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Felecia Cunningham

Grand Canyon University

TCH-520: Brain-Based Learning

Dr. Tess Olson-Wenneker

June 11, 2025

As educators, it is important to understand how the brain processes information for retention and transfer. It can make a significant difference in our approach to teaching, the learning strategies we choose to implement in the classroom, and how we are able to adapt what we learn from professional development training. Memory allows students (and individuals in general) to process and apply new knowledge. By learning how different types of memory function, especially in the presence of factors such as trauma, teachers can be more informed of how to create supportive and effective learning environments. This resource offers an overview of memory, how retention and transfer occur, how trauma affects memory, and strategies that can be used in the classroom to improve learning outcomes for all learners.

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Memory is the process of storing and retrieving information. Memories form when the brain processes sensory input by encoding information and creating stronger connections between neurons. Neurons communicate through electrical and chemical signals to strengthen these connections. The hippocampus plays a key role in consolidating these memories, helping to transfer them from short-term to long-term storage. This process strengthens neural pathways, making it easier to retrieve memories later when needed.

Memory consists of three types: sensory, short-term, and long-term. Sensory memory briefly holds information from the senses for a few seconds. Iconic memory refers a visual of something just seen, such as a flash of light or a quick image, while echoic memory is the recall of sounds, such as remembering the last few words someone said. Other senses, including smell, touch, and spatial awareness, also have their own forms of short-term sensory memory (Psychology Today, 2024). In my kindergarten class, for sensory memory, an example would be my students noticing and remembering the bright colors and sounds of a storybook briefly before focusing on the next activity.

Short-term memory is where information is temporarily stored and actively processed for tasks like problem-solving and comprehension. Short-term memory holds information we are actively thinking about, such as a new name or a recently seen detail. This information may be stored in long-term memory or quickly forgotten. It aids in recalling things from just moments ago, like what happened in a movie scene or the current temperature (Psychology Today, 2024).

Long-term memory stores information over extended periods of time. Information that is meaningful, repeated, or emotionally significant is more likely to be transferred into long-term storage. Long-term memory consists of explicit and implicit types. Explicit memory includes conscious recall of facts and events, such as remembering a classroom field trip (episodic memory) or knowing general knowledge like math facts (semantic memory). Implicit memory involves skills and behaviors we perform without thinking, like riding a bike or typing (procedural memory). It also includes emotional responses formed through experiences, such as feeling anxious when hearing a fire alarm. Together, these types help learners store and use important information over time (Psychology Today, 2024). Understanding these types of memory and how they form in the brain can help educators design lessons and learning environments that support memory retention and retrieval for all students.

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Retention is the ability to store learned information in long-term memory, while transfer is the application of that knowledge to new situations. Both are important for learning because they allow students not only to recall information but also to apply what they know in meaningful ways. Transfer also supports flexible thinking by helping students apply knowledge in new or unfamiliar situations. For example, when a student remembers a math strategy from a previous lesson and applies it to a different type of problem, that demonstrates transfer. Helping students retain and transfer learning requires engaging memory processes through repetition, relevance, and active thinking. When educators connect new content to prior knowledge and provide opportunities for practice in different contexts, students are more likely to internalize and reuse what they have learned (DiTullio, 2021).

In my own experience, I have seen retention and transfer develop over time through classroom routines and structured practice. In kindergarten, students begin to memorize daily steps such as routines, schedules, and expectations. As they repeat these activities each day, the information shifts from working memory to long-term memory. Eventually, they begin to carry out these routines independently, showing retention. This illustrates the importance of repetition and reinforcement for young learners who need clear pathways for storing and applying knowledge. Purposeful instruction that activates prior learning and includes varied practice supports both retention and transfer, making learning more relevant and flexible across settings.

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Trauma affects how the brain processes and stores memories. The sympathetic nervous system activates when someone experiences trauma, and stress hormones are released, which shut down nonessential functions and shift the body to a fight, flight, or freeze mode. The parasympathetic nervous system allows the system to return to normal, but this does not always happen. Even after the threat has passed, the brain may continue to experience a lingering sense of danger (Lebow, 2021). During traumatic experiences, or as someone potentially develops PTSD, the amygdala triggers the stress response and can continue to react to reminders of past events as if they are happening again, which leads to a feeling of constant anxiety. Both the hippocampus, which helps with learning and memory, and the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for reasoning and decision-making, become less active during trauma. For anyone who is trying to learn in this situation, they would face challenges with thinking logically and not being able to cope with their emotions. The nervous system can become overly sensitive, which lowers a person’s tolerance for stress. Small triggers will begin to feel overwhelming (Lebow, 2021).

For children as young learners, trauma can disrupt memory development by affecting how attention, concentration, and organization skills grow. Some students may seem forgetful or unfocused because their brains are still responding to perceived threats. These students might seem withdrawn or hesitant to participate, while others may act out and become easily frustrated over small challenges. Emotional regulation can also be difficult. A student may have sudden outbursts of anger or tears that seem disproportionate to the situation. Trauma can affect how students interact with others. Some may have difficulty forming trust with peers or adults, misinterpret facial expressions or tone of voice, or constantly seek reassurance. Creating a safe, supportive environment for students is essential for healthy brain function and learning.

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One strategy to support memory and retention in students, with consideration to those who have experienced trauma, is to utilize consistent review methods during instruction. Instead of expecting students to retain everything after one lesson, teachers can spend a few minutes at the beginning of each new lesson reviewing key ideas from previous lessons. This practice builds students’ confidence and makes it easier for them to build on prior knowledge. It is something that I plan for in Powerpoint format and as a whole group, the class reads over review slides for the main concepts or standards we are studying for the week. For students affected by trauma, these repeated reviews provide gentle reminders that reduce frustration from potential overload and help them stay on track with the class.

A second strategy is to incorporate sensory experiences into learning activities. Multisensory learning, for example, involves using the senses to activate different areas of the brain. This makes it easier to encode and recall information, but most importantly, it helps the students apply concepts in new and fascinating ways. They become active learners. For example, in a phonics lesson with my first graders, I had students form letters in shaving cream while saying the corresponding sounds aloud. Many students remained engaged and excited, retaining the sounds more easily and recalling them during other activities. Sensory input can also have a calming effect, helping students who have experienced trauma to stay grounded, but a greater benefit is that it is a diverse way to learn. Teachers can identify and implement multisensory tools that are most effective for their students’ learning needs.

A third strategy is to use consistent routines and visuals to reduce stress and improve working memory. When students know what to expect, they can focus more fully on the lesson instead of dealing with uncertainty. I have used a daily visual schedule in my classroom and plan to continue using it because many students with trauma or exceptionalities struggle to manage transitions throughout the day. Knowing the schedule helps these students participate fully without added stress. Predictable systems create a sense of safety and structure that supports memory and transfer. Adults also benefit from connecting these ideas to their teaching experiences, participating in hands-on learning, and working within structured and consistent formats. These strategies have helped me in my educational journey, both as a student and an educator.

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DiTullio, G. (2021). How to engage students’ memory processes to improve learning. Edutopia. https://www.edutopia.org/article/how-engage-students-memory-processes-improve-learning

Lebow, H. L. (2021). The science behind PTSD symptoms: How trauma changes the brain. PsychCentral. https://psychcentral.com/ptsd/the-science-behind-ptsd-symptoms-how-trauma-changes-the-brain

Psychology Today. (2024). Types of memory. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/memory/types-memory