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Rise of settlements and complex societies in present-day US

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Rise of settlements and complex societies in present-day US

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Despite what European settlers may have believed upon discovering North America, the societies already there were not savage and primitive, but in fact sophisticated and developed. Some societies include the Cahokia civilization in the Missisipi Valley and the Ancestral Puebloans in the Southwest, which developed permanent settlements with complex social structures and engaged in trade. These settlements rose because the societies began to adopt agriculture, including the production of things like maize and other steady food supplies. With this came oppurtunities for a more permanent sedentry lifestyle, and therefore societies were built around trade and shared labor in agricultural aspects. Agriculture transformed these societies, making them geographically and environmentally effected as well as including cultural and social developments as they evolved.

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1325 marks the founding of the Aztec capital city Tenochtitlan, which was built on an island and soon became an important metropolis and the center of Aztec civilization. The Aztec people had been migrating for a very long time before receiving a prophecy to settle where they saw an eagle perched on a cactus with a snake on its back. This seems to be where they found the island on Lake Texcoco, a perfect spot to offer strategic placing and defense for its people. From there, Aztec society only expanded, the construction of canals and changes to the landscape resulting in a much larger population and turning the island into a hub for tribute, trade, and military power. The themes of expansion, cultural, and social developments are showcased as a powerful, hierarchical empire is developed.

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The peak of the Incan Empire was reached in the 15th Century, when it reached its largest territorial extent and peak political power, stretching along the Pacific coast of South America and governing millions. The rapid expansion was a result of military conquest as well as strategic alliances. The Inca had developed a highly organized system of government, a mandatory labored system for conquered peoples, and a massive road network. The effect was a large and unified empire with things like a centralized government as well as impressive architecture, built on the success of both labor and resource exploitation. The period is a clear example of state-building and expansion, but also touches on economic and labor systems as well as cultural and social developments.

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Portuguese trading posts established in West Africa (1482)

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Portuguese trading posts established in West Africa (1482)

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With 1482 came the establishment of permanent settlements and forts by Portuguese explorers along the coat of West Africa. The posts were originally built to facilitate and secure trade primarily in gold but were later used for the enslaved market. The Portuguese, seeking a way to bypass the traditional trans-Saharan trade routes, established a direct sea route to the sources of gold and other goods in West Africa, seeking to increase its wealth and influence. The establishment of these posts marked the start of Europe's maritime empires and created new global trade networks that connected Europe directly to Africa, also initiating a new phase of the trans-Atlantic slave trade which would grow rapidly. The themes shown in this period can be recognized as world-building and expansion (European colonialism), economic systems (the rise of global trade networks and the trans-Atlantic slave trade). It also relates to cultural and social developments due to the shifts in African societies and the rise of slavery.

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The Reconquista was a conflict spanning nearly 800 years, involving Christian kingdoms and driven to reclaim territory from the various Muslim states that had controlled most of the peninsula. Christian resistance from the Spanish began after the Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula and was fueled by religious fervor due to the Church calling the conflict a crusade to restore Christian lands. The Reconquista led to the unification of Spain under the Catholic Monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella, who completed the conquest in 1492. It would influence Spanish and Portuguese exploration and colonization of the Americas and result in the forced conversion of thousands of Jews and Muslims. The themes include Religion and Morality, State-Building and Expansion, and cultural interaction and conflict.

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Columbus first voyage to Americas (1492)

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Columbus first voyage to Americas (1492)

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Christopher Columbus was a Spanish explorer who sailed to find a westward route to Asia with his three ships: the Niña, the Pinta, and the Santa Maria. The European desire for new direct sea routes to the East for the lucrative trade materials was fueled by the promise of bypassing the dangerous and expensive routes over land controlled by the Ottoman Empire. He didn't find Asia, but instead found the Americas, initiating the Columbian Exchange of plants, animals, goods, and diseases between the Old World and the New World. The primary themes of this event are expansion, world-building, and economic systems. Unfortunately, Columbus died in 1506 without recognizing his larger impact.

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The Columbian Exchange was the widespread trade of plants, animals, diseases, people, and ideas between the Old world and the New World following Columbus's voyage. The primary cause was the European Age of Exploration and the desire for new trade routes to Asia, culminating in the discovery and colonization of the Americas. With the exchange came diseases from the Old World and crops from the New World, killing the Native American population and dramatically increasing the Old World one. This practice includes the themes of Globalization and Exchange, Disease, and Economic Systems.

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First enslaved Africans brought to Americas (Not NORTH America) (1490s)

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First enslaved Africans brought to Americas (Not NORTH America) (1490s)

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This event marks the beginning of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, where the Spanish and Portuguese began to forcibly transport enslaved Africans to the Caribbean islands and other parts of the Americas to work in their colonies. The demand for a cheap labor source rose after the indigenous populations were dramatically decreased by disease making them no longer a reliable and sustainable labor source for the new colonial plantations. Consequently, the initial enslavement of Africans in the Americas led to the establishment of the transatlantic slave trade. This event fits the themes of Economic Systems, State-Building, Expansion, and Conflict.

