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Your Thoughts on the Science of Learning and Reading

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Your Thoughts on the Science of Learning and Reading

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What Exactly Is The Science of Learning Anyway?

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What Exactly Is The Science of Learning Anyway?

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A blog post on the Learning Scientists website introduces the science of learning from a cognitive psychology perspective. Written by researchers whose work centers on how people learn, it offers a concise overview of key ideas in this field.

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What Exactly Is The Science of Learning Anyway? — The Learning Scientists

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It’s very clear that the average person does not have a great understanding of the broad field of psychology nor the interdisciplinary nature of the Science of Learning. What is the science of learning? How are we, four cognitive psychologists, involved in it? And when and how do you know if you can

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This course provides teachers and literacy coaches with an overview of disciplinary literacy, essential concepts related to proficient reading and writing, and general instructional practices that support literacy development indicated by the Common Core and NGSS.

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Content-Area Literacy
While the early grades of learning to read include a great deal of narrative text, children also encounter expository texts for learning in the content-area curriculum. As students move through the grades, they learn to use a general set of strategies, such as predicting, questioning, and summarizing a text, to support their comprehension and response to texts across the curriculum. These strategies are often used as procedures for study skills to learn and retain content information. Content-area literacy, therefore, refers to a basic set of strategies for reading and responding to texts with little differentiation among the content-area subjects. For example, students may learn to use the same techniques for determining important information, making inferences, asking questions, and summarizing in science, social studies, and math. The reading strategies are the same across subject areas, only the content differs.

Disciplinary Literacy
In contrast, disciplinary literacy focuses on teaching students the differences among the various texts used in different disciplines and the specialized reading practices required for comprehension and critical analysis of ideas within each. Some of these differences include specialized vocabulary, types of language used to communicate ideas, text structures , text features (e.g., boldface headings and vocabulary, diagrams, charts, photographs, captions), and sources of information within and across disciplines.

Disciplinary literacy teaches students to move beyond the use of general reading strategies toward the use of specialized reading practices for making sense of the unique texts found within each discipline. Each discipline represents knowledge and the ways of producing and communicating that knowledge differently, resulting in a different approach to reading. For example, when reading a literary text, there is a range of interpretations a reader can make based on background knowledge and experiences. When reading a history text or document, interpretations are made based on a consideration of the source and context for the information as well as a corroboration with other sources. Science and math texts present information with one "truth" or interpretation based on accepted methods for using evidence. In essence, the focus is on teaching students ways of thinking about texts by developing reader identities for each discipline-to become, for example, expert readers by reading like a historian, a scientist, a mathematician.

It should be noted that teachers often combine the strategies of content-area literacy and disciplinary literacy to support students as they read and respond to texts in different disciplines.

"The difference is that content literacy emphasizes techniques that a novice might use to make sense of a disciplinary text (such as how to study a history book for an examination) while disciplinary literacy emphasizes the unique tools that the experts in a discipline use to engage in the work of that discipline." - Shanahan and Shanahan, 2012, p. 8.

Video and Reflection: Now watch Talking Like a Mathematician, in which 9th grade students use reading, writing, listening, and speaking to solve math problems. You may want to take notes on the questions below.

Before you watch: Think about the types and formats of reading and writing your students use to comprehend important concepts in your discipline. How do you prepare and support them as they engage in specific literacy practices?

Watch the video: As you watch, notice the different text structures that students use to read and write in solving math problems. How does the teacher encourage and support students as they engage in math literacy? How do students produce and communicate their knowledge?

Reflect: How is the definition of disciplinary literacy illustrated in this classroom lesson? How are the literacy practices students used similar and/or different from those students use in your discipline?

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What Is Disciplinary Literacy? - Annenberg Learner

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Content-Area Literacy While the early grades of learning to read include a great deal of narrative text, children also encounter expository texts for learning in the content-area curriculum. As students move through the grades, they learn to use a general set of strategies, such as predicting, questioning, and summarizing a text, to support their comprehension and response to texts across the curriculum.

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Welcome to the mathematics units on disciplinary literacy. The first unit identifies and discusses the literacy practices of mathematicians, including reading, writing, speaking, and listening. In the second and third units, there is a focus on reading and writing in secondary mathematics classrooms. In the fourth and final unit, there is a focus on preparing to structure mathematics instruction in ways that support the development of disciplinary literacy in mathematics.

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The goal of these units on disciplinary literacy in science is to sample some frameworks and strategies for developing science literacy. Students and instructors can benefit from an approach that combines literacy practices with discipline-specific content. The videos that accompany and complement these units show how practicing classroom teachers are taking a variety of creative approaches to disciplinary literacy through modeling, mentoring, group work, and iterative inquiry.

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Disciplinary Literacy and the Value of Making Connections

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Disciplinary Literacy and the Value of Making Connections

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A brief article on the International Literacy Association website offers an introduction to disciplinary literacy.

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Literacy Daily is a space to connect educators, students, and leaders with the latest news, ideas, tools, strategies, and research in literacy instruction.

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English as a discipline is often characterized as concerned only with reading and writing about literature, poetry, and fiction. These genres are important, but the discipline also addresses other areas of language study, reading comprehension, and written and spoken expression, such as the analysis of style in spoken and written texts.

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Big Ideas in Literacy - English - Annenberg Learner

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Introduction The English language arts classroom has always been the primary place where students are taught academic literacy practices. These…

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An excerpt from Wolsey, T. D., & Lapp, D. (2024). Literacy in the Disciplines: A Teacher’s Guide for Grades 5–12 (2nd ed.). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

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Big Ideas in Literacy – History/Social Studies

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Big Ideas in Literacy – History/Social Studies

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Welcome to the history/social studies content-specific units on disciplinary literacy. These next four units explore disciplinary literacy in history as an approach to teaching history and social studies. Unit 5 will introduce useful concepts and tools that promote disciplinary literacy. Units 6 and 7 will focus on specific reading and writing practices, respectively. Unit 8 will present various methods to support the integration of reading and writing practices into classroom instruction.

