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“A Culture Muted.” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 13 Oct. 2001, www.theguardian.com/world/2001/oct/13/afghanistan.books.

“Afghanistan - United States Department of State.” U.S. Department of State, 2 June 2022, www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/afghanistan/

“Afghanistan Refugee Crisis Explained.” How to Help Refugees - Aid, Relief and Donations, www.unrefugees.org/news/afghanistan-refugee-crisis-explained/

“Afghanistan Refugees: Facts & Crisis News: USA FOR UNHCR.” Afghanistan Refugees: Facts & Crisis News | USA for UNHCR, www.unrefugees.org/emergencies/afghanistan/

“Afghanistan: Barbed Wire Borders and the ‘desert of Death’ - the Dangerous Escape Routes Facing Refugees Fleeing the Taliban.” Sky News, Sky, 3 Sept. 2021, news.sky.com/story/afghanistan-barbed-wire-borders-and-the-desert-of-death-the-dangerous-escape-routes-facing-refugees-fleeing-the-taliban-12398215. Accessed 17 May 2023.

“Cost of Living in United States Compared to Pakistan.” MyLifeElsewhere, www.mylifeelsewhere.com/cost-of-living/united-states/pakistan#:~:text=Pakistan%20is%2081.5%25%20cheaper%20than%20United%20States.&text=United%20States%20vs.,-Russia&text=United%20States%20vs.,-Australia&text=United%20States%20vs.,-Vietnam.

Crossette, Barbara. “Taliban Explains Buddha Demolition.” The New York Times, 19 Mar. 2001, www.nytimes.com/2001/03/19/world/taliban-explains-buddha-demolition.html.

Deaton, Jennifer, and Sheena McKenzie. “Death Toll Rises to 85 in Afghanistan Girls’ School Bomb Attack.” CNN, Cable News Network, 10 May 2021, www.cnn.com/2021/05/09/asia/afghanistan-girls-school-attack-intl-hnk/index.html.

Ghani, Amel. “Pakistan Steps up Crackdown on Afghan Refugees, Adds New Restrictions.” The New Humanitarian, 23 Mar. 2023, www.thenewhumanitarian.org/news-feature/2023/03/23/pakistan-crackdown-afghan-refugees.

“Here’s Where Afghan Evacuees Have Resettled in the U.S.” CBS News, CBS Interactive, www.cbsnews.com/news/afghan-evacuees-resettled-us-texas-california-virginia/#:~:text=Washington%20state%2C%20Pennsylvania%2C%20New%20York,evacuees%2C%20collectively%20resettling%2011%2C721%20Afghans.

Hendricks, Kern. “A Rare Glimpse into Afghanistan’s Spectacular, Vanishing Forests.” Scientific American, 26 Apr. 2023, www.scientificamerican.com/article/a-rare-glimpse-into-afghanistans-spectacular-vanishing-forests/.

“Hosting 700k Afghans Will Cost $2.2 B for 3 Years.” The Express Tribune, 18 July 2021, tribune.com.pk/story/2311234/hosting-700k-afghans-will-cost-22-b-for-3-years.

“Hosting 700k Afghans Will Cost $2.2 B for 3 Years.” The Express Tribune, 18 July 2021, tribune.com.pk/story/2311234/hosting-700k-afghans-will-cost-22-b-for-3-years.

Nguyen, Hanh, et al. “Unable to Leave: The Afghans Stuck in Afghanistan.” – The Diplomat, For The Diplomat, 13 Oct. 2022, thediplomat.com/2022/10/unable-to-leave-the-afghans-stuck-in-afghanistan/#:~:text=A%20lack%20of%20safe%2C%20legal,process%20is%20complicated%20and%20costly. Accessed 17 May 2023.

“Overview.” Paani, www.paaniproject.org/sanitation-and-water-access-for-pakistans-afghan-refugees/#:~:text=Refugee%20Settlements%20and%20Camps&text=Pakistan%20officially%20terms%20these%20settlements,refugee%20camps%20in%20the%20world.

“Pakistan’s Disastrous Floods Uproot Refugees and Citizens.” UNHCR, www.unhcr.org/news/stories/pakistans-disastrous-floods-uproot-refugees-and-citizens.

