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APA Style has specific formatting rules; please see the resources listed below for more information. If you are a RRU student and you're unsure of which edition of the APA Style manual you should use, please contact your program office for clarification.

APA Style 6th Edition (Scroll Down for APA Style 7th Edition)
Quoting and paraphrasing In-text citations References Questions?
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APA Style 7th Edition
Quoting and Paraphrasing In-text citations References Questions?
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APA Style in-text citations and references

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APA Style has specific formatting rules; please see the resources listed below for more information. If you are a RRU student and you're unsure of which edition of the APA Style manual you should use, please contact your program office for clarification. Quoting and paraphrasing In-text citations References Questions?

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Introduction to APA Style (7th ed.)

This video will provide you with an introduction to the APA Style (7th ed.) rules. The video will start automatically in browsers where autoplay of audio is enabled. If the video doesn't immediately begin, click the pause button and then click play. While the video is playing, click "Outline" to navigate through the presentation or "Notes" to see the transcript.

If you would like to return to specific sections of the video, please see below:

1. Introduction (2:21)

2. Formatting (3:09)

3. Quoting and Paraphrasing (2:03)

4. In-Text Citations (9:06)

5. References (6:10)

6. Conclusion (Resources and contact information; 1:44)

7. Reference for the presentation (0:00)

Click on Introduction to APA Style (PowerPoint) if you would like the slides from the video; the transcript is available via the slide notes. If you are working in Chrome and the PowerPoint doesn't download, please try in a different browser.

APA Style (7th ed.) Help Guide

The APA Style (7th ed.) Help Guide is a document you can download and read if you prefer reading to viewing avideo. The document is formatted to the APA Style rules, so it also serves to provide examples of formatting. The only deviations from the APA Style rules are the document is set to 1.5 line spacing to make it less expensive to print.

Please note that this resource does not replace the APA Style manual; rather, it is intended to provide a general introduction to the 7th edition APA Style rules. The comprehensive source for APA Style (7th ed.) information remains the 7th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, which was published in 2020.

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LibGuides: APA Style (7th ed.): 1. Welcome to the APA Style (7th ed.) guide

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Skip to Main Content It looks like you're using Internet Explorer 11 or older. This website works best with modern browsers such as the latest versions of Chrome, Firefox, Safari, and Edge. If you continue with this browser, you may see unexpected results. Search WriteAnswers for FAQs on your topic: Can't find what you need?

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Introduction to APA 6th edition

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"Introduction to APA Style (6th ed.)" (32:24 video)

This video will provide you with an introduction to the APA Style (6th ed.) rules. This video will provide you with an introduction to academic writing. The video will start automatically in browsers where autoplay of audio is enabled. If the video doesn't immediately begin, click the pause button and then click play.

While the video is playing, click "Menu" to navigate through the presentation or see the transcript. If you would like to return to specific sections of the video, please see below:

1. Introduction (2:43)

2. Formatting (3:04)

3. Quoting and paraphrasing (2:11)

4. In-text citations(6:01)

5. Personal communication (3:08)

6. Secondary source citations (1:47)

7. References (11:33)

8. Conclusion (citation resources, provide feedback on the presentation, and contact the Writing Centre; 1:57)

Click on "Introduction to APA Style" PowerPoint if you would like the slides from the video; the transcript is available via the slide notes.

The APA (6th ed.) Help Guide is a document you can download and read if you prefer reading to viewing the "Introduction to APA Style (6th ed.)" video. The document is formatted to the APA Style rules, so it also serves to provide examples of formatting. The only deviations from the APA Style rules are the document is set to 1.5 line spacing to make it cheaper to print on campus, and the title page doesn't display a page number, which reflects an academic convention.
General APA Style Exercise (APA Style 6th ed.)

If you'd like to test your understanding of some basic APA Style rules, give this exercise a try! You'll receive the correct answers after you submit your answers. This exercise and others are also available in APA Style Practice Exercises.
More Information
See To search by keyword, please visit Writing Tips and WriteAnswers for many other resources on APA Style. WriteAnswers and search the FAQs. If you're a RRU student, you can also use the WriteAnswers contact form to send your questions directly to the Writing Centre. We'll send you a private reply as soon as we can, which is typically within one business day of receiving the message.