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Historians often approach their work by first identifying a problem space they find significant and worthy of investigation. Such a problem space might include figuring out what happened at a specific time and place, what qualities characterize certain people over time (e.g., leaders), or the reasons that caused events to occur. Regardless of the problem space, historians begin their investigations by asking questions. For teachers, however, the pathways to forming questions may not be as emergent as they are for historians. While teachers may be motivated to create their own investigations based on the desire to understand something, they may also begin by coordinating investigations with topics identified in state standards or established curricula.

Because investigative history, by definition, inquires into the past, questions play an integral part in the process of student learning. In fact, questions play two roles:

They can be used to frame a unit or a single lesson. (For the purposes here, questions frame individual investigations.)

They can be used to highlight controversy or problems for students. Questions can both frame and advance an inquiry. That is, questions can be used to provide an overarching structure for an investigation. Once the investigation is underway, questions can be used to prompt students to think deeply about the complexities of the topic under study.

The National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) College, Career, and Civic Life C3 Framework distinguishes between two types of questions that can be both teacher- and student-generated: compelling questions and supporting questions. Compelling questions focus on enduring issues and concerns. For example, "Was the American Revolution revolutionary?" In contrast, supporting questions focus on descriptions, definitions, and processes on which there is general agreement. That is, supporting questions focus on the content needed to fully consider the compelling question; for example, "What were the regulations imposed on the American colonists under the Townshend Acts?" For the purposes of this course, compelling questions are used to frame investigations. These compelling questions here are called essential questions.

In forming essential questions, it is important to consider a few aspects. The best questions to guide inquiry are complex and debatable and require students to analyze texts and move beyond a summary. These questions are not answerable by a simple yes or no, and there is typically a range of possible answers to and multiple interpretations of the questions. However, in some instances, it may be appropriate to frame questions for students in a dichotomy (either/or) so that students recognize that their role is to make an argument, rather than summarize information.

Examples of good essential questions for investigations include:

What happened at the Boston Massacre in 1770?

What characteristics make for an effective leader?

What is the proper role of government?

Should Martin Luther be considered a hero or heretic?

How does technological change influence society?

What makes places unique and different?

Why did the boycott of Montgomery's buses in the 1950s succeed?

Video and Reflection: Watch Blended Learning: Purposeful Instruction to learn more about using questions to frame and sustain inquiry. You may want to take notes on the questions below.

Before you watch: How have you used questions to frame or focus students' learning? Can these questions be answered in multiple ways, or do they have one right answer?

Watch the video: Consider how Andrea Gambino Rhodes frames questions so that they are open to multiple interpretations or responses. How does her use of questions help sustain inquiry?

Reflect: Write one to two paragraphs in response to the following questions: What would be a good essential question to guide an upcoming unit of study? How can you write or phrase the question so that it is complex and debatable and pushes students to analyze texts rather than purely summarize?

Explore: On the Historical Thinking Matters website, there is an investigation of the Montgomery bus boycott of 1955-1956. Consider the essential question, "Why did the boycott of Montgomery's buses succeed?" What makes this type of question effective? What characteristics of good essential questions does this question exemplify?

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Big Ideas in Literacy - History/Social Studies - Annenberg Learner

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Historians often approach their work by first identifying a problem space they find significant and worthy of investigation. Such a problem space might include figuring out what happened at a specific time and place, what qualities characterize certain people over time (e.g., leaders), or the reasons that caused events to occur.

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Teaching Disciplinary Literacy to Adolescents: Rethinking Content-Area Literacy

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Teaching Disciplinary Literacy to Adolescents: Rethinking Content-Area Literacy

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Shanahan, T., & Shanahan, C. (2008). Teaching Disciplinary Literacy to Adolescents: Rethinking Content-Area Literacy. Harvard Educational Review, 78(1), 40-59.

The current notion of disciplinary literacy can be traced to a series of articles and books that emerged in the mid-to-late 2000s (T. Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008; Moje, 2007, 2008; McConachie & Petrosky, 2010). These researchers identified the need for increased attention to how teachers can build literacy capacity in their students while also more effectively teaching the content and thinking patterns of the discipline.

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What Is Disciplinary Literacy and Why Does It Matter?

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What Is Disciplinary Literacy and Why Does It Matter?

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Shanahan, T., & Shanahan, C. (2012). What is Disciplinary Literacy and Why Does it Matter? Topics in Language Disorders, 32(1), 7-18.

The current notion of disciplinary literacy can be traced to a series of articles and books that emerged in the mid-to-late 2000s (T. Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008; Moje, 2007, 2008; McConachie & Petrosky, 2010). These researchers identified the need for increased attention to how teachers can build literacy capacity in their students while also more effectively teaching the content and thinking patterns of the discipline.

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Email: sarahmmccord@gmail.com

LinkedIn: sarahmmccord

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Literacy Consultants & Consulting Services | Erin Kent Consulting

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About the Community | Erin Kent Consulting (EKC)

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A few special gifts for signing up now: a strategy call with Erin Kent or an EKC Senior Strategist to get started using the EKC Community to support your current literacy initiatives; and 5 free spots in our live, virtual winter courses ($1495 value!)

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Gillis, V. (2014). Disciplinary Literacy: Adapt Not Adopt. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 57(8), 614-623. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/jaal.301

This article emphasises the importance of tailoring literacy instruction to specific disciplines rather than adopting a generic, one-size-fits-all approach. It challenges the traditional notion that "every teacher is a teacher of reading," arguing that secondary teachers should focus on discipline-specific literacy practices that align with their content expertise.

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The Edu-Renaissance: Harnessing the Science of Learning in Schools

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The Edu-Renaissance: Harnessing the Science of Learning in Schools

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Drawing on insights from his upcoming book, Dr Nathaniel Swain shared key takeaways from the successful implementation of science of learning aligned practice, and how you can empower your team to transform their work and their students’ outcomes.

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The Edu-Renaissance: Harnessing the Science of Learning in Schools

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An excerpt from Lent, R. C., & Voigt, M. M. (2018). Disciplinary Literacy in Action: How to create and sustain a school-wide culture of deep reading, writing, and thinking. Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press.

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Disciplinary Literacy in English Language Arts

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Disciplinary Literacy in English Language Arts

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An excerpt from Lent, R. C., & Voigt, M. M. (2018). Disciplinary Literacy in Action: How to create and sustain a school-wide culture of deep reading, writing, and thinking. Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press.

