay men. The perceived ‘true masculinity’ can be displayed through heterosexuality, and often promiscuity.  Javaid (2017) discusses that the prevalence of promiscuity within the gay community in discussing the behaviours that may lead towards sexual crimes against gay men.  Hegemonic masculinity centres on the idyllic notion of being a man and sexual desires and engagement form part of being an ideal man (Javaid, 2017). The role of hegemonic masculinity in crimes where men are victims is also discussed by Javaid (2017) as influencing the reporting of these crimes. Javaid (2017) importantly. acknowledges the absence of reliable data concerning gay rape, however  discusses that men who are victims are perhaps unlikely to report their victimisation due to the struggle of accepting their own masculinity has been tarnished Javaid (2017).

Men as victims of domestic violence required further research and understanding. Mulroney and Chan (2005) highlight the front-line reported increases in men as victims of domestic violence.   Often, the reality of men as being victims of domestic violence can be forgotten. It is reported that further restrains on male victim reporting come down to individual perceived embarrassment (Mulroney and Chan, 2005).   Mulroney and Chan (2005) confirm the social expectations placed on them to display minimal levels of weakness.   Again, it is gender norms of what it takes to be a man that is influencing male attitudes towards crime reporting and their own victimisation. These social pressures have been consistently reported to come from the influences of care-givers, the media and peers.  The issue therefore becomes one in which society as a whole must work towards resolving.  Mulroney and Chan (2005) consider that the acknowledgment of men as victims of domestic violence will result in resources being stripped from female as victims of domestic violence, thus causing competing interests and competition between male and female victims.  Mulroney and Chan (2005) further consider that it is difficult to know whether men are victims or perpetrators of domestic violence. Thus within their article Mulroney and Chan (2005) highlight a social attitude towards male victims, by discounting their reliability and offering a proposition that only one genders victimisation can be resourced at a time. Opinion should and must focus on ensuring appropriate resourcing to both male and female victims.

The above discussion highlights attitudes towards men and held by men in society.  The danger of gender norms in the topic of crime today is not exclusive to explaining why men perpetrate violence, but also why men do not report their victimisation.

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While not following the topic of sexual of domestic violence, the role of hegemonic masculinity could perhaps be used to better understand men as victims of other crimes such as victims of workplace injury and death. In 2014, 95% of workplace deaths involved male victims (de Brito 2014). It is unsurprising that majority of these deaths were reported as occurring within ‘dangerous’ male dominated industries (de Brito 2014). A workplace death that has arisen by employer negligence is dealt with by fines on the employer for as little as $150,000 (Willingham, 2018). Fines of this amount are minimal for large business, which may see little deterrence in improving safety conditions in work. So why has the law not been changed to allow imprisonment of employers who negligently cause death? The Victorian Trades Hall Council has commenced a campaign to see these industrial manslaughter laws introduced in Victoria (Willingham, 2018). But why have these taken so long? Perhaps the role of hegemonic masculinity deters males from voicing their concerns over their own health and safety. Perhaps the notion that getting hurt at work just forms part of the gender norms for males in today’s society.

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de Brito, S. (2018). How to die at work: be male. Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved from https://www.smh.com.au/opinion/how-to-die-at-work-be-male-20141029-11cti8.html

Javaid, A. (2017). In the shadows: Making sense of gay male rape victims' silence, suffering, and invisibility. International Journal of Sexual Health, 29(4), 279-291.

Mulroney, J., & Chan, C. (2005). Men as victims of domestic violence. Australian Domestic and Family Violence Clearinghouse Topic Paper: Accessed online: http//: www. austdvclearinghouse. unsw. edu. au.

NoMore.Org. https://i0.wp.com/pbs.twimg.com/media/B_l6L5VVEAA5-4b.png:large?resize=1920%2C768&ssl=1&crop=1 [Image].