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"Introduction to APA Style (6th ed.)" (32:24 video) This video will provide you with an introduction to the APA Style (6th ed.) rules. This video will provide you with an introduction to academic writing. The video will start automatically in browsers where autoplay of audio is enabled.

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When writing an essay, the first step is to choose a topic. For this you first have to decide what direction your essay is going to take – is it going to persuade the reader to share your point of view, is it going to explain how to complete a task, or is going to inform or educate the reader on a particular topic? In fact your essay can do several things – , describe something or a , give causes and effects , compare and contrast , or define something .

Once you have determined the purpose of your essay, think of a topic. Think of a subject that interests you or something that you strongly feel about. Unless the interest or the feeling for the topic is not there, you will not be able to convince your readers. You also have to keep in mind that the topic must fit the purpose.

Now that you have your topic, write down all your ideas on the subject. Gather as much information as you can on the topic and write everything down.

Once you have all the information with you, make an outline of your essay, following this outline:

Introduction: The first paragraph should be the introduction, telling your reader what the essay is going to be about. Try and attract the reader's attention from the very beginning by giving some startling fact, or intriguing information, or anything else that will make the reader want to read the rest of your essay.

Body paragraphs: These may be 3 or more depending on how many points you are going to discuss. Each paragraph should discuss a different point.

Conclusion: The final paragraph is the conclusion. The conclusion should not be too long; just 3 or four sentences should be enough. It should sum up the main points of your essay and provide a final perspective on the topic.

The important thing to keep in mind about writing an essay or article is that how you write it is just as important as what you write. Your approach to the topic and the order in which you present your points are very important. The transition from one point to another, and thus the transition from one paragraph to another, should be smooth. Keep the order the same as mentioned in the introduction.

Grammar is another important aspect. Bad grammar, wrong punctuations and spellings can make anything bad reading. Don't write very long sentences or never ending paragraphs. Try not to repeat the same words over and over again.

Now that the essay is written, think of a title. Think of a good title. It's the title that will decide whether someone wants to read your essay or not. Make it attractive and one that gives a hint of what's in store, without telling all.

The final step is to proofread it. Read it out loud to yourself or someone else to see if it sounds ok and the flow is right. It is sometimes better to read it over the next day, as you then tend to look at it from a fresh angle and are more open to errors.

Essay types:

If you need further help with your essay writing, please do not hesitate to write to us at help@word-mart.com

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Essay Writing Guide: how to write a good essay

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When writing an essay, the first step is to choose a topic. For this you first have to decide what direction your essay is going to take - is it going to persuade the reader to share your point of view, is it going to explain how to complete a task, or is going to inform or educate the reader on a particular topic?

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The terms paraphrasing and summarizing often confuse students of English. This is not surprising since the two mean very similar things with just a slight difference. First off, what are paraphrasing and summarizing?

Paraphrasing and summarizing are both indispensable writing tools. They are both techniques of incorporating other writers' works or ideas into your writing using your own words. Although a writer must always use his/her own ideas when writing, sometimes it becomes necessary to use other writers' thoughts and concepts. This may be due to one or more of the following reasons:

* To provide support to your own ideas
* To give reasons of why you agree or disagree with something
* To give depth to your writing
* To refer to something that led to your ideas
* To give a point of view which is different from yours

These same reasons for paraphrasing and summarizing are the cause of the confusion between the two. So what is the difference then?

Paraphrasing is re-writing another writer's words or ideas in your own words without altering the meaning. The paraphrase is about the same length as the original since the purpose is to rephrase without leaving out anything, and not to shorten. Summarizing, on the other hand, is putting down the main ideas of someone else's work in your own words. A summary is always shorter than the original since the idea is to include only the main points of the original work and to leave out the irrelevant. A summary is usually about one-third the size of the original.

Now when should you paraphrase and when should you summarize?

Paraphrase when:

* You want to use another writer's words without plagiarizing
* You want to use another writer's words without the use of quotes
* The ideas of the other writer are more important than his/her style
* You think that the words of the other writer are too difficult for your readers

Summarize when:

* You want to identify only the main ideas of the writer
* You want to give an overview of the topic (from several sources)
* You want to simplify a complex argument
* You want to condense the matter to suit your requirement

Whether paraphrasing or summarizing, it is very important to always cite the original work in order to give credit to the source.