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An excerpt from Lent, R. C., & Voigt, M. M. (2018). Disciplinary Literacy in Action: How to create and sustain a school-wide culture of deep reading, writing, and thinking. Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press.

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Why the science of learning? Why not something else?

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Why the science of learning? Why not something else?

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An excerpt from Swain, N. (2025). Harnessing the Science of Learning: Success Stories to Help Kickstart Your School Improvement. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge.

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Why the science of learning? Why not something else?

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An excerpt from Swain, N. (2025). Harnessing the Science of Learning: Success Stories to Help Kickstart Your School Improvement. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge.

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Why the Reading Crisis Is Actually a Learning Crisis

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Why the Reading Crisis Is Actually a Learning Crisis

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An excerpt from Wexler, N. (2025). Beyond the Science of Reading: Connecting Literacy Instruction to the Science of Learning. Arlington, Virginia, USA: ASCD.

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Why the Reading Crisis Is Actually a Learning Crisis

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What Are the Literacy Demands of Experts in the Disciplines?

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What Are the Literacy Demands of Experts in the Disciplines?

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An excerpt from Wolsey, T. D., & Lapp, D. (2024). Literacy in the Disciplines: A Teacher’s Guide for Grades 5–12 (2nd ed.). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

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Literacy Insights: A Curated Collection of Academic Articles

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Literacy Insights: A Curated Collection of Academic Articles

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The International Literacy Association has compiled a selection of academic articles specifically recommended for English Language Arts teachers.

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Literacy Insights: A Curated Collection of Academic Articles

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Literacy Insights: A Curated Collection of Academic Articles

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The International Literacy Association has compiled a selection of academic articles specifically recommended for History teachers.

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Literacy Insights: A Curated Collection of Academic Articles

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Literacy Insights: A Curated Collection of Academic Articles

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The International Literacy Association has compiled a selection of academic articles specifically recommended for Science teachers.

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An excerpt from Lent, R. C., & Voigt, M. M. (2018). Disciplinary Literacy in Action: How to create and sustain a school-wide culture of deep reading, writing, and thinking. Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press.

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The Wordsmyth Comprehensive Dictionary Suite combines our Advanced Dictionary, Intermediate Dictionary, and Beginner's Dictionary. Within any entry, you can easily move up or down between the levels.

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Dictionaries and vocabulary tools for English language learners | Wordsmyth

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English dictionary and integrated thesaurus for learners, writers, teachers, and students with advanced, intermediate, and beginner levels.

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An excerpt from Lent, R. C., & Voigt, M. M. (2018). Disciplinary Literacy in Action: How to create and sustain a school-wide culture of deep reading, writing, and thinking. Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press.

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An excerpt from Lent, R. C., & Voigt, M. M. (2018). Disciplinary Literacy in Action: How to create and sustain a school-wide culture of deep reading, writing, and thinking. Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press.

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Disciplinary Literacy in Health and Physical Education

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Disciplinary Literacy in Health and Physical Education

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An excerpt from Lent, R. C., & Voigt, M. M. (2018). Disciplinary Literacy in Action: How to create and sustain a school-wide culture of deep reading, writing, and thinking. Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press.

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Disciplinary Literacy in Technology or Digital Literacy

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Disciplinary Literacy in Technology or Digital Literacy

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An excerpt from Lent, R. C., & Voigt, M. M. (2018). Disciplinary Literacy in Action: How to create and sustain a school-wide culture of deep reading, writing, and thinking. Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press.

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Mathwords: Terms and Formulas
from Beginning Algebra to Calculus

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Mathwords: Terms and Formulas
from Beginning Algebra to Calculus

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An interactive math dictionary with enough math words, math terms, math formulas, pictures, diagrams, tables, and examples to satisfy your inner math geek.

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The Routledge Dictionary of Literary Terms

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The Routledge Dictionary of Literary Terms

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Disciplinary Literacy in World Languages

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Disciplinary Literacy in World Languages

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An excerpt from Lent, R. C., & Voigt, M. M. (2018). Disciplinary Literacy in Action: How to create and sustain a school-wide culture of deep reading, writing, and thinking. Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press.

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Finding Area in Different Ways: Sentence Starters and Frames

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Finding Area in Different Ways: Sentence Starters and Frames

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Some ideas for sentence frames/starters that could be incorporated into your lesson are listed.

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Finding Area in Different Ways: Sentence Starters and Frames | Mathematical Thinking for English Language Learners

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Some ideas for sentence frames/starters that could be incorporated into your lesson are listed below. If you think a sentence frame/starter will be helpful, consider how it will support students’ mathematical learning and/or development of academic language, and decide which sentence frame/starter (from the list below or that you create) would best support students’ learning. You may find that the starters and frames vary in level of difficulty, and plan to provide them to students accordingly.

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Intended for grades K–12.

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The Academic Language of History and Social Studies

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The Academic Language of History and Social Studies

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Wolfram MathWorld: The Web’s Most Extensive Mathematics Resource

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Comprehensive encyclopedia of mathematics with 13,000 detailed entries. Continually updated, extensively illustrated, and with interactive examples.

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Alphabetical index of World History Encyclopedia.

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© Robert Drislane, Ph.D. and Gary Parkinson, Ph.D.
The online version of this dictionary is a product of
Athabasca University and
ICAAP

*This social science dictionary has 1000
entries covering the disciplines of sociology, criminology, political
science and women's study with a commitment to Canadian examples and
events and names

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Online Dictionary of the Social Sciences

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© Robert Drislane, Ph.D. and Gary Parkinson, Ph.D. The online version of this dictionary is a product of Athabasca University and ICAAP *This social science dictionary has 1000 entries covering the disciplines of sociology, criminology, political science and women's study with a commitment to Canadian examples and events and names

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Ranked-choice voting is an alternative to plurality elections - which are when whoever receives the most votes wins, even if they don't earn a majority of all votes.

