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The objective of English literacy in Malaysia covers the use of English in written and spoken forms, to understand various types of texts and to appreciate the aesthetic element of the language (Hazita, 2004)

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With the implementation of Malay as the sole medium of instruction in national schools, English was taught as merely a subject. Two decades later, when the government realized that there were some general decline in students’ competency in English, various measures were taken. This included the introduction of SelfAccess-Learning Centres (SAL), Extensive Reading Programmes, Class Reader Programmes, English Hours, Children’s Contemporary Literature Programme, and the introduction of literature component in English syllabus, the imposing of Malaysian University English Test (MUET) for pre-universities and matriculation centres, and finally the teaching of Mathematics and Science subjects in English in 2003.

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• National Language Act
After Independence in 1957, the government of Malaysia set out on a program to establish Bahasa Melayu as official language, to be used in all government functions and as the medium of instruction at all levels.
• In 1957 the government permeated the new system of school which distinguished two types of school: the national and national-type schools.
(1) national school was supported by the government for
employing Malay language as the medium of the instruction
(2) national-type schools were conducted with other vernacular languages including English as the medium of instruction.
This policy was limited only for primary education, as for the next level (secondary and higher education), Malay language was used for the medium of instruction.

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The Education Act of 1996 and the Private Higher education Institution Act

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The Education Act of 1996 and the Private Higher education Institution Act

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The language medium policy in Malaysia includes English as the medium of instruction across levels both in national and private school, in science and technology courses and also with overseas institutions and offshore campuses.

-The 2002 language policy to teach Science and Mathematics in English language from 2003 onwards.
This applies not only at tertiary levels but also during the first year of primary schooling. Despite all these, the Malays stipulated that the Bahasa Malaysia, their national language, be a mandatory subject in the private schools for it not to be overpowered by the foreign language.

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Language education policies in contemporary
Vietnam reflect the current status of the
languages spoken in the country. They can be categorised according to three main areas:
(i) policies for Vietnamese – the national language,
(ii) rules and regulations regarding language
education for
ethnic minority people, and
(iii) policies pertaining to the teaching and learning of foreign languages, among which English takes a primary position.

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The Education Law clearly specifies, “compulsory foreign languages included in the national curriculum are those commonly used in international transactions” (Socialist Republic of Vietnam 2005). This policy demonstrates proper awareness of the close- knit connection between language learning demands and national economic and social
development. Since 1994, English, French, Russian, and Chinese have been considered by the government
as the four main foreign languages to be taught at primary and secondary levels (H. Bui 2005).

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As the de facto national language and the language of the majority Kinh, Vietnamese assumes utmost importance in the country’s education. According to the Vietnam Education Law, “Vietnamese is the ofﬁcial medium of instruction in the public school system and other edu-cational organisations in the country” (Socialist Republic of Vietnam 2005). At school level, Vietnamese is used to teach all science and social science courses. Vietnamese Studies sub-jects are also core components of the national curriculum, some examples of which include Vietnamese, Vietnamese literature, and Vietnamese composition. In these courses, students learn about the phonetics, grammar, and vocabulary of Vietnamese; they also work with well-written Vietnamese poetry and prose, as well as learn to write ﬂuently in the language. In recent years, the status of the Vietnamese language has, however, been challenged due to the increasing prevalence and expanding inﬂuence of foreign languages.

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English is promoted as the most important foreign language across all levels of Vietnamese education. A recently launched national project entitled “Teaching and learning foreign lan-guages in the public education system from 2008 to 2020” (henceforth Project 2020) speciﬁes that “English is the foreign language to be taught and learnt in public educational organisations, among others” (Socialist Republic of Vietnam 2008). English is a mandatory subject across the Vietnamese public school system from Grades 6 to 12 of secondary education. At primary level, since 1996 it has been introduced as a subject from Grade 3 in many provinces, and is expected to become compulsory for all third-graders nationwide in the near future (T. N. T. Bui & T. M. H. Nguyen 2015). At tertiary level, English can be learnt as a major or a subject (see Hoang 2010). English major students can study for a bachelor, master, or doctoral degree in English linguistics or English teaching.