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The Second Opium War began with China rebelling in small, petty ways, and Britain gathering its allies who held grudges against China to attack them. These allied powers (USA, France, Britain, and Russia) quickly captured Canton and, after reaching Tianjin, forced China to sign a lot of treaties that gave these foreigners privilege as traders and legalized opium. Afterwards, they left, but returned a couple years later to force China to abide by the signed treaties and to sign new ones. These were the unequal treaties - called that because they gave more privilege to foreigners than to Chinese citizens - that toppled the Qing dynasty.

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The first Opium War started because China tried to suppress the opium trade, since foreign traders - mainly Britain - were illegally exporting opium from India to China, causing widespread opium addictions. These addictions caused social and economic disruption, so China destroyed 1,400 tons of opium that they found in a warehouse, which angered Britain. Then, drunk British sailors killed a Chinese villager, but Britain didn't want them to face punishment from China, so they refused to hand them over. Britain then destroyed a Chinese blockade, complained about China's lack of trading (and then attacked them), occupied Hong Kong in 1841, and forced China to pay for all of the damages that Britain caused. After signing some treaties, fighting settled down for a few years, but it kicked back up again in 1856.

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The Opium Wars are two conflicts, taking place from 1839-1842 and from 1856-1860, that were between China and western powers. These western countries gained commercial and territorial concessions in China both times, and achieved a privileged status. They also marked the start of the era of unequal treaties on Qing sovereignty that toppled the dynasty in favor of Republican China in the early 1900s.

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What were the Opium Wars?

What caused the Opium Wars?

Who were the main combatants in the Opium Wars?

What were the long-term consequences of the Opium Wars?

Opium Wars, two armed conflicts in China in the mid-19th century between the forces of Western countries and of the Qing dynasty, which ruled China from 1644 to 1911/12. The first Opium War (1839-42) was fought between China and Britain, and the second Opium War (1856-60), also known as the Arrow War or the Anglo-French War in China, was fought by Britain and France against China. In each case the foreign powers were victorious and gained commercial privileges and legal and territorial concessions in China. The conflicts marked the start of the era of unequal treaties and other inroads on Qing sovereignty that helped weaken and ultimately topple the dynasty in favour of republican China in the early 20th century.

The Opium Wars arose from China's attempts to suppress the opium trade. Foreign traders (primarily British) had been illegally exporting opium mainly from India to China since the 18th century, but that trade grew dramatically from about 1820. The resulting widespread addiction in China was causing serious social and economic disruption there. In spring 1839 the Chinese government confiscated and destroyed more than 20,000 chests of opium-some 1,400 tons of the drug-that were warehoused at Canton ( Guangzhou) by British merchants. The antagonism between the two sides increased in July when some drunken British sailors killed a Chinese villager. The British government, which did not wish its subjects to be tried in the Chinese legal system, refused to turn the accused men over to the Chinese courts.

Hostilities broke out later that year when British warships destroyed a Chinese blockade of the Pearl River (Zhu Jiang) estuary at Hong Kong. The British government decided in early 1840 to send an expeditionary force to China, which arrived at Hong Kong in June. The British fleet proceeded up the Pearl River estuary to Canton, and, after months of negotiations there, attacked and occupied the city in May 1841. Subsequent British campaigns over the next year were likewise successful against the inferior Qing forces, despite a determined counterattack by Chinese troops in the spring of 1842. The British held against that offensive, however, and captured Nanjing (Nanking) in late August, which put an end to the fighting.

Peace negotiations proceeded quickly, resulting in the Treaty of Nanjing, signed on August 29. By its provisions, China was required to pay Britain a large indemnity, cede Hong Kong Island to the British (the handover of Hong Kong back to China would not occur until 1997), and increase the number of treaty ports where the British could trade and reside from one (Canton) to five. Among the four additional designated ports was Shanghai, and the new access to foreigners there marked the beginning of the city's transformation into one of China's major commercial entrepôts. The British Supplementary Treaty of the Bogue (Humen), signed October 8, 1843, gave British citizens extraterritoriality (the right to be tried by British courts) and most-favoured-nation status (Britain was granted any rights in China that might be granted to other foreign countries). Other Western countries quickly demanded and were given similar privileges.