Bangor Daily News: "Voters can rank as many of the candidates as they wish as their first, second and third choices, and so on. If no candidate receives a majority of all votes cast, the last-place candidate is eliminated from contention. The ballots from voters who ranked that candidate first are re-examined and all of their second-choice votes are added to the first-round totals. This continues until a candidate receives a majority of all votes cast and is declared the winner."

Maine adopted ranked-choice voting in 2016 and the state released a cartoon explaining how it worked:

FairVote has a list of jurisdictions that currently use ranked-choice voting.

A pejorative term for a white southerner who supported Reconstruction efforts in the south in the late 1800s. They are often associated with carpetbaggers, who were their northern counterparts.

The term was used by southern Democrats who were not in favor of Reconstruction policies. The term originally was used to refer to a useless farm animal, so being called a scalawag was equal to being called a useless person. They were viewed as even lower than carpetbaggers, because they were seen as traitors to the culture they grew up in.

A scalawag could have supported Reconstruction for many reasons. Some believed in giving rights to Black people. Others were poor and saw the advantages of added labor to revitalize the economy. Others were just Republicans who supported the sought to fix the reputation of the South. However, the connotation of the word implies that scalawags only supported the policy for personal gain.

History: "Scalawags had diverse backgrounds and motives, but all of them shared the belief that they could achieve greater advancement in a Republican South than they could by opposing Reconstruction. Taken together, scalawags made up roughly 20 percent of the white electorate and wielded a considerable influence. Many also had political experience from before the war, either as members of Congress or as judges or local officials."

The infamous justification for the decision in Plessy v Ferguson, the case that formally legalized segregation. The justification behind the decision was that segregation was Constitutional as long as both black and white Americans had equal protection under the law.

Of course, the idea of 'separate but equal' was not followed at all, and segregation led to a huge disparity in access to nearly every aspect of life for many Black Americans. The 1956 Brown v Board of Education case would overturn the separate but equal doctrine, saying that separate could not possibly be equal.

Time: "The case reached the Supreme Court in 1896, and the court ruled that Louisiana's law, calling for 'equal but separate' facilities on trains, was constitutional. The majority opinion held that Negroes were equal to whites 'civilly and politically,' but not 'socially.'

In 1954, with Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court finally declared what Americans could long have seen with their own eyes: that which was kept separate was inherently unequal. "Even if physical facilities are equal, said the court,there are intangible factors which prevent 'separate' from being 'equal,'""

Rhetoric on an issue used to inflame supporters. It is often associated with populist ideas.

The phrase was first seen in 1911 in the movie industry, describing movies that were sensationalized. It shifted into a political term in the 1940s. A quote from the Baltimore Sun shows one of its first uses:

"Most of the audiences... were looking for red meat in Dewey's carefully reasoned discussions of world affairs. Since he disdained mudslinging they seized upon his withering treatment of bureaucracy and governmental incompetence as a satisfactory substitute."

Today, red meat is almost always associated with right-wing populist speech. Things that get crowds riled up and angry - such as the "Lock Her Up" chants during the 2016 presidential election - are good examples of red meat.

A term used for a swing state on an electoral map. It is purple because it could either go blue or red. They are sometimes shown as gray on a map instead of purple.

Purple states tend to vary from election to election. When the election actually happens, they will either swing blue or red (Democrat or Republican), but until that is decided, they remain purple.

Typically, states that would be shown as purple on an electoral map include Ohio, Florida, and Nevada. In many cases, states like North Carolina, Iowa, or Colorado could be considered purple, but would depend on the context of the race.

A list of guidelines by which former Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld managed his staff. His rules were often cited when talking about both his managerial style and his personal interactions.

In the 1970s while he worked under Gerald Ford, Rumsfeld got by in Washington well, and Ford had Rumsfeld's Rules given out to many members of his staff. The rules were seen as an effective guideline to being successful in politics.

In the 2000s, the rules were a source of ridicule during the Iraq War. Critics pointed to rules that Rumsfeld seemed to not follow during the Bush administration.

Rumsfeld published a book of these and other rules to live by in 2013, also titled Rumsfeld's Rules.

A state whose voters elect primarily Democratic candidates. It is the opposite of a red state.

There are different levels of how 'blue' a state can be. If a Democratic candidate wins the vote in that state, that state has 'turned blue.' If a state votes for a Democrat in nearly every statewide race, it could be considered a 'deep blue' or 'dark blue' state (New Jersey, Oregon, Vermont, etc.). If a state typically votes Democrat but will occasionally vote for a Republican, they are known as a 'light blue' state (Virginia, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, etc.).

There is no hard and fast rule as to what makes a state dark or light blue. Some people may consider Colorado or New Mexico light blue states, and others may consider them swing states. Conversely, some people may consider Maine or Minnesota dark blue states, but others may consider them light blue due to their potential to switch in an upcoming election.

Related: The origins of red states and blue states.

An automated telephone call that delivers a prerecorded message to multiple phones. Typically, robocalls are used for mass messaging.

In politics, a robocall is typically a way of campaigning. Robocalls are sent out to potential voters, and the fact that they are simply recorded messages makes them easier to send out than in-person phone calls.

An advantage of robocalls is that the candidate can be heard by many constituents without the effort of that candidate making hundreds of calls. They can also take one message from an influential person and distribute it to many people. A disadvantage of robocalls is that they are less genuine and may be ignored by some.

The website Local Victory gives tips on what makes an effective robocall: "The real place where they shine is as a quick, cheap way to get out breaking news (like an endorsement right before Election Day) or to respond to last minute attacks from your opponent. Watch out though, some voters get turned off by too many robocalls. Even if your campaign only does one or two rounds of calls, if your opponents have been bombarding the phone lines with calls, the voters may penalize you when they hear your call"

A state whose voters elect primarily Republican candidates. It is the opposite of a blue state.

There are different levels of how 'red' a state can be. If a Republican candidate wins the vote in that state, that state has 'turned red.' If a state votes for a Republican in nearly every statewide race, it could be considered a 'deep red' or 'dark red' state (Alabama, Texas, Idaho, etc.). If a state typically votes Republican but will occasionally vote for a Democrat, they are known as a 'light red' state (Indiana).

There is no hard and fast rule as to what makes a state dark or light red. Some people may consider North Carolina or Iowa a light red state, and others may consider them swing states. Conversely, some people may consider Georgia and Arizona dark red states, but others may consider them light red due to their potential to switch in an upcoming election.

