# data[].attributes.body
Memory is complex, but stated simply, it is the brain’s ability to absorb new information, catalog it, and be able to bring it up again (Psychology Today, n.d.).

Our memories are records of past experiences that guide our decisions and actions (Psychology Today, n.d.). These records include both the facts and personal moments the brain can actively recall, often without conscious thought. Other memories need more time or connections to be recalled.

Memory serves as both a temporary storage space for new information and as a long-term system for what we have learned over time. The brain stores memories in different locations of the brain, according to sensory details (Harvard Health Publishing, n.d.). Beyond helping us understand and predict the world around us, memory plays a key role in shaping our identity and life story, making possible meaningful experiences like nostalgia (Psychology Today, n.d.).

The brain begins forming a memory through a process called encoding (Sousa, 2023). Sensory information activates specific neurons, and regions like the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex work together to turn the input into meaningful data. The next step involves synaptic plasticity, where connections between neurons are strengthened through repeated activation, or repetition. Teachers should plan for rehearsal of new information so these connections can be strengthened and memories can be formed. The brain undergoes neurogenesis in the hippocampus, where new neurons are generated (Sousa, 2023). Once the memory is encoded and stored, the brain can reactivate the same pattern to recall the information. Together, these biological mechanisms create the foundation for learning, remembering, and applying information.

References

Harvard Health Publishing. (n.d.). Memory. Harvard Medical School. https://www.health.harvard.edu/topics/memory

Psychology Today. (n.d.). Memory. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/memory

Sousa, D.A. (2022). How the brain learns (6th ed.). Corwin.

# data[].attributes.body
Short-term memory refers to information the brain must hold on to temporarily (Psychology Today, n.d.). From short-term storage in the brain, memories are either discarded or moved to long-term memory (Harvard Health Publishing, n.d.). Some researchers use the term “working memory” to describe short-term memory, while some keep it separate.

Children have limited amounts of short-term memory, and even within children of the same age there can be a disparity of short-term memory capacity (DiTullio, 2021). Teachers can adjust for their students accordingly and not teach them too much new information at once. Some students could benefit from interventions specifically targeted toward working on their short-term memories.

The short-term memory works best when it does not experience too much interruption (Lewandowsky, Geiger, & Oberauer, 2008). Although researchers previously thought that memories just fade over time, it is now evident that interference causes information to disappear from short-term memory (Lewandowsky et al., 2008). Schools can help students by limiting announcements and schedule changes that interrupt class. Teachers can help students by following consistent routines that do not require interruptions for giving directions.

References

DiTullio, G. (2021, September 9). How to engage students’ memory processes to improve learning. Edutopia. https://www.edutopia.org/article/how-engage-students-memory-processes-improve-learning

Harvard Health Publishing. (n.d.). Memory. Harvard Medical School. https://www.health.harvard.edu/topics/memory

Lewandowsky S, Geiger SM, & Oberauer K. (2008). Interference-based forgetting in verbal short-term memory. Journal of Memory & Language, 59(2), 200–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2008.04.004

Psychology Today. (n.d.). Types of memory. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/memory/types-of-memory

# data[].attributes.body
Our long-term memory can store information for extended periods, even up to an entire lifetime. The cortex of the brain holds our long-term memories and has unlimited storage potential (DiTullio, 2021). Long-term memory can be categorized as either explicit or implicit. Explicit memories require conscious recall, while implicit memories are retrieved unconsciously, allowing us to perform tasks without actively thinking about them (DiTullio, 2021).

Long-term memory holds the experiences and information that shape a person’s identity. It includes not only facts and past events but also learned skills and routines, such as typing or dancing. While these memories can last a long time, they are also flexible and can shift over time (Harvard Health Publishing, 2022).

Teachers can use the prior knowledge of the students and build on those memories to learn more difficult concepts. Establishing a baseline of knowledge at the beginning of the year or unit is helpful for teachers to plan lessons that will build students’ long-term memories.

References

DiTullio, G. (2021, September 9). How to engage students’ memory processes to improve learning. Edutopia. https://www.edutopia.org/article/how-engage-students-memory-processes-improve-learning

Harvard Health Publishing. (2022, March 21). Memory. Harvard Medical School. https://www.health.harvard.edu/topics/memory

# data[].attributes.body
Sensory memory is the very brief holding of information by the brain to make sense of it even if the stimulus is no longer in sight or occurring (Cherry, 2023). The sensory memory takes information from the senses and holds them briefly until the brain decides if the information will be discarded or sent to another place in the brain. Visual images in the sensory memory are called “iconic memories” and are held for less than half a second. Echoic memories, which come from sound, are held the longest at three or four seconds. Haptic memories come from the sense of touch and last about two seconds.

Sensory memory is crucial for transforming sensory data into meaningful experiences (Cherry, 2023). Without sensory memory, it would be difficult to focus on what is important and filter out distractions.

Teachers can help students learn by keeping calm classrooms so there are fewer distractions that the sensory memory needs to filter and it is easier for students to concentrate on new information in a lesson, thus increasing the odds of the information being stored long-term.

Reference

Cherry, K. (2023, September 13). Sensory memory in psychology: Types and experiments. Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-sensory-memory-2795352

# data[].attributes.body
As a teacher, I am interested in how the brain relates memory to learning. The nondeclarative, or implicit, memory system is responsible for feelings that students attach to learning and the classroom (Sousa, 2022). When students feel positively about a learning experience, endorphins are released in the brain which are chemicals that make people feel good. Students who experience endorphins in the classroom want to seek a repeat experience so they continue to value learning due to the endorphins. When students have negative experiences in the classroom, their brains produce cortisol, which is stressful to the student (Sousa, 2022).