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The terms paraphrasing and summarizing often confuse students of English. This is not surprising since the two mean very similar things with just a slight difference. First off, what are paraphrasing and summarizing? Paraphrasing and summarizing are both indispensable writing tools. They are both techniques of incorporating other writers' works or ideas into your writing using your own words.

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Writing a Thesis Stateent

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Writing a Thesis Statement

A thesis statement is a sentence (or sentences) that expresses the main ideas of your paper and answers the question or questions posed by your paper. It offers your readers a quick and easy to follow summary of what the paper will be discussing and what you as a writer are setting out to tell them. The kind of thesis that your paper will have will depend on the purpose of your writing. This handout will cover general thesis statement tips, explain some of the different types of thesis statements, and provide some links to other resources about writing thesis statements.

General Thesis Statement Tips

A thesis statement generally consists of two parts: your topic, and then the analysis, explanation(s), or assertion(s) that you're making about the topic. The kind of thesis statement you write will depend on what kind of paper you're writing.

In some kinds of writing, such as narratives or descriptions, a thesis statement is less important, but you may still want to provide some kind of statement in your first paragraph that helps to guide your reader through your paper.

A thesis statement is a very specific statement -- it should cover only what you want to discuss in your paper, and be supported with specific evidence. The scope of your paper will be determined by the length of your paper and any other requirements that might be in place.

Generally, a thesis statement appears at the end of the first paragraph of an essay, so that readers will have a clear idea of what to expect as they read.

You can think of your thesis as a map or a guide both for yourself and your audience, so it might be helpful to draw a chart or picture of your ideas and how they're connected to help you get started.

As you write and revise your paper, it's okay to change your thesis statement -- sometimes you don't discover what you really want to say about a topic until you've started (or finished) writing! Just make sure that your "final" thesis statement accurately shows what will happen in your paper.

Analytical Thesis Statements

In an analytical paper, you are breaking down an issue or an idea into its component parts, evaluating the issue or idea, and presenting this breakdown and evaluation to your audience. An analytical thesis statement will explain:

what you are analyzing

the parts of your analysis

the order in which you will be presenting your analysis

Example: An analysis of barn owl flight behavior reveals two kinds of flight patterns: patterns related to hunting prey and patterns related to courtship.

A reader who encountered that thesis in a paper would expect an explanation of the analysis of barn owl flight behavior, and then an explanation of the two kinds of flight patterns.

Questions to ask yourself when writing an analytical thesis statement:

What did I analyze?

What did I discover in my analysis?

How can I categorize my discoveries?

In what order should I present my discoveries?

Expository (Explanatory) Thesis Statements

In an expository paper, you are explaining something to your audience. An expository thesis statement will tell your audience:

what you are going to explain to them

the categories you are using to organize your explanation

the order in which you will be presenting your categories

Example: The lifestyles of barn owls include hunting for insects and animals, building nests, and raising their young.

A reader who encountered that thesis would expect the paper to explain how barn owls hunt for insects, build nests, and raise young.

Questions to ask yourself when writing an expository thesis statement:

What am I trying to explain?

How can I categorize my explanation into different parts?

In what order should I present the different parts of my explanation?

Argumentative Thesis Statements

In an argumentative paper, you are making a claim about a topic and justifying this claim with reasons and evidence. This claim could be an opinion, a policy proposal, an evaluation, a cause-and-effect statement, or an interpretation. However, this claim must be a statement that people could possibly disagree with, because the goal of your paper is to convince your audience that your claim is true based on your presentation of your reasons and evidence. An argumentative thesis statement will tell your audience:

your claim or assertion

the reasons/evidence that support this claim

the order in which you will be presenting your reasons and evidence

Example: Barn owls' nests should not be eliminated from barns because barn owls help farmers by eliminating insect and rodent pests.

A reader who encountered this thesis would expect to be presented with an argument and evidence that farmers should not get rid of barn owls when they find them nesting in their barns.

Questions to ask yourself when writing an argumentative thesis statement:

What is my claim or assertion?

What are the reasons I have to support my claim or assertion?

In what order should I present my reasons?

Further Resources

For more about writing an argumentative paper, you might want to visit our research paper workshop, which covers writing research papers from start to finish.