Related: The origins of red states and blue states.

A phrase used by George H.W. Bush in his speech for the 1988 GOP nomination for president. The full quote is "Read my lips: no new taxes." The line is credited with both helping him win the presidency in 1988 and losing his bid for reelection in 1992.

The phrase became the main soundbite of Bush's campaign in 1988, and it electrified the GOP base. His assertive promise to not raise taxes became what the American people expected from him. When he was forced to raise taxes in 1990, that promise was broken, and he was attacked from both sides of the aisle.

Time ranks it as the 3rd most unfortunate one-liner ever given in politics (behind Clinton and Nixon's famous denials).

A term outlining the philosophy of appeasement, in which supporters argue that peace is worth the cost asked by an enemy. It was once used as a positive term, but became an attack on appeasement after World War II.

Peace at any price is often linked with former British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, who is famous for attempting to appease Nazi Germany before WWII. He signed the Munich Pact, which gave Czechoslovakia to the Nazis. The failure of Chamberlain's attempt for peace, combined with the cost of an entire nation in that attempt, turned "peace at any price" into an attack on appeasement.

It is also sometimes referred to as "peace at any cost."

The idea that increased military power can promote peace.

The idea posits that with more military power, it will deter countries from declaring war. It can also be associated with a global peacekeeping nation, when one country can use their military might to patrol the globe and promote peace.

Peace through strength was most famously used by Ronald Reagan in the 1980s, but it actually dates back to the first century AD. It was first said by Roman Emperor Hadrian.

Reagan used the phrase to describe his military plans in the Cold War. The phrase has appeared in every Republican Party platform since 1980.

A party convention in which delegates are able to vote for the candidate of their choice, and are not tied to the results of primaries or caucuses.

Open conventions were the norm until about 1968. The Democratic Party's delegates were never tied to primary votes before then, and could choose who they wanted (the Republican Party was tied to primaries much earlier). This led to many cases where candidates would forego primaries and focus on delegates instead.

According to Reuters, "the 1968 election, when Hubert Humphrey, who eschewed the primaries in favor of courting officials who controlled the delegates, lost to Republican nominee Richard Nixon, led to reforms that essentially gave control of the nominating process to the popular vote. A number of states decided the easiest way to comply with the new rules would be to hold primaries."

Today, open conventions only happen when no candidate takes a majority of the delegates. The last open convention was in 1976, when neither Ronald Reagan or Gerald Ford was able to secure a majority of GOP delegates. The delegates were then free to choose a candidate without being tied to a vote.

"New Frontier" is used to describe the domestic and foreign policies of the Kennedy Administration.

The term was first used in John F. Kennedy's acceptance speech for the Democratic party's nomination for president. He referred to "the frontier of the 1960's-a frontier of unknown opportunities and perils- a frontier of unfulfilled hopes and threats."

After Kennedy's election, the term became synonymous with the collection of policies he put forward, similar to Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal, or LBJ's Great Society. Everything from the Bay of Pigs Invasion to his tax cuts became part of the New Frontier.

A term used in journalism meaning that the information given to the reporter cannot be attributed to the person saying it. Off the record quotes are often used to protect sources who are giving information that could get them in trouble.

The term off the record has picked up many misconceptions. To be off the record, the journalist must agree to it. A person cannot declare himself off the record after statements are made and hope his statements will not be reported. If the source does not want the quote to be reported, with attribution or without, they must agree to it with the reporter beforehand.

Off the record quotes are used often in politics, typically to protect anonymous sources speaking out, and protecting them from being fired or silenced by politicians.

The Guardian: "Let's face it, down the years we have been here many, many times. People say things to journalists, possibly in a light-hearted fashion, that end up in print. Inevitably, "official" denial follows. They may also fail to grasp what we mean by 'off the record.' For journalists, it simply means that it is reportable as long as the source is not identified."

A term used by President Ronald Reagan's 1984 re-election ad to describe the hope and optimism of the people after years of turmoil.

The advertisement starts with the phrase, "It's morning again in America," and proceeds to show an idyllic and nostalgic landscape of the US, where the economy is good and everyone is happy. It told of a nation that was hopeful after years of negativity in government.

Today, the phrase can be used to describe the beginning of an era of hope.

A pejorative for wealthy liberals who do not want to bear the cost of the liberal policies they support. It is typically used by populists to criticize the rich members of the Democratic Party.

Examples of a limousine liberal include Democrats who champion distribution of wealth but pay their workers minimum wage, or those who claim to support environmental regulation but have a large carbon footprint.

According to Time, the term comes from the 1969 NYC Mayoral race, where it was first used by candidate Mario Procaccino to attack his wealthy opponent:

[Limousine liberals] were, according to Procaccino, who was then the city's comptroller, insulated from any real contact with poverty, crime, and the everyday struggle to get by, living in their exclusive neighborhoods, sending their children to private prep schools, sheltering their capital gains and dividends from the tax man, and getting around town in limousines, not subway cars. Not about to change the way they lived, they wanted everybody else to change, to have their kids bused to school far from home, to shoulder the tax burden of an expanding welfare system, to watch the racial and social makeup of their neighborhoods turned upside down.

A term used by White House press secretaries to indicate that there will be no news coming out of the White House that day. It can also be called a 'Full Lid.'

A lid is typically called when the White House does not want to release any information about a key topic. They call a lid to give notice to journalists that no questions will be answered.

Although the term has been around for decades, it was popularized by fictional Press Secretary C.J. Cregg on TV show The West Wing.

Kelly O'Donnell: "The White House has again called a 'lid' meaning no other news is expected tonight."

A pejorative used by alt-Right conservatives to insult moderate Republicans. It implies they have sold out and is similar to the term RINO. The term is a combination of 'Conservative' and 'cuckold' (one whose wife is cheating on him). It implies that those moderates are weak and effeminate.

The term originates from the white-supremacist blogospher which started using it in 2015. The term gained favor during the 2016 Republican presidential debates and has continued through the presidency of Donald Trump.

Social, cultural, or political change brought about by young people. In politics, it is typically used to mean a surge of young voters in a key election.