U.S. Employers’ Guide to Hiring Afghan Refugees - Lirs, www.lirs.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/Tent_US-Guide-to-Hiring-Afghan-Refugees-AW_Web.pdf.

“What Is the Taliban?” Council on Foreign Relations, www.cfr.org/backgrounder/taliban-afghanistan#:~:text=The%20Taliban%20returned%20to%20power,rights%20and%20neglected%20basic%20services.

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There are both negative and positive cultural impact brought in by the resettlement of the Afghan refugees.
One negative social impact is that some people in America may have a negative impression of individuals who wear hijab, which is a headscarf worn by Muslim women for religious purposes. The negative impression could have been planted from the 911 attack carried out by Al-Qaeda with the support of the Taliban. This resulted in Americans to have misconceptions about Islamic culture and Afghan refugees may be neglected due to this.
However, there are also many positive impacts. One positive social impact will be increased cultural diversities. Resettlements of Afghan refugees can result in new perspectives and cultural diversity to the US, which may help to foster greater appreciation for the environment and promote conservation efforts. This then resulted in having Afghan cuisines introduced in the United States could be an example of cultural impact where it can provide an opportunity for cultural exchange and appreciation, as well as a chance to experience the unique flavors and traditions of Afghan cuisine.  Another example of increased cultural diversity can be referred to the Art and music cultural exchange: Afghan refugees may bring with them a rich cultural heritage of art, music, and other creative expressions, which can contribute to the cultural landscape of their new communities.

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United States - environmental impact (end)

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United States - environmental impact (end)

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There are some negative environmental impacts brought by the resettlement.  Firstly, increased waste generation. Resettlement can lead to population density in certain areas of the United States which results in waste generation, which can contribute to pollution and other environmental problems. The resettlement also affected the change in land use. Having some of the Afghan refugees settle in rural areas, may require the conversion of natural habitats or agricultural land to residential or commercial use, which can have negative impacts on local ecosystems and biodiversity.
One positive environmental impact is the more diverse language used in public signs. There are more Afghan restaurants and stores introduced in the United States and this could be seen as an urban environmental impact where there are more signs written in Afghan languages.

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United States - settlement activity (end)

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United States - settlement activity (end)

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The settlement of the Afghan refugees in United States is an example of physical settlement. Afghan refugees who are resettled in the United States can be placed in communities across the country, depending on a variety of factors such as the availability of housing, employment opportunities, and support services. According to the international State Department statistics, Texas, California and Virginia took in the greatest number of Afghan refugees in 2022, with each states accepting 10,494, 8,301 and 5,171 refugees accordingly. During the process of resettlement, the US government has plans to prioritize certain categories of Afghan refugees which are SIV holders (worked for the US government or military in Afghanistan and are at risk of persecution or retaliation due to their employment), women and children.
One example of cultural settlement can be the education for the Afghan refugees. The newly settled Afghan refugees will need to be enrolled into school or additional language classes to master English.

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United States - costs and benefits (end)

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United States - costs and benefits (end)

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Costs:
Explicit:
Some economical explicit costs include the high cost of living in United States. The cost of living is much higher in the United States than Pakistan. According to MyLifeElseWhere, the living expenses in Pakistan is 81.5% cheaper than United States. Furthermore, the transportation fees to move to the United States are also very expensive as there is a long distance going to the United States from Pakistan.
Another explicit cost is the complicity in getting travel visas. There are many steps in the process for the Afghan refugees to resettle which includes getting immigrant visas, special immigrant visas and after getting the travel visas, the resettlement agencies must approve the visas. Overall, the process of resettling Afghan refugees in the United States is complex and can take years to complete.

Implicit:
Moving to United States, refugees may still face discrimination and prejudice due to their religion in America, and they may have lack of language skills. Adding on, The refugees will need to rebuild or find a new community to join when the resettle in United States.

Benefits:
Explicit:
First explicit benefit is that more job/ economic opportunities will be available for Afghan refugees. Recently, some American countries are looking to hire Afghan refugees to build a more innovative and diverse workplace. They believe having a better diversity can spur the development of innovation with the different culture backgrounds they all have. Furthermore, Afghan refugees will have better living conditions: The U.S. government collaborates with nine refugee resettlement organizations across the nation that assist Afghans in assimilating into American society by assisting them in finding new homes, enrolling their children in schools, and finding employment.