In the mid-1850s, while the Qing government was embroiled in trying to quell the Taiping Rebellion (1850-64), the British, seeking to extend their trading rights in China, found an excuse to renew hostilities. In early October 1856 some Chinese officials boarded the British-registered ship Arrow while it was docked in Canton, arrested several Chinese crew members (who were later released), and allegedly lowered the British flag. Later that month a British warship sailed up the Pearl River estuary and began bombarding Canton, and there were skirmishes between British and Chinese troops. Trading ceased as a stalemate ensued. In December Chinese in Canton burned foreign factories (trading warehouses) there, and tensions escalated.

The French decided to join the British military expedition, using as their excuse the murder of a French missionary in the interior of China in early 1856. After delays in assembling the forces in China (British troops that were en route were first diverted to India to help quell the Indian Mutiny), the allies began military operations in late 1857. They quickly captured Canton, deposed the city's intransigent governor, and installed a more-compliant official. In May 1858 allied troops in British warships reached Tianjin (Tientsin) and forced the Chinese into negotiations. The treaties of Tianjin, signed in June 1858, provided residence in Beijing for foreign envoys, the opening of several new ports to Western trade and residence, the right of foreign travel in the interior of China, and freedom of movement for Christian missionaries. In further negotiations in Shanghai later in the year, the importation of opium was legalized.

The British withdrew from Tianjin in the summer of 1858, but they returned to the area in June 1859 en route to Beijing with French and British diplomats to ratify the treaties. The Chinese refused to let them pass by the Dagu forts at the mouth of the Hai River and proposed an alternate route to Beijing. The British-led forces decided against taking the other route and instead tried to push forward past Dagu. They were driven back with heavy casualties. The Chinese subsequently refused to ratify the treaties, and the allies resumed hostilities. In August 1860 a considerably larger force of warships and British and French troops destroyed the Dagu batteries, proceeded upriver to Tianjin, and, in October, captured Beijing and plundered and then burned the Yuanming Garden, the emperor's summer palace. Later that month the Chinese signed the Beijing Convention, in which they agreed to observe the treaties of Tianjin and also ceded to the British the southern portion of the Kowloon Peninsula adjacent to Hong Kong.
Kenneth Pletcher The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica

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Opium Wars | Definition, Summary, Facts, & Causes

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Opium Wars, two mid-19th-century armed conflicts between China and Western countries. The first Opium War (1839-42) was fought between China and Britain; the second Opium War (1856-60), also known as the Arrow War or the Anglo-French War in China, was fought by Britain and France against China.

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(The point in between Cuba and Puerto Rico)
The Spanish-American War left Cuba in ruins, initially, but lead to their independence from colonizers. On the other hand, Puerto Rico was initially free (albeit for a short period of time) before becoming a territory of the USA, leading to them losing a sense of freedom.

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Cuba in 1898 - The World of 1898: The Spanish-American War (Hispanic Division, Library of Congress)

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Cuba in 1898 - The World of 1898: The Spanish-American War (Hispanic Division, Library of Congress)

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The Spanish-American war impacted Puerto Rico by making it a US territory, which it still is today, after Spain was forced to hand it over. After some rebellion, Puerto Ricans became US citizens, but cannot vote in US elections.

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The Spanish-American war impacted Cuba by - along with the Ten Years War - destroying two thirds of Cuba's productive capacity, putting them into debt and poverty and leaving them with no capital. Twenty percent of Cuba's population died, and sixty percent of the people that survived were illiterate. Cuba had no resources to rebuild, so the USA occupied them from 1898-1902, forcing them to let them do whatever they wanted (as long as it abided by the Platt Amendment), but that was repealed in 1934. Eventually, Cuba became independent and is no longer a US territory.

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The Panama Canal is one of the two most strategic artificial waterways (along with the Suez Canal), saving ships thousands of miles of travel. It is currently 40 miles long from shoreline to shoreline, but from deep water to deep water, it's 50 miles long, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans through the narrow Isthmus. The Panama Canal was originally controlled by the USA from 1914-1979, then by the Panama Canal Commission (the USA and Panama combined) from 1979-1999, and is now controlled by Panama alone (Panama Canal Authority).