The term originated in the fashion industry in 1965, when it was used by Vogue magazine. It has taken on a more politically charged meaning in recent years, and was voted the 'Word of the Year' for 2017 by Oxford.

The Guardian: 'Youthquake' Behind Labour Election Surge Divides Generations

A con artist or someone who swindles people out of money through fraud and deception. In politics, the term has been used to describe those who use the political process to enrich themselves.

Former Rep. Steve LaTourette (R-OH), writing for Politico, noted that today's political grifters "are a lot like the grifters of old-lining their pockets with the hard-earned money of working men and women be promising things in return that they know they can't deliver."

"Political grifting is a lucrative business. Groups like the Club for Growth, FreedomWorks and the Tea Party Patriots are run by men and women who have made millions by playing on the fears and anger about the dysfunction in Washington... These people have lined their pockets by promising that if you send them money, they will send men and women to Washington who can 'fix it.' Of course, in the ultimate con, the always extreme and often amateurish candidates these groups back either end up losing to Democrats or they come to Washington and actually make the process even more dysfunctional... The grifting wing of the party promises that you can have ideological purity-that you don't have to compromise-and, of course, all you have to do is send them money to make it happen."

Mike Lupica: "You could call people like this the brand new Washington generation of the boys of Tammany Hall, except that in another New York, Tammany Hall was actually known for providing services, starting with jobs. That's how those boys got the vote in the old days, how they kept their power. Something else separates Tammany Hall from the current U.S. Senate. In old New York, they did their skimming out in the open and never tried to pretend they were doing something noble."

An annual picnic in Fancy Farm, Kentucky that has come to represent the traditional starting point of the fall campaign season in Kentucky. The gathering attracts statewide and occasionally national candidates and is held on the first Saturday in August.

The picnic was mainly a local affair until A. B. "Happy" Chandler began making appearances, going for the first time in 1931 while running for Lieutenant Governor. So many Kentucky politicians now attend that it tends to only be news when a major politician decides not to make an appearance.

Said Chandler in an interview: "I guess I was one of the first candidates for statewide office to ever go to Fancy Farm. I ended my 1931 campaign for lieutenant governor down there. I won that election and thought Fancy Farm was good luck, so I kept going back."

Sam Youngman: "Politically speaking, there are two main attractions at Fancy Farm: The specter of a career-ending gaffe hanging over every politician who takes the stage, and the crowd, half of which is trying to will that gaffe to happen through endless heckling and occasional chants."

The Louisville Courier Journal has a good video explainer of the event.

A wall where people flaunt their political connections by displaying photos of themselves with more famous people.

The phenomenon is also sometimes called the "glory wall" or "me wall."

Mike Nichols: "The ego wall is where the politician hangs pictures of himself or herself beside other, more famous politicians. It is why, when a president flies into town, there are usually about 495 lesser politicians waiting on the tarmac. They want a picture for the ego wall."

Slate: "Lobbyists have glory walls in the office to impress clients. Staffers have them to impress other staffers. Socialites have their glory walls on the piano... For aspiring Washingtonians, the glory wall allows you to brag about conversations you never really had with the chief justice and intimacies you never really shared with the president."

The junior members in the British House of Commons who occupy the back benches of Parliament, sitting behind party leaders and top government officials.

BBC: "Backbenchers are also sometimes known as private members and thus a backbencher can introduce an original idea for legislation in the form of a Private Member's Bill. Backbenchers have more freedom to speak as they are not as constrained by loyalty to the government. This can also pose problems for the party whips who try to impose party discipline."

The term has also come to refer to the rank-and-file members of the U.S. Congress who are not part of their party's leadership.

A term coined for a Saturday Night Live sketch mocking George W. Bush and his reputation for mispronouncing words during the first presidential debate in 2000.

Comedian Will Ferrell played Bush in the sketch and was asked by the debate moderator to summarize "the best argument for his campaign." His answer was "strategery."

After the 2000 presidential election, the Washington Post reported that Bush staffers reportedly began using the term as a joke and even referred to the president's political team as "The Department of Strategery."

Bush himself used the term in a 2001 interview with CNN, presumably as a self-deprecating nod to the comedy sketch.

A primary to select candidates what is run by a political party and not the state.

Similar to a party canvas, a firehouse primary allows the party to keep control of the nominating process while allowing more participation than a party caucus. Participants generally arrive at multiple polling places anytime during announced polling hours, cast a secret ballot, and then leave.

William Safire noted the earliest in print reference to a firehouse primary was a 1990 Washington Times article about the selection of Democratic Party candidates for the county board in Arlington, Va.

The practice of setting music to awkward, B-roll footage of a politician.

The term was coined after Sen. Mitch McConnell's (R-KY) re-election campaign in 2014 posted a two-and-a-half minute video of the senator campaigning set simply to music. As Time points out, the footage "was most likely placed there for outside PACs supportive of McConnell to use, a practice circumventing campaign finance rules barring coordination used by both Republicans and Democrats."

The Daily Show coined the term "McConnelling" and provided a few hilarious examples, putting the footage of McConnell to Salt-n-Pepa's "Whatta Man," Simon & Garfunkel's "The Sounds of Silence" and Sir Mix-A-Lot's "Baby Got Back."

Said host Jon Stewart: "Here's the secret. It works with every song that has the word 'eyes' in it."

Short for "good government guys," referring to people who would fight for government reform.

This was used during the 1970s as a derisive term for those who were fighting to clean up city municipalities. James Merriner writes that the phrase was "attributed to Charles A. Dana, editor of the New York Sun in the late nineteenth century. Goo goo might have originally been applied to members of the Good Government Association of Boston, energized by Harvard reformers in suburban Cambridge."

The phenomenon whereby certain people are "mentioned" to journalists as possible candidates for higher office.

Scott Simon of National Public Radio explained: "The late Art Buchwald used to talk about the Great Mentioner - some unnamed person who told pundits and reporters a lot of people say this, a lot of people say that. Art said that if you trace back exactly who said this and that, it was usually just the reporters and analysts themselves that tried to splash a coat of credibility over sheer speculation by putting it in the mouth of the Great Mentioner."