Many writing centers and writing websites offer help with writing thesis statements. Here are some links to get you started.

This handout written by Erin Karper, August 2002

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owl online writing center grammar help esl writing lab punctuation citing sources research paper

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OWL at Purdue University: Writing a Thesis Statement

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A thesis statement is a sentence (or sentences) that expresses the main ideas of your paper and answers the question or questions posed by your paper. It offers your readers a quick and easy to follow summary of what the paper will be discussing and what you as a writer are setting out to tell them.

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EAP Foundation

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Reading Skim, scan, summarising, other skills

In academic study, especially at university, you will have vast amounts of reading for every course. If your only strategy is to read everything, one word at a time, you will never succeed. It is therefore important to develop strategies to improve reading speed. Other important skills will be needed, including note-taking and summarising, and you will need to learn to read critically. This section gives information on all of these, together with some information on two important academic reading exams, TOEFL and IELTS.

Like the website? Try the books. Enter your email to receive a free sample from Academic Writing Genres.

Author: Sheldon Smith ‖ Last modified: 16 January 2022.

Sheldon Smith is the founder and editor of EAPFoundation.com. He has been teaching English for Academic Purposes since 2004. Find out more about him in the about section and connect with him on Twitter, Facebook and LinkedIn.

Popular pages in the reading sectionMost viewed pages

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Reading: Skimming, Scanning, Summarising and other skills

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Reading Skim, scan, summarising, other skills In academic study, especially at university, you will have vast amounts of reading for every course. If your only strategy is to read everything, one word at a time, you will never succeed. It is therefore important to develop strategies to improve reading speed.

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EAP Foundation

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Writing skills

Writing at university can be a daunting task for many students. There is much to learn, such as different genres of writing ( reports, essays), how to write in an acceptable academic style, and paraphrasing and using references to avoid plagiarism. Despite the difficulties, writing can be made easier if you break the task down by following the writing process. The following pages will give you help on these aspects of writing, and more.

Like the website? Try the books. Enter your email to receive a free sample from Academic Writing Genres.

Author: Sheldon Smith ‖ Last modified: 22 January 2022.

Sheldon Smith is the founder and editor of EAPFoundation.com. He has been teaching English for Academic Purposes since 2004. Find out more about him in the about section and connect with him on Twitter, Facebook and LinkedIn.

Popular pages in the writing sectionMost viewed pages

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The Writing section covers different genres of writing such as reports and essays, how to write in an academic style, how to paraphrase and how to cite.

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EAP Foundation

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In academic writing you often have to summarise part of a book or journal article. It is one of three ways of using another writer's work in your own (the other two being quotation and paraphrase). Your summary may be just one or two sentences, to explain the main idea of the article or compare it with another text, or it might be much longer, up to 50% of the original. This section explains the steps in writing a summary, as well as giving some useful language for summary writing. There is also a checklist to help you check your summary.

For another look at the same content, check out the summary writing infographic ".

Steps in writing a summary

You cannot just read a text and produce a summary. If you do so, you will likely miss many of the main points, and include unnecessary detail. You may also fail to paraphrase appropriately, leading to a charge of plagiarism. In order to write an effective summary, you need to follow certain steps. This begins with skimming the text to get an overall idea. After this, you should read more carefully and highlight the main points and supporting points (but ignore supporting examples and details). After this you will take notes, in your own words. You are then ready to write the summary itself. When this is done your task is not, as you should check the summary to make sure you have included all the main points and have a reference to the source.

The following flowchart outlines the steps in writing a summary.

Language for summary writing

Although most of the language in the summary will depend on the content, there are some formulaic phrases which can be used in a summary to help to make it clearer. These can be divided into three types: theframe, which begins the summary;reminder phrases, which are used throughout the summary; andtransition signals, which are used in certain parts of the summary.

The frame

The frame is the main idea of the article. This is usually included in the first sentence, with a reference to the author and the main idea or argument of the text. You will also need to use a reporting verb. Some examples of frames are shown below, for an article titled "The Global Warming Crisis" by F. Brown, published in 2014. These use the Harvard style of referencing, but can be adapted to other styles.

According to Brown (2014), ...

Brown's (2014) article on global warming discusses...

Brown (2014), in his article "The Global Warming Crisis", argues that...