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Traffic through the Panama Canal is a barometer of world trade, rising in times of world economic prosperity and declining in times of recession. From a low of 807 transits in 1916, traffic rose to a high point of 15,523 transits of all types in 1970. The cargo carried through the canal that year amounted to more than 132.5 million long tons (134.6 million metric tons). Although the number of annual transits has decreased since then, the canal carries more freight than ever before because the average size of vessels has increased. There were nearly 210 million long tons (213 million metric tons) of cargo through the canal in 2013.

The principal trade routes served by the Panama Canal run between the following points: the east coast of the U.S. mainland and Hawaii and East Asia; the U.S. east coast and the west coast of South America; Europe and the west coast of North America; Europe and the west coast of South America; the east coast of North America and Oceania; the U.S. east and west coasts; and Europe and Australia.

Trade between the east coast of the United States and East Asia dominates international canal traffic. Among the principal commodity groups carried through the canal are motor vehicles, petroleum products, grains, and coal and coke.

Panama Canal Authority

The Panama Canal Authority (Spanish: Autoridad del Canal de Panamá [ACP]) took over management of the canal from the joint U.S.-Panamanian Panama Canal Commission at noon on December 31, 1999. Created by an amendment to the Panamanian constitution as an autonomous agency of the Panamanian government, the ACP is charged with the administration, operation, conservation, maintenance, and modernization of the Panama Canal. It is also tasked with the care, maintenance, and preservation of water resources in the entire Panama Canal watershed. The watershed is essential to the operation of the canal, and it also supplies water to cities at either end of the canal route.

The ACP is governed by a board of directors that consists of 11 members. The chairman, who has the rank of minister of state for canal affairs, is selected by the president of the republic. The legislative branch of the government designates one director, and the remaining nine members are appointed by the president with the concurrence of the cabinet council. They must be ratified by an absolute majority of the legislative assembly.

While the canal was under U.S. administration, tolls for its use were set at rates calculated to cover costs of maintenance and operation, thereby making the canal self-financing. The charge for each transit was based upon the interior cargo or passenger-carrying capacity of a vessel. The rates established in 1914 remained virtually unchanged for 60 years. In 1973 the canal operated at a loss for the first time, and in 1974 the first of several rate increases went into effect.

Traditionally, cargoes were carried below deck, and tolls were assessed on goods carried there. However, because of changes in marine design and the widespread use of containerized cargoes, a large portion of the burden is now carried on deck. The volume of containerized cargo passing through the canal is outranked only by shipments of grain and petroleum products. Those changes led to modifications in rules of admeasurement and the assessment of tolls for on-deck container capacity, and a segmentation system based on vessel type and size was implemented. Following the lead of the Panama Canal Commission, the ACP approved similar changes in admeasurement regulations and retained the U.S. toll rates in effect when the canal was transferred.

In 2006 the ACP announced that its expansion programs would be financed by a new series of toll increases, sparking much debate and opposition from canal users. It was not until 2012 that the cabinet council approved a proposal to restructure the Panama Canal's pricing system, and the two stages of the toll increase were implemented in October 2012 and October 2013. The new toll structure increased the number of segments from 8 to 10. The tanker segment was separated into three segments: petroleum and petroleum products tankers, gas vessels carrying liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and chemical vessels. Roll-on/roll-off (ro-ro) vessels, which are designed to carry wheeled cargo, became part of the vehicle carrier segment, and the container/break-bulk segment was eliminated. Tolls for general cargo, dry bulk, tanker, chemical tanker, LPG, and vehicle carrier and ro-ro were increased.

From the tolls collected, the ACP must pay an annual fee to the Panamanian national treasury. Any surplus remaining after that and the payment of canal operational and maintenance expenses also goes to the treasury.

History

As early as the 16th century, the Spanish recognized the advantages of a canal across the Central American isthmus. Eventually two routes came to be considered, one through Panama and the other through Nicaragua. Impetus for selecting the route through Panama increased with the construction (by the United States) of the Panama Railroad in the mid-19th century. The eventual route of the canal closely followed that of the railroad.