Ryan Lizza attributes the term to New York Times columnist Russell Baker who used it "to describe the mysterious source who plucks politicians from obscurity and mentions them to political journalists as contenders for higher office."

Attempting to diminish a political foe by likening his or her words to remarks on " legitimate rape " made by former Missouri Rep. Todd Akin (R-MO) while seeking a U.S. Senate seat in 2012.

Bill Lambrecht: "Akinize has been used often to describe political attacks since those remarks about rape and pregnancy effectively scuttled Akin's political ambition. Google finds Akinize 15,000 times."

When the presiding officer of the U.S. Senate disregards a rule or precedent.

This most commonly refers to an effort by the Senate to end a filibuster by a simple majority, even though rules specify that ending a filibuster requires the consent of at least 60 senators.

An opinion written by Vice President Richard Nixon in 1957 concluded that the U.S. Constitution grants the presiding officer the authority to override Senate rules in this way. If a majority vote to uphold the presiding officer, his interpretation of the rules becomes a precedent.

Senator Trent Lott (R-MS) first called the option "nuclear" in March 2003, using the metaphor of a nuclear strike to suggest it might provoke retaliation by the minority party.

A state whose voting outcome in a presidential election is relatively sensitive or responsive to changes in political conditions, such as a change in the national economic mood.

Nate Silver: "Elastic states are those which have a lot of swing voters - that is, voters who could plausibly vote for either party's candidate. A swing voter is very likely to be an independent voter, since registered Republicans and registered Democrats vote with their party at least 90 percent of the time in most presidential elections. The swing voter is also likely to be devoid of other characteristics that are very strong predictors of voting behavior."

An inelastic state, by contrast, is one which is relatively insensitive to these changes.

The locked box where legendary Louisiana Gov. Huey Long kept "deducts" from state employee salaries to fund his political operation.

Estimates suggest Long collected between $50,000 to $75,000 each election cycle from government workers. The deduct box was kept at his Roosevelt Hotel headquarters in New Orleans.

After being shot in 1935, the New Orleans Times-Picayune reports Long was asked on his deathbed by Roosevelt Hotel owner Seymour Weiss, "Huey, where is the deduct box?" Before falling into a coma, Long responded, "I'll tell you later, Seymour."

The deduct box was never found.

Federal law does not define or officially recognize the act of a presidential candidate "suspending" their campaign instead of formally ending it.

CNN: "Practically speaking, if a candidate removes him- or herself from the race without the intent of re-entering at a later date, then there is not a big difference between 'suspending' a campaign vs. dropping out entirely. The end result is usually the same: the candidate is no longer seeking that particular office... That said, there are two main differences between 'suspending' and ending a presidential campaign: delegates and money."

Candidates who suspend their campaigns usually get to keep any delegates they've won and can continue to raise money beyond what's needed to retire their campaign debts. In contrast, candidates who actually drop out of a race, usually have to forfeit certain delegates and are limited in how they can raise future funds.

Slate: "The phrase has been employed at least as far back as the 1970s and continues to serve as the most popular way for candidates to end their primary bids without closing down their campaign committees."

A political tactic of joining an organization with which you do not agree with the intention of changing it from the inside.

In his 1959 book Masters of Deceit, FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover described entryist tactics by Soviet agents to infiltrate school boards, trade unions, and major party precinct organizations.

A brokered convention occurs when there are not enough delegates "won" during the presidential primaries for a single candidate to have a majority during the first official vote at a party's nominating convention. The nomination is then decided though political deals between candidates, party bosses and subsequent votes until one candidate receives a majority.

Before the era of presidential primaries, political party conventions were routinely brokered. The most recent brokered convention nominees were Adlai Stevenson at the 1952 Democratic convention and Thomas Dewey at the 1948 Republican convention.

More recently, a brokered convention is mostly just a political junkie's fantasy. The modern party primary system almost always determines an overwhelming winner of delegates. And as David Frum notes, it's hard to imagine a "brokered convention" when there is no such thing as political "brokers" any more. Elected delegates to a convention aren't going to be swayed by political leaders deciding the nominee in a backroom.

A brokered convention was portrayed in the film The Best Man starring Henry Fonda.

An observation made by Mike Godwin in Wired in 1990 which states:

"As an online discussion grows longer, the probability of a comparison involving Nazis or Hitler approaches 1."

Releasing bad news or documents on a Friday afternoon in an attempt to avoid media scrutiny is often called a "Friday news dump" by members of the media.

NPR: "Often, the White House sets the release of bad news and unflattering documents to late Friday afternoon. The Pentagon and other agencies also use the practice, a legacy of earlier administrations."

The television show The West Wing had an episode on the technique called, "Take out the trash day."

Donna: What's take out the trash day?
Josh: Friday.
Donna: I mean, what is it?
Josh: Any stories we have to give the press that we're not wild about, we give all in a lump on Friday.
Donna: Why do you do it in a lump?
Josh: Instead of one at a time?
Donna: I'd think you'd want to spread them out.
Josh: They've got X column inches to fill, right? They're going to fill them no matter what.
Donna: Yes.
Josh: So if we give them one story, that story's X column inches.
Donna: And if we give them five stories ...
Josh: They're a fifth the size.
Donna: Why do you do it on Friday?
Josh: Because no one reads the paper on Saturday.
Donna: You guys are real populists, aren't you?

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Latest Entries - Taegan Goddard's Political Dictionary

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Ranked-choice voting is an alternative to plurality elections - which are when whoever receives the most votes wins, even if they don't earn a majority of all votes. Bangor Daily News: "Voters can rank as many of the candidates as they wish as their first, second and third choices, and so on.

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Geography Dictionary & Glossary for students

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Geography Dictionary & Glossary for students

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Science Dictionary - Online Science Term Finder

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Free online science dictionary which queries multiple research sources for accurate scientific information.

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Geology and Earth Science Terms and Definitions

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Geology and Earth Science Terms and Definitions

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Geology & Earth Science Dictionary: Photos & Definitions

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A photo makes most things easier to understand. We have included lots of photos in our Geology and Earth Science Dictionary.

