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Who? The Russian Army (Under President Vladimir Putin & The Crimean people.

What? In February and March 2014, Russia invaded the Crimean Peninsula, part of Ukraine, and then annexed it. This took place in the relative power vacuum immediately following the Revolution of Dignity and was the first act of the wider Russo-Ukrainian War.

When? February 20, 2014 - March 21, 2014; ended with the Crimean parliament declaring independence from Ukraine.

Why? As pro-Russian protesters became increasingly assertive in Crimea, groups of armed men whose uniforms lacked any clear identifying marks surrounded the airports in Simferopol and Sevastopol. Masked gunmen occupied the Crimean parliament building and raised a Russian flag, as pro-Russian lawmakers dismissed the sitting government and installed Sergey Aksyonov, the leader of the Russian Unity Party, as Crimea’s prime minister.

How? Russian takeover. On 27 February, unmarked Russian forces with nationalist paramilitaries took over the Autonomous Republic of Crimea and Sevastopol, with Russian special forces seizing the building of the Supreme Council of Crimea and the building of the Council of Ministers in Simferopol.

A brief Timeline of Events:

February 20, 2014: This is the beginning date of the armed aggression when the first cases of illegal crossing of the Ukrainian state border near the Kerch Strait by the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation and its use of military formations deployed in Crimea to block Ukrainian military units were recorded.

February 23, 2014: The biggest pro-Russian mass meeting took place in Sevastopol. For the first time, the appeal not to recognize the Ukrainian authorities was announced publicly. Also, the so-called people’s mayor of Sevastopol, Russian businessman Aleksei Chaly, was elected.

February 24, 2014: Ships of the Russian Navy, which guarded the offshore zone in the area of the Sochi Olympic Games, took on board in Novorossiysk military hardware and units of Russian servicemen, which were used to seize administration buildings and to block Ukrainian military units on the territory of the ARC and Sevastopol, and headed towards Sevastopol.

February 27, 2014: Russian military without identification marks seized the buildings of the Verkhovna Rada of the ARC and the ARC government in Simferopol.

March 1, 2014: The Federation Council unanimously supported the proposal. On the same day, Russian storm troops were deployed in Rostov, Voronezh, Kursk, Belgorod, and Bryansk regions.

March 16, 2014: On 14 March 2014, the Constitutional Court of Ukraine declared unconstitutional the decree of the Verkhovna Rada of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea, according to which a “referendum” was held.

March 21, 2014: Russian President Vladimir Putin signed a decree ratifying this agreement.

Guiding Questions:

1. ESPN+D

Economic: Russia was already near a recession before the Crimean crisis, and Russia ranks low on the World Economic Forum 's rankings of road quality, technological adaptation, and burden of government regulation. Russia's already-weak economy left it less able to withstand the challenges imposed by low oil prices and international sanctions.

Social: Crimea has a long history of cultural and political ties with Russia. The region’s population includes a significant Russian-speaking community, which played a role in shaping sentiments during the crisis.

Political: Wider pro-Russian and anti-government unrest across south-eastern Ukraine contributed to the situation. Unmarked Russian troops secured strategic sites across Crimea, and a pro-Russian deputy replaced the head of the Council of Ministers of Crimea.

Demographic: Crimea is populated by an ethnic Russian majority, as well as a minority of both ethnic Ukrainians and Crimean Tatars. The region’s large ethnically Russian population played a significant role in the events leading up to the annexation.

enviroNmental: The Crimean Peninsula holds immense strategic value due to its location in the Black Sea. Its proximity to Russia and its historical ties made it a focal point during the crisis. The cultural affinity between Russia and Crimea also played a role. The peninsula has a large ethnic Russian population and significant pro-Russian sentiment.

2. How does geography/land shape how and why people fight over territory?

Crimea is a strategic location for both countries, as it provides access to the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, as well as a naval base for Russia’s Black Sea Fleet in Sevastopol. Crimea has a varied and valuable natural environment, with a mild climate, fertile soils, mineral resources, and scenic landscapes12. These factors attract tourism, agriculture, industry, and trade, as well as environmental and cultural preservation efforts.

Photo Explanation: The map attached to this pin is a political map of Crimea when it declared independence in 2014. The map shows the boundaries of strategic cities and ports that both Russia in Ukraine in this conflict to gain dominance over the other.