Lesseps's failed attempt

The first attempt to build a canal across the Isthmus of Panama began in 1881 after the Colombian government granted a concession to the privately owned Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interocéanique. The company, under the leadership of Ferdinand de Lesseps, was financed by French capital from countless small investors. Because of Lesseps's recent triumph building the Suez Canal, he was able to attract public support for building a sea-level canal across Panama. That proposal was protested strongly by Adolphe Godin de Lépinay, baron de Brusly, an engineer who had studied the isthmus. Lépinay knew the surface features at Panama: the Continental Divide 9 miles (15 km) from the Pacific, the torrential Chagres River flowing into the Atlantic, and the smaller Río Grande flowing into the Pacific-both rivers suitable for creating artificial lakes. In 1879 he proposed a "practical" plan for building a canal, calling for a dam at Gatún and another at Miraflores (or as close to the seas as the land would permit), letting the waters rise to form two lakes about 80 feet (25 metres) high, joining the lakes by cutting across the Continental Divide, and connecting them to the oceans through locks.

Lépinay's conception eventually established him as an architectural and engineering genius and as the originator of the plan from which the Panama Canal was built. Unfortunately for the French, however, his idea was ignored at the time, and the Compagnie Universelle embarked on its ill-fated undertaking. Lesseps was unfamiliar with conditions in Panama or was unwilling to acknowledge that they were vastly different from Suez. Unlike the arid desert of the Isthmus of Suez, Panama was a tropical jungle, with diluvial rains, debilitating heat and humidity, and tropical diseases. Topographic conditions along the proposed route varied considerably and ranged from coastal marshes to the mountains of the Continental Divide. Despite competent engineering, there was no sound overall plan. Machinery used to dig the canal was either too light or ill-suited for the tough inland terrain, and disease took a terrible toll in workers' lives.

Progress was costly and extremely slow. As a cost-saving measure, the plans for a sea-level canal were eventually dropped in favour of a high-level lock-type canal, but that change had little effect. With no foreseeable return on its investment, the French public lost faith in the project and its leader. Attempts at further financing failed, and the company collapsed in 1889. Although the company reorganized in 1894, it virtually ceased to function by 1898. Any possibility of completing the canal across Panama was gone; its sole hope lay in holding together an enterprise that could be offered for sale. In the end, less than half of the excavation made by the French was used in the U.S. canal.

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Traffic through the Panama Canal is a barometer of world trade, rising in times of world economic prosperity and declining in times of recession. From a low of 807 transits in 1916, traffic rose to a high point of 15,523 transits of all types in 1970.

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The Suez Canal is a sea-level waterway, running north to south across the Isthmus of Suez in Egypt, connecting the Red Seas. It is one of the most heavily used shipping lanes, spanning 120 miles, separating the African continent from Asia. The canal utilizes lakes Manzala, Timsah, Great Bitter, and Little Bitter, with eight major bends in it. It is currently operated by the state-owned Suez Canal Authority (SCA) in Egypt.

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Operation

In 1870, the canal's first full year of operation, there were 486 transits, or fewer than 2 per day. In 1966 there were 21,250, an average of 58 per day, with net tonnage increasing from some 444,000 metric tons (437,000 long tons) in 1870 to about 278,400,000 metric tons (274,000,000 long tons). By the mid-1980s the number of daily transits had fallen to an average of 50, but net annual tonnage was about 355,600,000 metric tons (350,000,000 long tons). In 2018 there were 18,174 transits with a net annual tonnage of about 1,139,630,000 metric tons (1,121,163,000 long tons).

The original canal did not permit two-way traffic, and ships would stop in a passing bay to allow the passage of ships in the other direction. Transit time then averaged 40 hours, but by 1939 it had been reduced to 13 hours. A system of convoys was adopted in 1947, consisting of one northbound and two southbound per day. Transit time went up to 15 hours in 1967 despite convoying, reflecting the great growth in tanker traffic at that time. With some enlargement of the canal, transit time since 1975 has ranged from 11 to 16 hours. Upon entering the canal at Port Said or Suez, ships are assessed for tonnage and cargo (passengers have ridden without charge since 1950) and are handled by one or two pilots for actual canal transit, which is increasingly controlled by radar. Southbound convoys moor at Port Said, Al-Ballāḥ, Lake Timsah, and Al-Kabrīt, where there are bypasses that allow northbound convoys to proceed without stopping. In August 2015 a new 35-km (22-mile) expansion running parallel to the main channel was opened, enabling two-way transit through the canal. The main channel was deepened to allow for the passage of larger ships. The expansion project, launched by Egyptian President Abdel Fattah al-Sisi in 2014, was part of an effort to boost Egypt's economy.