Beyond the emotions of learning, students must be able to retain new information. The capacity of short-term storage in the brain is related to the age of the child (DiTullio, 2021). Younger children have less room to store memories short-term. Brains must continually reprocess information, which is called rehearsal (Sousa, 2022). During rehearsal, the learner must be able to attach both sense and meaning to the new information for it to be stored in the memory. Rehearsal by the learner can either be rote, when information needs to be memorized exactly as learned, or elaborative, when data must be connected to older information and comprehended and not just memorized. Younger students need more rehearsal since their memories can hold less information in short-term storage (DiTullio, 2021).

The “primary-recency effect” refers to the sensation of the brain best recalling items first and last learned, while items in the middle of a list might be forgotten. Teachers can capitalize on this knowledge by presenting new correct information at the beginning of the lesson, giving time for the student to process and practice during downtime, and then more instructional time during the end of the lesson (Sousa, 2022).

Research has also shown that making connections between subjects, often referred to as “interleaving,” helps memories move from short-term to long-term memory (DiTullio, 2021). For students unable to make these connections themselves, teachers should model their thinking until students understand the process enough to interleave on their own.

References

DiTullio, G. (2021, September 9). How to engage students’ memory processes to improve learning. Edutopia. https://www.edutopia.org/article/how-engage-students-memory-processes-improve-learning

Sousa, D.A. (2022). How the brain learns (6th ed.). Corwin.

# data[].attributes.body
Brain trauma can occur in physical form, such as an injury, known as Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) (Johns Hopkins Medicine, n.d.). The effect on the memory depends on the type of TBI, although any injury to the brain is not ideal. While the brain does not regenerate after injury, it can re-learn some tasks by forming new neural pathways.

Trauma can also be psychological, such as abuse, neglect, accidents, or disasters. Ugwuanyi and Formella (2024) found that in patients who experienced this sort of trauma, their memory processes can be either fragmented or disrupted and flashbacks can also be experienced. Trauma can negatively affect attention, problem-solving, and concentration.

Students who have lived through trauma might have more trouble concentrating and storing information in their memory. However, interventions such as counseling and cognitive therapy can help improve memory and cognitive functioning (Ugwuanyi & Formella, 2024).

References

Johns Hopkins Medicine. (n.d.). Traumatic brain injury. https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/traumatic-brain-injury

Ugwuanyi, B. C., & Formella, Z. (2024). Exploring the impact of trauma on memory and cognitive functioning: Implications for therapeutic interventions. International Journal of Health and Psychological Research, 9(3), 66–82. https://iiardjournals.org/get/IJHPR/VOL.%209%20NO.%203%202024/EXPLORING%20THE%20IMPACT%2066-82.pdf

# data[].attributes.body
Teachers are always looking for ways to improve student outcomes. Students must be able to remember what they learned in previous lessons to build upon their knowledge base. Trauma can affect how well students can intake information and process it. When planning lessons, teachers should incorporate retrieval practice, or the act of recalling information without cues, since it can significantly boost long-term retention (Moreira, Pinto, Starling, & Jaeger, 2019). Rather than simply re-reading material, students benefit more from activities like low-stakes quizzes, flashcards, or class mapping activities which strengthen neural pathways and improve recall. When paired with spaced repetition, where material is revisited over time rather than only reviewed in a single session, retention improves even further (Carpenter, Cepeda, Rohrer, Kang, & Pashler, 2012). Research shows that spacing out study sessions allows memory to consolidate more deeply, making it easier for students to retain and apply knowledge (Carpenter et al., 2012). Students whose brains have been altered by trauma might need more repetition and spacing than others, so teachers can address their needs in intervention or small groups.

Another strategy that enhances transfer and understanding is elaborative encoding, sometimes referred to as "interleaving," which encourages students to connect new content to prior knowledge (McDaniel, 2023). This technique can be achieved by prompting students to explain concepts in their own words, make comparisons, or apply ideas to real-life situations. For example, when learning about counting money, teachers can set up a class store and students can count the correct money to make purchases. Studies suggest that combining elaborative encoding with retrieval practice, especially when done sequentially, can significantly improve learning outcomes (McDaniel, 2023). For students who have experienced trauma, these connections between lessons are vital. Those students might need more coaching to make the connections but the efforts will pay off through strengthened recall of information.

References

Carpenter, S. K., Cepeda, N. J., Rohrer, D., Kang, S. H. K., & Pashler, H. (2012). Using spacing to enhance diverse forms of learning: Review of recent research and implications for instruction. Educational Psychology Review, 24, 369–378. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED536925.pdf

McDaniel, M. A. (2023). Combining retrieval practice with elaborative encoding: Complementary or redundant? Educational Psychology Review, 35, Article 75. https://eds-p-ebscohost-com.lopes.idm.oclc.org/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=4&sid=b16dab72-add5-4734-b681-49e7bc7bab5a%40redis

Moreira, B. F. T., Pinto, T. S. S., Starling, D. S. V., & Jaeger, A. (2019). Retrieval practice in classroom settings: A review of applied research. Frontiers in Education, 4, Article 5. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feduc.2019.00005/full