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Alohol was legal only here and was the largest port in Canada. This brought in lots of tourists and crime.

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Where candian were faced with heavy machinery and artilerry when arriving on this beach for D-Day

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According to Tlicho accounts, their chief, Monfwi, was initially dismissive of the treaty. Other Tlicho had signed a previous treaty at Fort Resolution, and had been upset that promises were not kept: white hunters and trappers encroached on their land, and game laws that they were told would not apply to them had been enforced. In the end, Monfwi delivered an ultimatum: he selected land boundaries for his people on a piece of paper, circumscribing an area in which their freedoms would never be restricted, and asked for a guarantee that this would be upheld. Breynat promised that this would be the case, and signed his name to it. The treaty was then signed, with Monfwi keeping a copy of both the map and the treaty. However, both of these items have since disappeared. Many of the Indgenous people did find many benifets from participating in the treaties as they belived land was being stolen from them. They hoped though, this would enable them to have grounds to hunt and fish.

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Although government intrusions into traditional life were initially less frequent and intense for northern Indigenous communities than they were for those living further south, the treaty nevertheless led to changes. There has been disagreement between the signatories about what Treaty 10 entails. They signed the treaty based on the understanding their land, or way of life, would be protected, would always be there. This idea of a “way of life” extends beyond hunting and trapping to a philosophy that emphasizes the connectedness of things. Disruptions to this order are failures to honor the treaty.

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The purpose of Treaty 9 was to purchase the interests of the resident Cree and Ojibwe peoples to lands and resources to make way for white settlement and resource development. Indigenous people in Treaty 9 were offered like other Numbered Treaties, provisions for cash treaty payments, the creation of reserves, education and hunting, fishing and trapping rights. In the 1880s, Cree and Ojibwe peoples in the James Bay region were increasingly concerned about presence of non-Indigenous trappers and prospectors on their traditional lands. The Cree and Ojibwe protested verbally and in petitions to Hudson’s Bay Company traders and to federal and provincial government officials. They were concerned, in particular, with the decline of the local beaver population. They wanted protection for their lands, resources and fur-bearing animals.

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The terms and implementation of Treaty 8 differ importantly from those of previous Numbered Treaties, with long-lasting consequences for the governance and peoples of that area.

The three treaty commissioners left Athabasca Landing on 3 June 1899 for a territory that was not well-known to settlers. The first signing of Treaty 8 occurred at Lesser Slave Lake on 21 June 1899, and included representatives of the Cree.

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Blackfoot Crossing Historical Park, Wheatland County, AB

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Blackfoot Crossing Historical Park, Wheatland County, AB

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Blackfoot Crossing Historical Park, Wheatland County, AB

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Treaty 7 is the last treaty made between the Plains First Nations. The question of who was given authority to negotiate on behalf of each Indigenous nation involved is more complex. The Blackfoot Confederacy, for example, did not have a distinct hierarchical structure; the person in charge varied depending on the situation. Although Crowfoot negotiated on their behalf, it is uncertain if his people saw him as their leader in this negotiation. It is also clear, based on First Nations testimony, that they had a different understanding of the purpose of the negotiation. Each understood it to be primarily a peace treaty, whereby they allowed settlement and promoted peaceful cohabitation in exchange for a series of promises. None thought that it was a land surrender. Part of the confusion arose from cultural misunderstandings, but also from serious translation issues. The difference between written and oral cultures — including the settlers’ favoring of written documents over oral tradition in terms of legality — has led many elders to claim that there were promises made during the negotiations that never made it into the text of Treaty 7. The First Nations in the territory now known as Alberta were concerned with the alarming spread of diseases, such as smallpox and the decimation of the buffalo due to overhunting. As a result, they felt the signing of the treaty would ensure the survival of their people. They also wished for similar benefits like the treaties signed before them.