Victorians Trades Hall Council. Industrial Manslaughter Baner [Image]. Retrieved from https://d8s293fyljwh4.cloudfront.net/petitions/images/211663/horizontal/IMmegaphone.png?1519694585

Willingham, R. (2018). Families of workplace accident victims back call for new industrial manslaughter offence with jail term. ABC Online. Retrieved from http://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-04-29/call-for-industrial-manslaughter-law-for-victoria/9706900

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Week Eight
Word count: 620

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The study of gender in crime extends beyond victims and perpetrators. The roles of gender norms are present within its workforce of courts, prisons and police officers. Interestingly, components of hegemonic masculinity are present and are generally accepted by both males and females in some workforces.

The role of gender is most apparent within the male prison setting where inmates are detained for violent acts, including those against women. It is incorrectly assumed that only a man could restrain such a violent offender. Yet, we know that women do in fact work in correctional facilities. Interestingly, Burdet, Goulinger and Poulin (2018) reported that female correctional officers do not feel they can adequately fulfil their role, as they are simply not men. Further, these women felt they never exited the probationary period of their employment.  In fact. female correctional officers were reported by Burdet, Goulinger and Poulin (2018) as feeling unsupported by their employers. So why is this? Research has supported the indication that it is the arrogances of male colleagues which make performing these roles difficult for women (Burdet, Goulinger and Poulin, 2018).  A perception exists that only men can carry out the role of a correctional officer for their physical abilities. Burdet, Goulinger and Poulin (2018) state that female officers feel they are inferior, due to biological bias.  Moreover, the use of physical force is required in the prison setting to ensure the safety of colleagues and other inmates (Burdet, Goulinger and Poulin, 2018). This perception clearly exists due to the perceived violent environment of a correctional facility, combined with the idea that men must act as heroes and protect subordinated classes such as women from things such as violence.  This leaves female officers in a position where they are consistently unable to perform all duties. Therefore, women’s opportunity to succeed in the corrections sector is limited by the male dominated perception of the role (Burdet, Goulinger and Poulin, 2018).  Female officers in corrections are reported to alter themselves to appear more masculine to counteract these perceptions of their abilities (Burdet, Goulinger and Poulin, 2018).  Burdet, Goulinger and Poulin (2018) suggest a number of changes to the corrections environment including, a change in culture, cease a reliance on physical restraint and develop protocols to deal with instances without the need to have men perform masculine duties.

Hegemonic masculinity and specifically the perceptions of male toughness causes issues for women employed in the criminal/justice arena. The importance of using violence by males employed in correctional facilities is entrenched within the correctional facility fraternity, and similar views are held within the police fraternity (Prenzler and Sinclair, 2013). It is the assumed femininity of women that rule them incapable of showing strength and responding to violent situations.  Such bias is however not limited to physically demanding roles. The appointment of female justices to Australia’s High Court have historically been questioned, as to whether they were simply for gender quotas or based on merit (McLoughlin, 2015).  It is evident that a culture change in the employment field of crime must occur. Burdet, Goulinger and Poulin (2018) report that this recommendation has been called upon for some time. It is therefore surprisingly that while hurdles like those above exist, agencies such as the Australian Federal Police continue to run recruitment programs targeted at women (Allen and Slibthorpe 2017). For women to succeed in such industries, recommendations such as those made by Burdet, Goulinger and Poulin should be adopted. This will remove a significant component of bias in industries such as corrections and policing.  It should not be for women to alter themselves and be more like men.  It is the attitudes of males that must be altered in order for women to succeed.

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Allen, C., & Slibthorpe, C. (2017). AFP announces female-only recruitment round. ABCNews. Retrieved from http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-09-28/afp-female-only-recruitment-drive/8995484

Australian Federal Police. Female Australian Police Officers [Image]. Retrieved from http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-09-28/afp-female-only-recruitment-drive/8995484

Burdett, F., Gouliquer, L., & Poulin, C. (2018). Culture of Corrections: The Experience of Women Correctional Officers. Feminist Criminology, 1557085118767974.

McLoughlin, K. (2015). The politics of gender diversity on the high court of Australia. Alternative Law Journal, 40(3), 166-170.

Prenzler, T., & Sinclair, G. (2013). The status of women police officers: an international review. International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice, 41(2), 115-131.