Two Connections to another Unit:

1. Unit 1 - The Crimea crisis requires the use of different types of maps, data, and spatial analysis to understand the physical and human characteristics of the peninsula, as well as the historical and contemporary forces that shape its boundaries and identity.

2. Unit Culture - The Crimea crisis involves the interaction and conflict of different cultural groups, such as the ethnic Russians, Ukrainians, and Crimean Tatars, who have different historical, linguistic, and religious affiliations and aspirations.

Additional Questions:

1. Is Russia going to stop at Crimea?

2. Why is Crimea strategically important for Russia?

3. What led to the annexation of Crimea by Russia?

Sources:

https://www.vox.com/2014/9/3/18088560/ukraine-everything-you-need-to-know

https://www.cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/conflict-ukraine

https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/08/18/crimea-russia-ukraine-war/

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Transnistria, Moldova (Nov 2, 1990 – Present)

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Transnistria, Moldova (Nov 2, 1990 – Present)

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Who? Moldova & Transnistria

What? Transnistria, also commonly known as Transdniester, is a narrow strip of land between the east bank of the Dniester River and Moldova’s border with Ukraine. No country, including Russia, recognizes the territory as independent, but Moldovan authorities have no control over the region, which functions akin to a separate state.

Why? But Russia could potentially seek to use Transnistria to assist with medical aid and food, guarding convoys and securing the railway network, and offering a safe space where to resupply its troops, repair equipment and regroup.

When? The armed conflict began on November 2, 1990, in Dubăsari. Pro-Transnistria forces, supported by elements of the Russian 14th Army, fought against pro-Moldovan forces. The war intensified in early 1992 and resulted in a ceasefire on July 21, 1992. Transnistria became a de facto independent state but remains internationally recognized as part of Moldova.

How? The roots of the modern conflict between Transnistria and Moldova stem back to 1924, when the Soviet Union established the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic in the area to the east of the Dniester River (Transnistria). The conflict escalated into a war in 1992, which ended with a ceasefire and the de facto independence of Transnistria, but not its international recognition. The conflict remains unresolved and frozen, despite several attempts at mediation and negotiation.

A brief Timeline of Events:

1990: Transnistria declares its independence from Moldova, which was then part of the Soviet Union. Moldova rejects the declaration and tries to assert its authority over the region.

1991: The Soviet Union collapses and Moldova becomes an independent state. Transnistria reaffirms its sovereignty and adopts its own constitution, flag, and anthem.

1992: The conflict escalates into a full-scale war, with clashes between Moldovan and Transnistrian forces, as well as Russian and Ukrainian volunteers. The war ends with a ceasefire agreement brokered by Russia, which deploys peacekeeping troops in the region.

1993: The United Nations adopts a resolution calling for a peaceful settlement of the conflict and the respect of Moldova’s territorial integrity.

1994: Moldova adopts a new constitution that grants Transnistria a special legal status within the country, but Transnistria rejects the offer and continues to seek international recognition.

1997: Moldova and Transnistria sign a memorandum of understanding that establishes the principles of their relations and the framework for negotiations. The memorandum also recognizes Russia as a guarantor of the peace process.

2003: Russia proposes a plan to federalize Moldova and grant Transnistria equal status and veto power over key decisions. The plan is rejected by Moldova and the international community, who see it as a threat to Moldova’s sovereignty and European integration.

2005: The United States and the European Union join the negotiations as observers, along with Russia, Ukraine, and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). The talks are known as the 5+2 format.

2006: Transnistria holds a referendum in which 97% of the voters support independence and eventual integration with Russia. The referendum is not recognized by Moldova or the international community.

2008: Russia recognizes the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, two breakaway regions in Georgia, after a brief war. Transnistria hopes to follow suit, but Russia does not extend the same recognition to it.

2011: Moldova and Transnistria resume the 5+2 talks after a five-year hiatus. The talks focus on confidence-building measures and the settlement of practical issues, such as transportation, communication, and trade.

2014: Russia annexes Crimea from Ukraine and supports a separatist uprising in eastern Ukraine, sparking a new crisis in the region. Moldova signs an association agreement with the European Union, while Transnistria seeks closer ties with Russia and the Eurasian Economic Union.