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On 5 September, the commissioners arrived at Fort Pitt, where they were to negotiate the treaty with the Indigenous peoples there. Some, but not all, locals met them. Some were away, including Cree chief Mistahimaskwa (Big Bear). Alexander Morris spoke to those present, promising to offer the same terms as at Fort Carlton. They continued to deliberate for the next two days. On 9 September, Cheif Weekaskookwasayin addressed the people. He wanted his people to sign the treaty arguing that the treaty terms would help preserve and protect their livelihood. This was met with approval from the people. Historian Hugh Dempsey argues that Weekaskookwasayin’s acceptance of the treaty was likely influenced by Mistawasis’ and Ahtukuoop’s decision to sign Treaty 6, rather than a close reading of the treaty terms.

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Fort Carlton Provincial Park, Saskatchewan 212, Duck Lake, SK

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Fort Carlton Provincial Park, Saskatchewan 212, Duck Lake, SK

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Fort Carlton Provincial Park, Saskatchewan 212, Duck Lake, SK

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Treaty 6 was signed by parties from the crown and Cree, Assiniboine and Ojibwe leaders on 23 August 1876. Morris left for Fort Carlton to negotiate a treaty in July 1876. Before negotiations, the Cree performed a sacred pipe ceromony in which the comissioners particiated in. By participating, the leaders also took an oath to be truthful during the proceedings.After the ceremony, Morris explained that the government sent him to Fort Carlton to create an agreement with the Cree that would endure “as long as that sun shines and yonder river flows.” In order to do so, however, he required all of the chiefs and community leaders in the area to be present. Morris then explained to the group that the Crown would create reserves for their people and would assist them in farming initiatives, without “interfer[ing] with their present mode of living.” Morris never explicitly discussed the concept of land cession. This might be because he thought it was obvious that signing the treaty relinquished Indigenous title to the land, or because he did not think that he and his translators could convey the message to them clearly. This statement was immediately met with resistance as the leaders resented the notion. These leaders were silenced as the government told them that days of bison hunting were coming to an end, and the Cree needed help adjusting to new modes of life; the treaty provided them with that opportunity.On 23 August, the chiefs and commissioners negotiated the terms of the treaty. In addition to rights and provisions similarly enshrined in Treaties 1 to 5. The indigenous people signed the treaty because no one else was offering any better. They benefitted from the storage of a medicine chest at the Indian agent’s house, more agricultural implements than provided for in earlier treaties and a “famine and pestilence” clause, which promised to protect the Indigenous peoples from such problems. Morris knew that he was offering more than the government would have wanted, but he felt it necessary to finalize the deal.

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In 1875, the government appointed Morris and James McKay, an Executive Council of Manitoba member, to negotiate a treaty with bands around Lake Winnipeg. Since the lands surrounding Lake Winnipeg were not considered as valuable as the plains, the commissioners would not offer the same treaty terms promised to the signatories of Treaties 3 and 4. For example, the peoples of Treaty 5 were to receive a one-time payment of $5 upon signing the treaty, instead of the $12 given to the peoples of Treaties 3 and 4. In addition, Treaty 5 peoples would only receive 160 acres of land per family, which is one-quarter of the land granted to the peoples of Treaties 3 and 4 (although it is the same amount offered to the peoples of Treaties 1 and 2). The rest of the terms and conditions of Treaty 5 were similar to the previously negotiated Numbered Treaties. As a result, there was little room for negotiation on the part of the Indigenous peoples. The Indigenous people of treaty 5 signed the treaty and surrendered the title to their land in exchange for reserve lands, so they could hunt, trap, and fish. The government also promised to maintain schools on reserves, control liquor traffic on reserves, and distribute annual payments.