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This small sports dictionary gives the non-sports person some terms to help when discussing, watching or reading about sports. There are more to see for specific sports, just follow the links.

clean sheet - when conceding no goals or points in a match or competition. In bowling if you make all your spares in the game it is called a clean sheet.

combine: an event where potential players perform tests in front of scouts to try and impress for selection

criterium: a bike race held on a short course, often run around city center streets.

deckwork - The mood setting moves performed on the deck once the music starts before the swimmers enter the water. (see more inSynchronized Swimming)

down to the wire: used in situations where the outcome may not be decided until the very last moment. From early race horse events where a wire was placed across the finish line.

goal tending -- An illegal move by a defender of striking the ball on its downward flight to the basket. Two points are awarded. (see more inBasketball)

hack: a foul. (see more in Ultimate Frisbee)

hat trick: a description of three things happening in a row, such as three wickets in three balls in cricket or three goals in a game in soccer. (see more in Cricket)

kit: the clothing used for playing a sport

negative splits: When the second half of a race is swum faster than the first half. (see more in Swimming)

nineteenth hole: The name of the bar in the clubhouse (see more inGolf)

off the wood: a shot in tennis or badminton when the ball is hit by the frame of the racket (see more in Badminton)

peloton - the main group of riders during ordinary stages (see more in Cycling)

repechage: a rowing race in which the best-placed of those who failed to win heats compete for a place in the final.

rally: A series of consecutive shots played by opponents before a winner (see more in Tennis)

split decision: in boxing, a decision based on a majority of votes rather than unanimously.

Turkey - tenpin bowling lingo for three strikes in a row. (see more inBowling)

wild card: such as in tennis when a player is allowed to enter the tournament without having to fulfill the qualifying requirements.

wire to wire: meaning from start to finish, as in he led the race wire to wire. The term derives from early horse racing events where a wire was placed across the start and finish line.

wooden spoon: in Australian Football, the unofficial title for the last place team at the end of the regular season (see more in Australian Football)

Sport Science Terms

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Downloadable Materials - The Learning Scientists

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An overview of the science of learning.

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It is expensive, but it works!

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Katrina Ashford | Education Assistant St Edward’s Primary School

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MacqLit

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There are a couple of SPELD organisations across the states and territories in Australia. They provided a range of free literacy resources, including a phonics scope and sequence and decodable readers.

The content is very Australian, but they are great resources to experiment with, especially if you are considering investing in a program like MacqLit.

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We recommend taking a look at the resource 'Understanding Learning Difficulties. '

A comprehensive, evidence-based reference of strategies to assist students with learning difficulties.

This booklet, in conjunction with the enclosed USB, is designed to provide principals, teachers and school psychologists throughout Australia with a greater awareness and understanding of the significant impact learning disabilities can have on students, and to outline the most effective remediation and accommodation strategies available to them in the classroom.

Available to purchase from our shop.

SPELD SA members may like to borrow from our
library.

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We've developed and collated a range of teaching tools for you in literacy and you can also find other relevant resources for teaching, particularly students with learning difficulties.

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There are a couple of SPELD organisations across the states and territories in Australia. They provided a range of free literacy resources, including a phonics scope and sequence and decodable readers.

The content is very Australian, but they are great resources to experiment with, especially if you are considering investing in a program like MacqLit.

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Phonics and Morphology Scope and Sequence - SPELD NSW

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SPELD NSW Phonics and Morphology Scope and Sequence to support classroom literacy instruction and intervention planning.

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Session 5 - Disciplinary Literacy in Action (Part 1)

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Session 5 - Disciplinary Literacy in Action (Part 1)

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Session 6 - Disciplinary Literacy in Action (Part 2)

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Session 6 - Disciplinary Literacy in Action (Part 2)

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Session 5 - Disciplinary Literacy in Action (Part 1)

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It is an evidence-based instructional model designed to help students - particularly those who struggle with writing - develop strategies for planning, drafting, revising, and self-regulating their writing.

Key Features of SRSD:

Explicit strategy instruction: Teachers model writing strategies (for example, using mnemonics like POW – Pick my idea, Organize my notes, Write and say more).

Self-regulation: Students are taught how to set goals, monitor their progress, use self-talk, and evaluate their writing.

Gradual release: Instruction moves from teacher modeling to guided practice to independent use.

Integration of motivation and writing: SRSD emphasizes building student confidence and ownership of their writing.

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What is Self-regulated Strategy Development? SRSD makes students "love to write"!

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What is Self-regulated Strategy Development? SRSD makes students "love to write"!

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What is Self-regulated Strategy Development? SRSD makes students "love to write"!

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Professor Karen Harris - Self-Regulated Strategy Development in Writing and Reading

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Professor Karen Harris - Self-Regulated Strategy Development in Writing and Reading

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Professor Karen Harris - Self-Regulated Strategy Development in Writing and Reading

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Best Practices in Organizing and Differentiating for Equitable Literacy Instruction

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Best Practices in Organizing and Differentiating for Equitable Literacy Instruction

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An excerpt from Morrow, L. M., Morrell, E., & Casey, H. K. (Eds.). (2023). Best Practices in Literacy Instruction (7th ed.). The Guilford Press.

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Best Practices for Organizing and Differentiating for Equitable Instruction

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Instruction for Students
with Special Needs

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Instruction for Students
with Special Needs

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An excerpt from Graham, S., MacArthur, C. A., & Hebert, M. (Eds.). (2019). Best Practices in Writing Instruction (3rd ed.). The Guilford Press.

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Instruction for Students with Special Needs

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An excerpt from Graham, S., MacArthur, C. A., & Fitzgerald, J. (Eds.). (2016). Handbook of Writing Research (2nd ed.). The Guilford Press.

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An excerpt from Graham, S., MacArthur, C. A., & Hebert, M. (Eds.). (2019). Best Practices in Writing Instruction (3rd ed.). The Guilford Press.

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20 Science of Reading Activities in French Immersion and Core French

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20 Science of Reading Activities in French Immersion and Core French

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20 Science of Reading Activities in French Immersion and Core French - La Classe de Mme Caroline

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Explore Science of Reading activities in French to build phonological awareness, vocabulary, and comprehension skills in your French Immersion or Core French classroom.