Reminder phrases

It is useful to remind the reader, especially in a longer summary, that you are summarising another text. This is done by using reminder phrases such as the ones shown below. Using these also helps to avoid plagiarism, as these phrases include a reference to the source, thus making clear that the ideas are not your own (a mistake many beginning academic writers make is to just include a reference at the beginning, but if the summary is long, this is not enough).

The author goes on to say that...

The article further states that...

The author further states that...

(Author's last name) also states/ maintains/ argues/ believes that...

(Author's last name) concludes that...

Note: In the last two examples, it is enough to include the author's name without the year (if using the Harvard or APA style of referencing, which require a year) as you have already given the year earlier in the summary, in the frame, and you do not need to repeat the year throughout the summary.

Transition signals

Pay attention to the organisation of the original text, and use appropriate transition signals when organising the ideas in your summary. For example, you may need comparison and contrast signals, cause and effect signals, classification signals, and so on.

Checklist

Below is a checklist for summarising. Use it to check your own summary, or get a peer (another student) to help you.

Summarising skills
All the main ideas and supporting points from the text have been included in the summary.

Supporting examples and details have not been included.

The text has been paraphrased enough to avoid plagiarism (no copied chunks).

Summary language
The summary includes a frame which states the main idea or argument of the summary.

If the summary is long, it includes reminder phrases.

Referencing skills
The paraphrase includes an in-text citation for the source text.

Meaning
The meaning of the text is the same as the original. The writer has not added their own opinion or comments in the summary.

Length
The length of the text is much shorter than the original.

References
Bailey, S. (2000) Academic Writing. Abingdon: RoutledgeFalmer

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A summary is shortened version of an original text. There are several steps involved in writing a summary, and some useful language structures.

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Guidelines for using IN-TEXT CITATIONS in a SUMMARY (or RESEARCH PAPER)

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Guidelines for using IN-TEXT CITATIONS in a SUMMARY (or RESEARCH PAPER)

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Christine Bauer-Ramazani

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Guidelines for using IN-TEXT CITATIONS in a SUMMARY (or RESEARCH PAPER ) Christine Bauer-Ramazani

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Think about where you focus best on your reading. This may be at home or in a calm place away from distractions, such as the Library.

Adapt your reading speed according to the text and the purpose of your reading. How fast you should go will depend on what you already know about the subject, how difficult the text is, and how thoroughly you need to understand it.

You cannot read intensively for hours. Divide up reading time into several sessions rather than a single long one. But if sessions are too short, you will not have time to get properly into the frame of thinking required. Observe and improve your own habits.
Veronika Second-year Psychology
Transcript

We will usually be doing research for an essay, for example, so it's important to use a wide variety of sources usually you'll have different theories and usually you'll read up on all of them and then maybe later focus on one but you'll need to know them all.

When you're reading it's really important to take notes because otherwise it might just go completely past you. I think making notes helps you.

I summarise or I'll put an extra point for something important or an idea I've had upon reading it and I think it's important because firstly you kind of concentrate more on the text because you're reading it more in depth.

And secondly if you're preparing for a seminar you can just before the seminar look at your notes and have a quick summary rather than having to read the entire thing again. Also for revision as well it's quite good to have that.
Jess View Jess's student perspective
Transcript

When you make notes the first time round often it is bit rushed in lectures. But if you take the time to go back through them again, even before you start revising for exams, and write out what you've written down and make sure you understand it it really helps me.

Particularly for certain chemistry reactions where you need to know exactly where things go. If you've made a little mistake it is better to find out sooner, when you copying out your notes again, rather than later just before your exam when you find out you have learnt it wrong.
Kalim Third-year English literature View Kalim's student perspective
Transcript

So reading is obviously a very important thing on my course, as it is on most courses. The way I've got better at reading is just to keep on doing it, to keep on forcing myself, little sections during the day.

Instead of saying I'm going to read for five hours thinking right I've got an hour now I'm going to read and then I'll do something else and then I'll read for another hour.

And also to realise when I'm not paying attention and that there is no point going on, if I really can't pay attention now then I'm best off doing something else and coming back to it later on.

Again making notes is a good way to keep yourself active. It does take longer to read a book if you're making notes with it but at the same time it probably balances out because you're concentrating more on the book so you're probably going to spend a lot less time day dreaming, like I do.