Implicit:
Moving to a physically far country, the Afghan refugees may be more hopeful in their life due to the new branches of opportunities they are opened to. The Afghan refugees will be able to join in new communities and adapt to a more diverse environment.

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Choices:
The United States have a long history of accepting refugees from different places of the world and the Afghan refugees tend to be one of them. Recently, many Afghan refugees resettled in the United States. According to data from the US Department of State, between 2002 and 2020, a total of 39,745 Afghan refugees were resettled in the US.

Incentives:
There are three main incentives. First for safety and security asmany Afghans may still feel unsafe after fleeing to surrounding countries so they would move to United States for better protection. Secondly for family reunion purposes. Lastly for humanitarian assistance. Resettling in the United States, they can provide Afghan refugees with access to humanitarian assistance, including housing, food, healthcare, and other support services.

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The United States has provided more than $273 million in humanitarian aid to Pakistani host communities and Afghan refugees since 2002.
Through this U.S. aid, more Afghan and Pakistani children are attending school in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan, Pakistani health care services are being improved, nutrition programs are being strengthened in regions that are hosting Afghans, refugees and host communities are encouraged to engage in livelihood activities, the infrastructure for water, sanitation, and hygiene is being improved, and the COVID-19 pandemic's effects on health and the economy are being recovered from.

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One example of social impact is that most of the Afghan refugee’s practice Islamic culture and they tend to avoid the consumption of pork or any food/ drink containing pork. However, during the journey of fleeing to Pakistan, they may have the need to consume pork since there had limited food sources. The consumption of pork during the journey would be considered as a sin and the violation of Islamic dietary law. The devastating journey of migration could result in the Afghan refugee to violate a religious practice which could be connected to an example of a cultural impact.

Another example of social impact is that having the Afghans fleeing to Pakistan refugee camps resulted in the blending of Afghan and Pakistani cultures. The Afghan refugees have brought in their unique cultural practices and traditions including music, dance, and cuisines. This resulted in a more diversity culture acceptance in Pakistan and the fusion of two cultures. With this, the Afghan refugees were able to preserve their cultural identity even after moving to Pakistan.

One example of demographic aspect is that Afghan refugees were able to receive educations on the Pakistan language which now allows them to navigate both Afghan and Pakistani cultures.

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Pakistan - environmental impact (middle)

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Pakistan - environmental impact (middle)

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One environmental impact during the journey of fleeing to Pakistan is correlated to the crossings from Afghanistan to Pakistan. There are two main crossings for Afghans to get to Pakistan: Torkham and Spin Boldak. However, both crossings are highly difficult to reach. In between the crossings, there four-metre-high barriers consisting of two sets of chain-link fences separated by a space filled with coils of razor wire and topped with surveillance cameras. Even if the Afghans get through the crossings, or the fences, the border region which they must go pass is in mountainous terrain or desert terrain.

One example of environmental impact that occurred after the gradual settlement of the Afghans is flooding. In 2022, more than 800000 Afghan refugees had been hit by the devastating flooding. Government statistics indicate that more than 287,000 houses have been demolished, and an additional 662,000 residences have sustained damage, along with the loss of 735,000 livestock and 2 million acres of flooded crops. The communication infrastructure has also suffered considerable harm.

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Devastating floods in Pakistan is putting millions at risk | UNICEF

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Fleeing to Pakistan is an example of a physical settlement activity.
The UNHCR have branch office located in many different cities of Pakistan which supports and provide services for the 54 refugee villages in the country. According to the UNHCR, there are 1,285,754 registered Afghan refugees remained in Pakistan in 2022. The data shows the settlement of Afghan refugees in Pakistan.

Adding on, the Panian Refugee camp in Haripur is currently the home for over 60000 refugees and is registered as one of the ten largest refugee camp in the world today. This is an example of physical settlement activity because it requires a huge amount of physical infrastructure to keep the camp safe and effective.