The nature of traffic has greatly altered, especially because of the enormous growth in shipments of crude oil and petroleum products from the Persian Gulf since 1950. In 1913 the oil in northbound traffic amounted to 295,700 metric tons (291,000 long tons), whereas in 1966 it amounted to 168,700,000 metric tons (166,000,000 long tons). The closure of the canal from 1967 to 1975 led to the use of large oil tankers on the route around the Cape of Good Hope and prompted the development of the Sumed pipeline from Suez to Alexandria, which opened in 1977. Since 1975 the increased size of tankers-the largest of which cannot use the canal-and the development of sources of crude oil in areas outside of the canal route (e.g., Algeria, Libya, Nigeria, the North Sea, and Mexico) have reduced the canal's importance in the international oil trade.

From an all-time peak of 984,000 in 1945, passenger traffic has declined to negligible numbers because of the competition from aircraft. Further decline in canal traffic resulted from a shift of Australasian trade from Europe to Japan and East Asia. Some movement of oil, however, from refineries in Russia, southern Europe, and Algeria has continued, chiefly to India, and the shipment of dry cargoes, including grain, ores, and metals, has increased. A more recent feature has been the growth of container and roll-on/roll-off (ro-ro) traffic through the canal, chiefly destined for the highly congested ports of the Red Sea and Persian Gulf.

The major northbound cargoes consist of crude petroleum and petroleum products, coal, ores and metals, and fabricated metals, as well as wood, oilseeds and oilseed cake, and cereals. Southbound traffic consists of cement, fertilizers, fabricated metals, cereals, and empty oil tankers.

Communications and towns

Construction of the canal led to the growth of settlements in what had been, except for Suez, almost uninhabited arid territory. More than 28,000 hectares (70,000 acres) were brought under cultivation, and about 8 percent of the total population was engaged in agriculture, with approximately 10,000 commercial and industrial activities of various sizes. During the Suez Crisis in 1967, almost all the population was evacuated, and most of the settlements were severely damaged or destroyed during subsequent warfare. With the reopening of the canal in 1975, however, reconstruction of the area was begun, and most of the population had returned by 1978. Port Said was made a customs-free zone in 1975, and tax-free industrial zones have been established along the canal. The major urban centres are Port Said, with its east-bank counterpart, Būr Fuʾād; Ismailia (Al-Ismāʿīliyyah), on the north shore of Lake Timsah; and Suez, with its west-bank outport, Būr Tawfīq. Water for irrigation and for domestic and industrial use is supplied by the Nile via the Al-Ismāʿīliyyah Canal.

There are two roads from the pre-1967 period on the west bank. Ferries have largely been replaced by four underpasses: north of Suez, south and north of Lake Timsah, and at Al-Qanṭarah. From this last, a road continues along the east bank to Būr Fuʾād, and another runs eastward through the Sinai to Israel. Newer roads on the east bank run eastward to the Khutmiyyah, Giddi, and Mitla passes, which give access to the central Sinai. The railway on the west side of the canal was restored in the 1970s. In 1980 the Ahmad Hamdi road tunnel was opened, connecting Egypt proper with its governorate ( muḥāfaẓah) of Shamāl Sīnāʾ. About 1.6 km (1 mile) of the tunnel passes beneath the canal itself. As part of the 2014 expansion project, the Egyptian government built additional tunnels that run beneath the canal, which were opened in May 2019. The expansion project also includes the development of additional transportation infrastructure in the surrounding area, aims to reclaim some 1.6 million hectares (4 million acres) of land for cultivation, and plans to develop a sprawling free-trade zone along the canal.
William B. Fisher Charles Gordon Smith The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica

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Suez Canal - Suez Canal - The economy: In 1870, the canal's first full year of operation, there were 486 transits, or fewer than 2 per day. In 1966 there were 21,250, an average of 58 per day, with net tonnage increasing from some 444,000 metric tons (437,000 long tons) in 1870 to about 278,400,000 metric tons (274,000,000 long tons).

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The Zulu people are a branch of southern Bantu who share close ethnic, cultural, and linguistic ties with Swazi and Xhosa people, and are the largest ethnic group in South Africa. They were mainly grain farmers but were occasionally cattle herders, until Europeans stole their grazing and water resources, forcing them to work for European farms. They began as a clan, but then became the Zulu Empire in the 1800s. Polygyny - multiple wives per husband - was practiced, and wives were ranked based on which one provided him with an heir. Religion was ancestor worship and the belief in a creator god, witches, and sorcerers.