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Treaty negotiations at the start were difficult and divided among tribal lines. They had difficulty selecting a main spokesperson and agreeing on treaty terms. Some headmen, like The Gambler (Saulteaux), were hesitant to negotiate and skeptical of the government’s promises. Others, such as Plains Cree chief Loud Voice, were more optimistic and believed that a treaty would benefit their people. After arguments on where the commissioners should meet the tribes, Loud Voice humbly asked that the chiefs come together in unity. Morris seconded this view. He warned the chiefs that if they did not make a treaty now, it would be unlikely that the government would negotiate another in the future. The commissioners and Indigenous leaders then parted ways and met again the following day. On the last day of negotiations, 14 September, the chiefs were ready to negotiate the treaty. However, they wanted some assurance that the government’s intentions were good. As spokesperson Kamooses asked, “Is it true that my child will not be troubled for what you are bringing him?” Morris assured him that “the Queen’s power will be around him.” The chiefs understood this to mean that the Crown would protect and provide for them forever. Although there were some disagreements among the bands about treaty terms, the leaders were willing to accept the same terms offered in Treaty 3. The commissioners agreed to this. The Indigenous peoples also asked for an annual payment of $15 per person and for the government to clear their debts to the HBC. These requests were refused.

After the treaty terms had been translated and explained to the Indigenous peoples, Treaty 4 was signed by the commissioners and 13 chiefs on 15 September 1874. One of the major reasons why the Indigenous people of Treaty 4 joined the treaty was so that they could farm. Not only the ability to be provided farm instruction, medicine, gristmills, stores, blacksmiths, and farm machinery. The Indigenous signatories of Treaty 4 did not receive all that they were promised. The reserve selection process only two years after signing which, in turn, also delayed their ability to farm. Piapot believed that his people had been cheated by the original terms of the treaty. Seeking to achieve these demands, Treaty 4 peoples delayed taking their annual payments in 1875 for four days. The terms of Treaty 4 were never expanded, however.

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In 1869 the government began to make a road and waterway system that planned to cut through Saulteaux territory. In late July 1871, Simpson, Dawson, and Pither met with the Saulteaux at Fort Frances and the Shebandowan Lakes. The commissioners explained the government’s plan to purchase the Saulteaux’s rights to the territory. However, the Saulteaux were not interested in this deal; they still wanted payments for the “right of way” through their territory. The commissioners left Fort Frances and the Shebandowan Lakes without making a treaty, but they agreed to return early next summer with “presents,” such as clothing and yet-to-be-determined cash payments. In June 1872, Saulteaux was now making “new and more extravagant demands,” including an increase in the annual payments. This may have been prompted by the discovery of silver and gold on their lands, which increased the value of the property. In June 1873, the commissioners tried again to negotiate a treaty with the Saulteaux. Dawson knew that the only way the commissioners would be successful was if the government permitted them to make more generous offers. He recommended matching the American offer of $14 per person for the cession of their territory, in addition to granting an annual payment of $6 to $10. Dawson also suggested that the new lieutenant governor of Manitoba and the North-West Territories, Alexander Morris, attend the next negotiation with troop companies at his side, to make the Saulteaux “feel and know that the treaty is a matter of the greatest importance” to the government. After a few more negotiations took place about the allocation of certain goods and services, the Saulteaux accepted the treaty terms. Treaty 3 was signed on 3 October 1873, and confirmed by an order-in-council on the last day of that month. Saulteaux Ojibwe was promised to set aside land from the government. These people would be permitted to hunt and fish on their reserves until the government required it for other purposes, including settlement, public works, and resource extraction. They also wanted to sign treaties because of some verbal promises such as conscription exemption or of government provisions of food for celebrations at the annual payments. Or the Saulteaux’s right to mineral extraction on their reserves.