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Costs:
Explicit:

There are many explicit costs in order for the Afghan refugees to settle in Pakistan refugee camps. Firstly, the Afghan refugees need to receive the Proof of Registration (POR) card to legally stay in Pakistan and to be protected from police harassments. These official documents can only be granted after the UNHCR has evaluated their asylum case and determined their refugee status. However, the UNHCR's processing backlog is causing significant delays in interviews, leaving many refugees at risk, especially since the two-year visa amnesty expired at the end of 2022. If the refugees are caught, they would either bribe and pay off the police officers or would be thrown into jails if they are financially unstable.
Secondly, the cost to accept Afghan refugees are high. According to a policy document, it is shown that the expense of accommodating 700,000 Afghan refugees in secure and isolated camps would be approximately $2.2 billion over a three-year timeframe. This cost covers various aspects such as registration, transportation, camp administration, food, and other essential amenities for sustenance.

Lastly, there are limited job and economic opportunities due to legal restrictions, language barriers, discrimination, and lack of resources. Additionally, due to the policy in Pakistan, refugees are hardly restricted to travel outside of the refugee camps and need approved documents to do so.

Implicit:

The sudden change of environment for the Afghan refugees could result in negative impacts on their mental and physical health as they often feel uncertain about their future.

Benefits:
Explicit:

Though the conditions of the refugee camps may not necessarily be good, the UNHCR are in collaboration with the Pakistan government and NGOs to provide basic community-based services like primary school education, basic health care, and sanitation for the Afghan refugees. This could help improve the living standards in camps and the Afghans are not protected from the violent circumstances in Afghanistan.

Adding on, settling in a new country can be an opportunity to rebuild. Although it may be difficult to find employment or other opportunities in the camps, living in Pakistan can provide Afghans with a safe place to rebuild their lives and plan for their future.

Implicit:

Staying in a refugee camp could provide a sense of community for the Afghan refugees. This allows the Afghan refugees rely on other refugees for assistance and to share common experiences. The sense of togetherness would allow them to feel more welcomed and included in a new community.

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Afghanistan - costs and benefits (origin)

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Afghanistan - costs and benefits (origin)

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Costs:
Explicit:
The first explicit cost is that refugees left behind most of their belongings and livelihoods. Another explicit cost is the transportation fees. In order for Afghans to flee their country, they need to pay for their transportation costs to reach a neighbouring country. For instance, they may need to pay for taxi fees or hire smugglers to help cross borders. Adding on, the fee to obtain visa is highly expensive (the diplomat)

Implicit:
One main implicit cost is when refugees left behind their community and are now separated from some members of their community. According to the UNHCR, “Registered Afghan refugees and asylum-seekers: 2.4 million, 41% women and 40% children” (2023 situation overview). The data shows the vast majority of refugees are women and children and this could suggest families could have been separated. Leaving their old environment will require the Afghan refugees to adapt into a new community.

Benefits:
Explicit:
There are many explicit benefits for the Afghans to flee their country. For instance, refugees are protected from the increasing physical violence in Afghanistan and have a higher chance of survival in the new country. There are organisations, such as Welcome.US, UNICEF, SAR, that are supporting new refugees with resources, cash assistance, shelters and many more. Another benefit will be that there will be more economic opportunities, there could be better job opportunities in a more stable country.

Implicit:
Some implicit benefits will be reunification with family members who have already fled or have been living in neighbouring countries. Also for having more rights for women, having the rights to access education.

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Afghanistan - choice and incentives (origin)

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Afghanistan - choice and incentives (origin)

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Choice:

By the end of 2021, more than 6 million Afghans are displaced or fleeing the country.  “3.5 million were displaced within Afghanistan while 2.6 million were hosted as refugees, accounting for one of the largest protracted refugee situations in the world.” (UNHCR). In order for the Afghans to receive safety and protection most fled to Iran and Pakistan.

Incentives:
There isn’t a particular incentive for fleeing Afghanistan as the country was extremely volatile and unstable due to the Taliban’s takeover of Kabul in August 2021. This led to many Afghans leaving the country as a result of conflict, persecution, or other forms of violence. During the escape, most Afghans were driven by a combination of fear, insecurity, and a lack of viable options. Another incentive for the Afghans to flee the country is for the safety of family members and for women and young children to gain human rights. Women and young children flee the country for their rights as the Taliban has strict restrictions on women and girls. For instance, girls are not allowed to attend school and sometimes women are beaten to punish their family members.

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One example of historical impact is having the Taliban takeover Afghanistan could lead to further destruction of historical sites. There are many cultural sites existing and preserved in Afghanistan, however, some of the historical sites had previously been destroyed by the Taliban. For instance, Buddhas at Bamiyan, monumental statues, had been destroyed by the Taliban. Having the Taliban rise in power again raised concerns for further damage to historical monuments and increase acts of cultural vandalism.