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Zulu, a nation of Nguni-speaking people in KwaZulu-Natal province, South Africa. They are a branch of the southern Bantu and have close ethnic, linguistic, and cultural ties with the Swazi and Xhosa. The Zulu are the single largest ethnic group in South Africa and numbered about nine million in the late 20th century.

Traditionally grain farmers, they also kept large herds of cattle on the lightly wooded grasslands, replenishing their herds mainly by raiding their neighbours. European settlers wrested grazing and water resources from the Zulu in prolonged warfare during the 19th century, and, with much of their wealth lost, modern Zulu depend largely on wage labour on farms owned by individuals of European descent or work in the cities of South Africa.

Before they joined with the neighbouring Natal Nguni ( see Nguni) under their leader Shaka in the early 19th century to form a Zulu empire, the Zulu were only one of many Nguni clans; Shaka gave the clan name to the new nation. Such clans continue to be a basic unit of Zulu social organization; they comprise several patrilineal households, each with rights in its own fields and herds and under the domestic authority of its senior man. Paternal authority is so strong that the Zulu may be called patriarchal. Polygyny is practiced; a man's wives are ranked by strict seniority under the "great wife," the mother of his heir. The levirate, in which a widow goes to live with a deceased husband's brother and continues to bear children in the name of the dead husband, is also practiced.

The genealogically senior man of each clan is its chief, traditionally its leader in war and its judge in peace. Headmen ( induna), usually close kin of the chief, continue to have charge of sections of the clan. This clan system was adopted nationwide under the Zulu king, to whom most clan chiefs are related in one way or another. When the Zulu nation was formed, many chiefs were married to women of royal clan or were royal kinsmen installed to replace dissident clan heads. The king relied on confidential advisers, and chiefs and subchiefs formed a council to advise him on administrative and judicial matters.

Boys in this highly organized military society were initiated at adolescence in groups called age sets. Each age set constituted a unit of the Zulu army and was stationed away from home at royal barracks under direct control of the king. Formed into regiments ( impi), these men could marry only when the king gave permission to the age set as a whole.

Traditional Zulu religion was based on ancestor worship and on beliefs in a creator god, witches, and sorcerers. The king was responsible for all national magic and rainmaking; rites performed by the king on behalf of the entire nation (at planting season, in war, drought, or famine) centred on the ancestors of the royal line. Modern Zulu Christianity has been marked by the growth of independent or separatist churches under prophets, some of great wealth and influence.

The power and importance of the king, chiefs, and military system have declined substantially, and many of the young men leave KwaZulu-Natal to seek work elsewhere in South Africa. Knowledge of and strong pride in traditional culture and history are, however, almost universal among contemporary Zulu.

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Zulu, a nation of Nguni-speaking people in KwaZulu-Natal province, South Africa. They are a branch of the southern Bantu and have close ethnic, linguistic, and cultural ties with the Swazi and Xhosa. The Zulu are the single largest ethnic group in South Africa and numbered about nine million in the

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colonizer

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colonizer

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neither

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colonized - The Netherlands (1652-
1795, 1803-1806)
Britain (1795-1803, 1806-
1961)

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colonized - Belgium (1908-1960)
France (1882-1960)

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colonized - Britain (1882-1956)
France (1798-1815)
Ottoman Empire (1517-
1830)

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colonizer

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colonizer

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colonized - France (1877-1949)

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colonizer

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colonizer

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colonizer

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colonized - Spain (1521-1898)
USA (1898-1941, 1944-
present)
Japan (1941-1944)

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colonized - USA (1898-present)

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colonized - Britain (1840-1947)

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colonized - Britain (1788-1901)

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colonized - Spain (1580-1640)
colonizer

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colonizer

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colonized - Spain (1521-1898)
USA (1898-1946)
Japan (1941-1946)
China (900s-1500s)

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colonized - Britain (1757-1947)
France (1664-1757, 1763-
1947)
Portugal (1505-1961)

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colonized - Spain (1521-1821)

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colonized - USA (1898-present)
Spain (1493-1898)

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colonized - Spain (1513-1821)
USA (1904-1999)
France (1879-1889)

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colonized - Spain (1511-1898)
USA (1898-1902)
Britain (1762-1763)