That would probably be my reading tips.
Tayo View Tayo's student perspective
Transcript

Once you get into the uni try and make friends with people on your course. So you can get together and start group reading or group discussion where everyone goes back home, reads this chapter and then you talk about it the next day.

You get a lot from each other doing that kind of group reading or discussion. But I believe that each individual has their own ways of reading or learning. Most people prefer reading through day or night.

But people like me, I can't do it. I prefer waking up in the morning and just reading a few pages, close the book, enjoy the rest of the day - by doing this I learn a lot.

Some people just prefer reading straight for hours but I can't read that straight. I like reading bit by bit. I realise that I always learn a lot from that.

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Reading strategies : Skills Hub: University of Sussex

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Think about where you focus best on your reading. This may be at home or in a calm place away from distractions, such as the Library. Adapt your reading speed according to the text and the purpose of your reading.

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Strategies for reading academic texts

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Strategies for reading academic texts
Try this with any text you need to read: Before reading
1. Think about your reasons for reading the text:

you are interested because it is about your subject, or it is related to your subject

you want background information, or detailed information

you want to know what the writer's views are

you are going to have a discussion

you are going to write an essay on this subject later

Each reason will influence the way you read e.g. quickly or slowly, looking for fact or opinion.

2. Look at the title, headline, any sub-headings, photos or illustrations. Use these to predict what the text will be about - the topic.

3. Think about what you already know on this topic.

4. Write down what you would like to find out from the text. You could write actual questions you would like answers to.

5. Make a note of words or phrases connected with the topic that you may find in the text.
Reading
1. Survey the text: read the first and last paragraphs and the beginning and final sentences of the other paragraphs.

How close were your predictions?

Do you have a very general idea of the structure of the text, what the different parts are about?

2. Identify your purpose for reading.

1. If you are looking for specific information, read the part where you think the information will be.

2. If you want a general idea of the whole text, read the whole text.

In both cases ignore words or sections you don't immediately understand.

You should now have a general idea of what the text is about and if it is going to be useful for you. Does it answer the question(s) you asked?

3. Write down in 1 or 2 sentences:

what you think the main ideas are

what your first reaction to the text is. Do you find it interesting, informative, well-argued, boring, illogical, inaccurate?

4. Do a second more careful reading, marking any new words that are important for your understanding.

Check on the main idea and revise what you wrote if necessary.

Decide what the subsidiary ideas are. How do they relate to the main idea? Put all the ideas together in linear notes, or as a mind map.
Vocabulary
With the new words which you think are important:

if an approximate meaning is enough,

try to guess the meaning using word function, context (immediate and wider) and word form

if the exact meaning is needed,

use a dictionary

ask another student, or your tutor

Difficult sentences
Divide the sentences where there are connectives or markers.

What do the connectives mean?

Underline reference words. What do they refer to?

Identify complex noun phrases.

Expand them using verbs and/or relative clauses so that they are easy to understand.

Find the subjects, verbs and objects which go together, and, if necessary, write the whole sentence out in several sentences to show the meaning.

After reading
1. Make a list of the new words which you think will be useful for you in the future. Give:

definitions of the words

indication of whether they are nouns, verbs, adjectives etc.

phrases in which the word occurs

other words with the same meaning

other forms of the words

e.g. counsellor (noun)=a person who gives help and support to people who have problems, an adviser [counsel (noun), to counsel]

2. Evaluate what you have read:

How does it fit into what you already think and know?

Does it confirm your ideas, add to them, conflict with them?

If there are opinions, do you agree or disagree with them?

Thanks to the English Language Centre, University of Exeter for this exercise.

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Try this with any text you need to read: Before reading 1. Think about your reasons for reading the text: you are interested because it is about your subject, or it is related to your subject you want background information, or detailed information you want to know what the writer's views are you are going to have a discussion you are going to write an essay on this subject later Each reason will influence the way you read e.g.

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Using English for Academic Purposes: Information and Advice for Students in Higher Education

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We are a globally renowned resource that provides assistance with English to students, teachers, professionals, and organizations across the world. Our goal is to assist clients in their development as writers - no matter their skill level.