One example of demographic impact is the impact on religious minorities: There are several religious minority groups in Afghanistan such as Hindus, Sikhs, Baha’is, Christians, Buddhists, and Zoroastrians. The Taliban have laid restrictions on minority groups. For instance, they forbade non-Muslims from building new places of worship and had limited hours of operation for businesses owned by minority religious group members.

One example of social impact is censorship and cultural expression. The Taliban's rule in Afghanistan has been characterized by strict censorship of artistic expression, particularly music, art, and literature that is deemed to be contrary to their interpretation of Islamic law. For example, the Taliban banned music and other forms of entertainment except for religious music. According to Dr John Baily, music has played a significant part in Afghan culture in keeping the ethnically diverse country together. With the loss of music, could also suggest the loss of Afghan culture and history.

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Afghanistan - environmental impact (origin)

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Afghanistan - environmental impact (origin)

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There were many environmental impacts that occurred when many Afghans were displaced due to the Taliban takeover. Firstly, the loss of biodiversity. According to UNHCR, more than 3.2 million people have been displaced. If the displaced populations are forced in rural areas with sensitive ecological habitats, the settlement of people could destroy the natural habitats.
Secondly, many suicide bombings carried out by the Taliban have occurred in Afghanistan destroying civilian’s infrastructures. On May 8th, 2021, Taliban carried out a suicide bombing on the Sayed Al-Shuhada School in Kabul. This attack targeted an all-girls school. The attack caused significant damage on the school’s infrastructure.

Lastly, the Taliban takeover led to deforestation in Afghanistan. The Taliban has been accused of illegal logging in areas under their control to generate more income from illegal timber trade; For many years, various factions competing for control in eastern Afghanistan have relied on the illegal trade of timber as an important source of revenue. Adding on, the lack of governance in the country is allowing more illegal loggers to contribute to illegal logging which is leading to severe case of deforestation in Afghanistan.  Deforestation has significant environmental consequences, including the loss of biodiversity, soil erosion, and the release of greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change. This can then result in social and economic consequences in rural areas where people rely on forests daily.

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The death toll in a bomb attack that targeted schoolgirls in Kabul on Saturday has risen to 85, Afghan officials told CNN on Monday.

Another 147 people were wounded in the attack in front of the Sayed Al-Shuhada school, said Danish Hedayat, head of media for the second vice president of Afghanistan.

A car bomb was detonated in the neighborhood of Dasht-e-Barchi, and two more bombs exploded when students rushed out in panic.

There has been no official claim of responsibility yet. The Taliban has denied being behind Saturday evening's blasts.

Conflict is raging in Afghanistan, with security forces in daily combat with the Taliban, who have waged war to overthrow the foreign-backed government since they were ousted from power in Kabul in 2001.

Although the United States did not meet a May 1 withdrawal deadline agreed in talks with the Taliban last year, its military pullout has begun, with President Joe Biden announcing that all troops will be gone by September 11.

But the foreign troop withdrawal has led to a surge in fighting between Afghan security forces and Taliban insurgents. Critics of the decision say the Islamist militants will make a grab for power and civilians live in fear of being subjected once more to brutal and oppressive Taliban rule.

Some of the girls 'could not be found'

The area where the blasts happened is home to a large community of Shiites from the Hazara ethnic minority, which has been targeted in the past by Islamic State, a Sunni militant group.

Officials said most of those killed were schoolgirls. Some families were still searching hospitals for their children on Sunday.

"The first blast was powerful and happened so close to the children that some of them could not be found," an Afghan official, requesting anonymity, told Reuters.

On Sunday, civilians and policemen collected books and school bags strewn across a blood-stained road now busy with shoppers ahead of celebrations for Eid al-Fitr next week.

Bodies were still being collected from morgues as the first burials were conducted in the west of the city. Some families were still gathering Sunday outside hospitals to read names posted on the walls, and checking morgues.

"The entire night we carried bodies of young girls and boys to a graveyard and prayed for everyone wounded in the attack," said Mohammed Reza Ali, who has been helping families of the victims at a private hospital. "Why not just kill all of us to put an end to this war?" he added.