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The Treaty of Tordesillas was an agreement signed by Spain and Portugal in 1494 that divided all newly discovered lands in America between the two countries. The treaty was a result of a rivalry over newly discovered territories after Christopher Columbus's voyages, which prompted the Pope to mediate a dispute over the two Catholic nations. It effectively gave Portugal control over Brazil while granting Spain claim to the rest of the Americas, influencing the future cultural, linguistic, and political development of the New World. This event fits the themes of state-building and expansion, as well as political development.

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The encomienda system was a Spanish labor system that granted Spanish conquistadors/settlers the right to the labor of indigenous peoples. It was meant that the recipient would protect and Christianize them, but it turned out more like forced labor. The system was established to meet the massive labor demands and reward the conquistadors for their service, having the side bonus of controlling/converting the indigenous population. The system led to the serve abuse of indigenous populations who were already dying out due to overwork and disease as well as the creation of a rigid social hierarchy in Spanish colonies. This event fits the themes of Economic Systems, Cultural Interactions, Labor, Slavery, and Caste Systems.

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Jamestown was the first English colony in Virginia of the Americas, established by the Virginia company, an unbalanced ratio of gentlemen and actual laborers. The founding was driven by a desire for economic profit, to find gold, glory, as well as conquer the lands in the name of their God. The settlement initially struggled due to harsh winters and a lack of laborers, but later prospered with tobacco cultivation and led to the introduction of indentured servitude and the first enslaved Africans to the colony, as wells as the foundation for the first representative legislative assembly in the Americas, the House of Burgesses. The founding of Jamestown fits into the themes of Economic Development, political events, and social/cultural events.

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The Headright system was a land grant program started in 1618 by the Virginia company. It gave 50 acres of land to any colonist who paid for his or another's passage to the Virginia colony. The system was established to address the labor shortage as well as new settlers who didn't have enough money to travel and were needed to grow the cash crop of tobacco. It led to the rapid growth of large plantations and fueled the use of indentured servitude (the decline of which later led to African labor). The themes involved in this topic are economic systems, social and cultural developments, and migration and settlement.

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House of Burgesses (VA) established (1619)

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House of Burgesses (VA) established (1619)

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The House of Burgesses was the first democratically elected legislative body in British North America, established in 1619 in the Virginia Colony. It was established to encourage English settlement in the colony by granting colonists a measure of self-government and a voice in their own affairs. Its establishment set up representative governments in the American colonies, where elected officials would have a say in creating laws/dealing with taxes. This event fits into political development and economic development (it incentivizes colonization through the promise of political rights).

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First enslaved Africans brought to Virginia (1619)

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First enslaved Africans brought to Virginia (1619)

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In late August, a Dutch ship traded enslaved Africans for food and supplies in the Virginia colony, beginning slavery in the future United States. The arrival initiated the institution of slavery in the English colonies, especially after indentured slavery died out due to economic prosperity in England. This event is a foundational economic, social/cultural, and political event.

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The Mayflower Compact was a formal agreement signed by the male passengers aboard the Mayflower in 1620 to establish a temporary, self-governing body for the colony. It was created because the ship was blown off course from the path to the Virginia Company and in Massachusetts, some passengers believing they should start their own colony. The compact created the first government in the New World based on the people, and provided a foundation for order, fitting the themes of government and law and cultural development.

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Establishment of the Massachusetts Bay Colony (1630) 

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Establishment of the Massachusetts Bay Colony (1630) 

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The MBC was a 17th-century English settlement in North America founded by Puritan refugees in 1630. It was caused by the desire of the English Puritans to escape religious persecution and political problems in England. The drive was to set up a "City on a Hill" as a model Christian society. The colony's establishment led to the "Great Migration" of over 20,000 Puritan settlers, the development of a unique form of self government, and the rise of a religiously driven society.

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John Winthrop's City on a Hill refers the his vision for the Massachusetts Bay Colony to be a model society for the world, based on religious piety and righteousness. He inspired his fellow Puritans to create a unified and godly community that would serve as an example to a corrupt Europe. The ideal created a sense of divine mission and purpose in the Puritan colonists, and fits into the theme of Cultural and Social developments.

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Roger Williams/Anne Hutchinson expelled from Massachusetts Bay Colony (1630)

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Roger Williams/Anne Hutchinson expelled from Massachusetts Bay Colony (1630)

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While the City on a Hill was a model society, one thing it didn't tolerate was religious dissent. Williams advocated for a separation of church and state, religious freedom, and free dealings with Native Americans, while Hutchinson preached that God's grace was not won through good deeds (the foundation of the City on a Hill), but predetermined. With the expulsion of the two came new colonies, as Williams established Providence, and Hutchinson and her followers founded Portsmouth, dedicated to the principle of religious toleration and havens for other dissenters. The themes include cultural and social developments and state-building and expansion.