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Purdue OWL® - Purdue OWL® - Purdue University

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We are a globally renowned resource that provides assistance with English to students, teachers, professionals, and organizations across the world. Our goal is to assist clients in their development as writers - no matter their skill level.

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Introduction

Almost all students will at some time be expected to write an essay, or some other kind of argument, e.g. a review or discussion section, in a longer piece of writing. In English, an essay is a piece of argumentative writing several paragraphs long written about one topic, usually based on your reading. The aim of the essay should be deduced strictly from the wording of the title or question (See Academic Writing: Understanding the Question), and needs to be defined at the beginning. The purpose of an essay is for you to say something for yourself using the ideas of the subject, for you to present ideas you have learned in your own way. The emphasis should be on working with other people's ideas, rather than reproducing their words, but your own voice should show clearly. The ideas and people that you refer to need to made explicit by a system of referencing.

According to Linda Flower (1990, p. v), "students are reading to create a text of their own, trying to integrate information from sources with ideas of their own, and attempting to do so under the guidance of a purpose."

Organisation

Your essay should have the following sections:

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1. Preliminaries

Before you start the main part of your essay or assignment, there should be a title page. The title page should contain information to enable your lecturer and departmental office or other reader to identify exactly what the piece of work is. It should include your name and course; the title of the assignment and any references; the lecturer it is for etc. Check with your department for clear information.

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2. Main text

English essays are linear:

- they start at the beginning and finish at the end, with every part contributing to the main line of argument, without digressions or repetition. Writers are responsible for making their line of argument clear and presenting it in an orderly fashion so that the reader can follow. Each paragraph discusses one major point and each paragraph should lead directly to the next. The paragraphs are tied together with an introduction and a conclusion.

The main text of the essay has three main parts:

1. An introduction

2. A main body

3. A conclusion

1. It should include a few general statements about the subject to provide a background to your essay and to attract the reader's attention. It should try to explain why you are writing the essay. It may include a definition of terms in the context of the essay, etc.

2. It should also include a statement of the specific subdivisions of the topic and/or indication of how the topic is going to be tackled in order to specifically address the question.

II. The main body.

The main body consists of one or more paragraphs of ideas and arguments. Each paragraph develops a subdivision of the topic. The paragraphs of the essay contain the main ideas and arguments of the essay together with illustrations or examples. The paragraphs are linked in order to connect the ideas. The purpose of the essay must be made clear and the reader must be able to follow its development.

1. It should recall the issues raised in the introduction and draw together the points made in the main body

2. and explain the overall significance of the conclusions. What general points can be drawn from the essay as a whole?

It should clearly signal to the reader that the essay is finished and leave a clear impression that the purpose of the essay has been achieved.

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PRELIMINARIES

↓

I. INTRODUCTION

General Statement
Organisation Statement

↓

II. MAIN BODY

A. Introductory Sentence
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3
...
Concluding Sentence

↓

B. Introductory Sentence
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3
...
Concluding Sentence

↓

C. Introductory Sentence
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3
...
Concluding Sentence

↓

III. CONCLUSION

Recall issues in introduction;
draw together main points;
final comment.

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3. End Matter

At the end of the essay, there should be a list of references. This should give full information about the materials that you have used in the assignment. See Writing a list of references for more information on the reference list.

Ways of organising essays.

Essays are organised differently according to their purpose. Essays can be divided into the following main types.

1. The descriptive essay

a. Description of object or place b. Describing a sequence of events. c. Describing a process d. Describing and explaining

2. The argument essay

a. The balanced view b. The persuasive essay c. The to what extent essay.

3. Compare and contrast essays

a. The contrast essay b. The compare essay c. The compare and contrast essays

1. The descriptive essay

a. Description of object or place

Describe essays require you to state the appearance of something, or to state the major characteristics of it. Note the word state i.e. you are not asked to comment on the subject or to give your personal point of view on it. Questions are often introduced by:

Describe ....
Narrate...
Tell....

Plan:

See: Academic Writing: Functions - Describing objects, locations & directions

b. Describing a sequence of events.

Describing a sequence of events is simply telling a story.

State clearly when events happened or how one event caused another. Questions may be introduced by:

Give an account of...
Trace...
Examine developments in...

See: Academic Writing: Functions - Reporting & narrating

c. Describing a process

This is like telling a story but here the connections between the facts must be clearly shown and explained. Group the events into steps or stages.