Nekbakht, 18, was one of the pupils killed while studying at the school on Saturday. Her brother Mukhtar, 20, told CNN that the family lives close to the school and came rushing out when they heard a loud explosion - only to see another blast.

On Sunday the family buried Nekbakht near their house. "It was a tough day," Mukhtar said. "We are fed up with this situation. Every day we face terrible incidents - especially we Hazara people."

Another schoolgirl, 12-year-old Zahara, was also injured in her arm and head in the attack.

Her uncle, Sadeq Baqhere, who lives a few hundred meters from the school, told CNN she was admitted to hospital for surgery and returned on Monday.

Baqhere described hospitals overwhelmed with hundreds of injured and dozens of killed patients. He said the family "totally blames the government" for not providing security for its people.

"Our enemies are stronger than before," he said, adding that the situation would continue to deteriorate as foreign forces left the country.

Mukhtar believes the situation will get worse as US troops exit Afghanistan.

"We want everyone to enroll their children in schools, and show them that they cannot prevent us from education," he said of the perpetrators.

Security was intensified across Kabul after the attack, but authorities said they would not be able to provide protection to all schools, mosques and other public places.

Afghan President Ashraf Ghani on Saturday blamed Taliban insurgents, but a spokesman for the group denied involvement and condemned any attacks on civilians.

Pope Francis called the attack an "inhuman act" in remarks to pilgrims in St. Peter's Square in Vatican City on Sunday.

United Nations Secretary-General Antonio Guterres also condemned the attack and expressed his deepest sympathies to the victims' families and to the Afghan government and people.

On Sunday, the Taliban announced a three-day ceasefire through Eid al-Fitr, the Muslim holiday observed at the end of Ramadan.

World powers weigh in

The United States condemned what it described as the "barbarous attack" at the school and called for an "immediate end to violence and the senseless targeting of innocent civilians."

"We will continue to support and partner with the people of Afghanistan, who are determined to see to it that the gains of the past two decades aren't erased," the statement from the US State Department said.

On Twitter, China's ambassador to Afghanistan, Wang Yu, said the abrupt US announcement of a complete withdrawal of forces had led to a succession of attacks throughout the country.

"China calls on foreign troops in Afghanistan to take into full account the security of people in the country and the region, pull out in a responsible manner and avoid inflicting more turmoil and suffering on the Afghan people," he said.

Condemning the killing of civilians, India's foreign ministry said the bombing represented an attack on the future of Afghanistan.

"The perpetrators clearly seek to destroy the painstaking and hard-won achievements that the Afghans have put in place over the last two decades," a statement said.

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Death toll rises to 85 in Afghanistan girls' school bomb attack | CNN

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The death toll in a bomb attack that targeted schoolgirls in Kabul on Saturday has risen to 85, Afghan officials told CNN on Monday. Another 147 people were wounded in the attack in front of the Sayed Al-Shuhada school, said Danish Hedayat, head of media for the second vice president of Afghanistan.

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Afghanistan - settlement activity (origin)

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Afghanistan - settlement activity (origin)

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The withdrawal of US troops was completed in August 2021, following a peace agreement signed between the United States and the Taliban in February 2020. This led to the subsequent collapse of the Afghan government due to the lack of support from international partners. Since the Afghan government was highly dependent on the international support from United States, the withdraw of United States made it difficult for the Afghan government to sustain effective institutions and security forces. This event then led to a weak governance in Afghanistan, which formed a power vacuum that the Taliban was able to exploit. They started taking control over rural areas and returned to power in 2021. Under their control, they have rebuilt harsh restrictions on the women’s rights policies. Women in Afghanistan were denied basic human rights and many women were arrested for violating discriminatory policies.  Adding on, the rise in power of Taliban also resulted in suicide bombings, assassinations and increased violence which brought instability and lack of safety in Afghanistan.

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before and after image showing the change in womens rights

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Afghanistan - brief background knowledge

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Afghanistan - brief background knowledge

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For over four decades, Afghanistan has been plagued by conflict, natural disasters, chronic poverty, and food insecurity, in addition to the recent COVID-19 pandemic and the recent change in government authorities. The unstable state led up to the Taliban's seizure of power in Kabul (capital of Afghanistan) in August 2021 which has exacerbated the conflict and violence in the country.