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After concluding negotiations for Treaty 1, Commissioner Simpson, Lieutenant-Governor Archibald, and James McKay, along with the clerk of Manitoba’s Legislative Assembly, Molyneux St. John, went to Manitoba Post, an HBC trading post on the southwest side of Lake Manitoba, to complete Treaty 2. Treaty 2 was signed on behalf of the Anishinaabe by Mekis, Sou-sonce, Ma-sah-kee-yash, François (Broken Fingers), and Richard Woodhouse. In the written text of the treaty, the Anishinaabe agreed to “cede, release, surrender and yield up to Her Majesty the Queen, and Her successors forever” a large tract of very valuable land to the west and north of Manitoba as it existed in 1871, and three times as large as the province. It was all the land that was likely to be required by settlers for some time to come. In return, each band would receive a reserve large enough to provide 160 acres for each family of five. Indigenous people signed up for these treaties because it is possible they believed that in Treaty 1 the treaty was a promise to share the land with newcomers, each group pursuing its livelihood without interference, particularly given how government treaty negotiators emphasized the Indigenous ability to continue to hunt and fish on ceded tracts and muddled the concepts of “surrender” and “reserves.” These mutual misunderstandings may have been repeated during the signing of Treaty 2.

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Indigenous people have been advocating for a treaty since the late 1950s as the sale of HBC's Rupert's land made Indigenous peoples realize they had to fight for the right of their land. Negotiations for these treaties did not start until Treaty 1 did not start until 27 July 1871, after approximately 1,000 Indigenous attendees, including men, women and children, had formed an impressive camp of roughly 100 tents in a semi-circle around Fort Garry. James McKay, a Métis member of Manitoba’s Executive Council, was retained as interpreter. Treaty One was very unusual in the fact that its daily transcript was published in the paper open to the public. Lieutenant-Governor Archibald in Negotiations spoke for Queen Victoria and said he desired Indigenous peoples to adopt agriculture, but she would not force them to make drastic changes. Archibald attempted to introduce the concept of reserves. However, he stressed that Indigenous people would still have the freedom to pursue their traditional ways of life on the surrendered territory, until a vaguely defined future time when those lands were “needed for use”. At the time Indigenous people going into these negotiations believed that large tracts of ground were to be set aside for them as hunting grounds, including timber lands, of which they might sell the wood as if they were proprietors of the soil. They also brought up the children and how these land allocations would protect them. These negotiators were reassured by the Crown’s representatives that the Queen was willing to help them in every way and that besides giving them land and annuities, she would give them a school and a schoolmaster for each reserve, and for those who desired to cultivate the soil ploughs and harrows would be provided on the reserves. On 3 August 1871, Treaty 1 was signed at Fort Garry. The tense, eight-day proceedings reflected both the difficulty in reaching mutual understanding on Euro-Canadian concepts such as “reserves” and “surrender,” and the fact that the Indigenous negotiators pressed hard to secure the reserves they needed for the future.

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Komagata Maru Martyrs' Memorial, PN Banerjee Road, Shyampur, Budge Budge, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

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Komagata Maru Martyrs' Memorial, PN Banerjee Road, Shyampur, Budge Budge, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

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Komagata Maru Martyrs' Memorial, PN Banerjee Road, Shyampur, Budge Budge, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

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Komagata Maru

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WWI

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alcohol legal in Montreal in 1920's

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Winnipeg General Strike

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1st Oil Boom Town- 5th Largest Exporter in the World

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WWII

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WWII

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WWII

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WWII

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WWII

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This frozen land betweeen Russia and Alaska is thought to be how the First Nations travelled to Canada.

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The Norseman first made contact with the First Nation in Canada in Newfoundland. The Norseman are thought to be one of the first outsider contacts with Canada and the First Nations.

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Many Loyalists settled in New Brunswick after feeling pressured to leave their country

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Samuel de Champlain discovered and charted Lake Ontario on his expeditions

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Samuel de Champlain charted and mapped Lake Huron.

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Samuel de Champlain mapped out on his expedition what today is called Lake Champlain

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The French and the British fought over this river which led to the Seven Years War

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Samuel Champlains voyages helped map and establish Quebec

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The Acaridans who were expelled from Canada created a community in New Orleans.

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Nova Scotia was the original home of Acadian before they were expelled and deported.

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Batoche National Historic Site, Batoche, SK

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Batoche National Historic Site, Batoche, SK

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Batoche National Historic Site, Batoche, SK