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Roger Williams/Anne Hutchinson expelled from Massachusetts Bay Colony (1630)

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The Age of Mercantilism was an economic theory in Europe where nations sought to increase their wealth and power through precious metals and a positive balance of trade. The rise of powerful nations created a desire for a strong economy, and the Age of Exploration came with new colonies as sources of raw materials and markets, leading to the establishment of vast colonial empires and frequent wars. The themes are political and economical, as it directly fueled colonial expansion and international conflict.

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Navigation Acts (1651, but enacted and enforced throughout the colonial period)

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Navigation Acts (1651, but enacted and enforced throughout the colonial period)

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The Navigation Acts were a series of English laws that regulated colonial trade, which required that certain goods be transported on English or colonial ships and sold to England first. The cause was mercantilism, an economic theory that held that a nation's power was tied to its wealth and needed to control colonial trade. The effects were increased wealth for Great Britain, and growing resentment among colonists. The themes here are Economic development and political conflict.

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King Philip's War/Metacom's War (1675-1678)

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King Philip's War/Metacom's War (1675-1678)

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The war was a brutal and destructive conflict fought between Native American tribes and English colonists in New England. The war's cause was simply by mounting tensions during English settlers' relentless expansion into Native American lands, and the war resulted in a large loss of life on both sides. Native American communities were largely deteriorated and many survivors were sold into slavery, the themes being that of state-building and expansion, economic systems, and social/cultural developments.

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Bacon's rebellion was an armed uprising led by Nathaniel Bacon against Governor William Berkeley in Virginia, fueled by those without land angered over high taxes and the inability to retaliate against Native American attacks on the frontier. The rebellion failed, and only led to the gained power of the Virginia elite's, as well as a shift from using indentured servants to the new labor force (enslaved Africans). The themes here are social and cultural developments, and politics and power.

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The Pueblo Revolt was a successful uprising in New Mexico by the indigenous Pueblo people against Spanish rule, the revolt caused by the decades of oppression by Spain. The uprising successfully drove the Spanish out of the region for 12 years and led to a temporary time of traditional Pueblo culture and religion. This event fits the themes of state-building, expansion, conflict, and cultural and social developments.

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The Salem Witch Trials were a series of trials mostly given to women who were suspected of being coerced by the devil. However, many of the accusations are now assumed to be fabricated for various reasons, including sexism and rumors. The paranoia around witches in Salem began in 1647, due to the widespread belief among Puritans that women were weaker in mind and body, therefore more susceptible to the devil. When two cousins began to experience strange symptoms that are now believed to be symptoms of a sickness or parasite, at the time, it was believed that a witch in the village was torturing the girls. Many girls began to complain and suffer from the same symptoms, leading to many accusations against women of lower standing in the town. The accused were found guilty nearly 100% of the time, the sole evidence being the accusations, and the women had the choice to pin the blame on someone else or be hanged. As a result of the trials, over 300 people were accused, and a total of 25 died without any concrete evidence in the case against them. They were social in nature, driven by religious fanaticism, social tensions, and a climate of fear, and political due to the government involvement. The Salem Witch Trials remain a warning against paranoia and the power of rumors and fear.

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Middle Passage/Age of Atlantic Slave Trade (Established in the 16th Century but intensifies now)

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Middle Passage/Age of Atlantic Slave Trade (Established in the 16th Century but intensifies now)

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The Middle Passage was a forced voyage that transported millions of Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas as part of the broader Atlantic slave trade. The cause was the demand for cheap labor to work on cash crop plantations, driving European colonial powers to seek a new workforce after the natives nearly died out. The effect was the death of millions of Africans and the shaping of the slavery system that would last for centuries. This fits the themes of economics, cultural and social developments, and state-building and expansion.

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Slave Codes were a set of laws in colonial America that legalized slavery and defined enslaved people as property. These laws were caused by the need to control the growing enslaved population and protect the property rights of slaveholders, also suppressing any rebellion. The effects of these laws were the creation of a rigid caste system that put enslaved people at the bottom. These laws fit the themes of Social/Cultural Development and political events because of the institution of slavery.

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The First Great Awakening was a religious revival movement that emphasized personal and emotional religious experiences over established church documents. It was a response to the decline in religious piety and an emphasis on rationalism at the time from the Enlightenment. The movement led to the formation of new Protestant denominations, challenged the authority of ministers, and contributed to the themes of cultural and social developments/politics and power.

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The Stono Rebellion was the largest slave revolt in the British colonies, in which a group of about 20 enslaved Africans killed white colonists and marched south. The primary cause was the desire for freedom, fueled by a Spanish proclamation promising liberty to any enslaved person who reached St. Augustine. The recent malaria epidemic had also weakened the white population which left the plantations more vulnerable. The rebellion resulted in the deaths of over 20 colonists and about 44 enslaved people, and it led to the passage of strict laws to control and oppress the enslaved population.

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The Enlightenment was a movement in 18th-century Europe that emphasized reason and individualism over tradition. It was caused by a combination of the Scientific Revolution and a desire to reform society after all the religious conflict and monarchical rule. The ideas of liberty, natural rights, and the separation of powers led to major political changes, including the American and French Revolutions, and incorporating themes such as individualism, progress, and reason.