Examples of such questions are :

Explain/What is the connection between...
Describe the procedures by which...

See: Academic Writing: Functions - Describing processes & developments

d. Describing and explaining

Some of the words and phrases which introduce this type of description are:

Explain the causes/reasons....
Account for....
Analyse the causes....
Comment on (the reasons for)....
Show that....
Show why...
Examine the effect of....
Suggest reasons for....
Why did...?
What are the implications of...?
Discuss the causes of....
Discuss the reasons for....

When we are asked to describe or explain causes, factors, functions or results, the examiner wants us to group our facts. Similar causes are put together, for instance the economic causes of a situation. There are basically two main ways to organise this type of essay.

The question is "Describe the causes of A. Illustrate your answer by specific examples."

i.

ii.

See: Academic Writing: Functions - Expressing reasons and explanations / cause and effect

2. The argument essay

There are two main methods of presenting an argument, and in general the one you choose will depend on exactly how the essay title is worded.

a. The balanced view

If the essay title begins with something like:

Give the arguments for and against....
Assess the importance of....
Examine the arguments for and against....
What are the advantages and disadvantages of...?
Evaluate....
Critically examine the statement that....
To what extent is...true?

or even just the word
Discuss....

then it is clear that a balanced essay is required. That is to say you should present both sides of an argument, without necessarily committing yourself to any points of view, which should always be based on evidence, until the final paragraph.

At its simplest your essay plan will be as follows:

See: Academic Writing: Functions - Arguing and discussing; - Expressing degrees of certainty; - Generalising; - Comparing and contrasting: similarities and differences; - Giving examples

b. The persuasive essay

This second type of argumentative essay involves stating your own point of view immediately, and trying to convince the reader by reasoned argument that you are right. Perhaps the essay title will begin with something like:

Give your views on....
What do you think about...?
Do you agree that...?
Consider whether....

Or perhaps the title itself will be so controversial that everyone will hold a definite opinion in one direction or another.

The form of the essay will be, in outline, as follows:

See: Academic Writing: Functions - Arguing and discussing; - Expressing degrees of certainty; - Generalising; - Comparing and contrasting: similarities and differences; - Giving examples

c. The to what extent essay

In this type of essay the examiner is giving you a statement. It is obviously true but truth is never 100%. You must decide how true it is? Are there some areas where you disagree with the statement. If so, describe how far you agree, and your points of agreement and disagreement. Words used in the question are:

To what extent ....
How true ....
How far do you agree....

A possible answer structure is:

See: Academic Writing: Functions - Arguing and discussing; - Expressing degrees of certainty; - Generalising; - Comparing and contrasting: similarities and differences; - Giving examples

3. Compare and contrast essays.

a The Contrast essay

Contrast or distinguish between questions usually present you with two or more terms, instruments, concepts or procedures that are closely connected, and sometimes confused. The purpose of the essay is to explain the differences between them. The question may be of the form:

Contrast ....
Distinguish between ...
What is the difference between....
What are the differences between....
How are ... and ... different?

A suitable answer structure would be:

See: Academic Writing: Functions - Comparing and contrasting: similarities and differences; - Defining; - Generalising; - Giving examples

b. The Compare essay

Compare questions usually present you with two or more terms, instruments, concepts or procedures that are closely connected, and sometimes confused. The purpose of the essay is to explain the similarities between them. Words used are:

Compare ....
What features do ... and ... have in common?
What are the similarities between....
How are ... and ... similar?

A suitable answer structure would be:

See: Academic Writing: Functions - Comparing and contrasting: similarities and differences; - Defining; - Generalising; - Giving examples

c. The compare and contrast essay

Compare and contrast essays require you to indicate areas in which the things to be compared are similar and different.

Compare and contrast....

There are two main ways to answer such questions:

i.

ii.

See: Academic Writing: Functions - Comparing and contrasting: similarities and differences; - Defining; - Generalising; - Giving examples

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Exercise

Plan answers for some of the questions in Understanding the question: Examples of questions.

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Back to Introduction

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Almost all students will at some time be expected to write an essay, or some other kind of argument, e.g. a review or discussion section, in a longer piece of writing. In English, an essay is a piece of argumentative writing several paragraphs long written about one topic, usually based on your reading.