2016: Moldova elects a pro-Russian president, Igor Dodon, who pledges to improve relations with Transnistria and Russia. However, he faces opposition from the pro-European parliament and government, which maintain a course towards European integration.

2018: Moldova and Transnistria sign several agreements on the normalization of their relations, such as the recognition of Transnistrian license plates and diplomas, and the reopening of a bridge across the Dniester River.

Guiding Questions:

1. ESPN+D

Economic: Despite the conflict, there are opportunities for economic integration. Moldovan authorities can incorporate Transnistria into a common customs area. The economic shocks caused by the war may accelerate the integration of the Moldovan and Transnistrian economies.

Social: Transnistria was the most developed and industrialized region of the former Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic. However, the conflict disrupted stability and led to internal displacement of over 100,000 people on both sides.

Political: Transnistria, an unrecognized state, declared independence from Moldova shortly after the Soviet Union’s collapse in 1991. The region has a large Russian-speaking population, tracing their origins to Soviet-era migrations. Despite being considered a part of Moldova by the UN, Transnistria maintains parallel institutions and a standing army.

Demographic: Transnistria, an internationally unrecognized state that separated from Moldova in 1990, has been experiencing a strong demographic decline. Two key reasons contribute to this decline: sinking birth rates and high outmigration. The consequences of this demographic trend impact areas such as economic development, education, healthcare, and social infrastructure in both rural and urban regions.

enviroNmental: Transnistria is a region within Moldova, located between the Dniester River and the Ukrainian border. The conflict traces back to 1924 when the Soviet Union established the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (M.A.S.S.R.) in the area east of the Dniester River (Transnistria).

2. How does geography/land shape how and why people fight over territory?

Transnistria is located on the left bank of the Dniester River, which forms a natural border between Moldova and Ukraine. The region has a strategic position for both countries, as it provides access to the Black Sea and the Danube River, as well as a potential corridor for energy and trade.

Photo Explanation: The map attached is a topographic map the outlines the border of Moldova, which is sandwiched between Ukraine and Russia which offers a geographical explanation as to why the unrecognized state is a point of major crossfire between the two countries.

Two Connections to another Unit:

1. Unit 1 - The Transnistria conflict requires the use of different types of maps, data, and spatial analysis to understand the physical and human characteristics of the region, as well as the historical and contemporary forces that shape its boundaries and identity.

2. Unit (Industrialization and Development) - The Transnistria conflict affects the economic development and integration of the region, as well as of Moldova and Ukraine. For example, the conflict has disrupted the trade and energy sectors in the region, such as the gas pipelines and the bridge across the Dniester River.

Additional Questions:

1. Is Transnistria loyal to Russia?

2. How vulnerable is Moldova?

3. Why are Russia-Moldova tensions again escalating?

Sources:

https://www.e-ir.info/2021/08/03/moldova-and-the-transnistria-conflict-still-a-regional-cold-war/

https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/4/26/five-things-to-know-about-russian-backed-transnistria

https://www.gmfus.org/news/thawing-frozen-conflict-young-people-healing-old-wounds-transnistria-and-moldova

However, he faces opposition from the pro-European parliament and government, which maintain a course towards European integration

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Who? The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Bosnian ethnic groups (Croats, Serbs, and Muslims) & Balkan countries (Serbia, Slovenia, Croatia).

What? In summary, the breakup of Yugoslavia marked the dissolution of a once-unified federation, leading to the formation of independent states and ongoing regional tensions.

When? The Breakup of Yugoslavia was 25 June 1991 – 27 April 1992 but the ethnic conflicts last from 1980-1999.

Why? Under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito, Yugoslavia experienced relative stability, economic growth, and political success. However, after Tito’s death in 1980, the weakened federal government struggled to cope with rising economic and political challenges. In the 1980s, ethnic tensions escalated, and unresolved issues emerged. The breakup triggered a series of inter-ethnic Yugoslav Wars, primarily affecting Bosnia and Herzegovina, parts of Croatia, and later, Kosovo.

How? After World War II, Yugoslavia was established as a federation of six republics: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia. Additionally, two autonomous provinces existed within Serbia: Vojvodina and Kosovo. Each republic had its own branch of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia party and a ruling elite, with tensions typically resolved at the federal level.

Brief Timeline of Events:

May 4, 1980: Death of Yugoslav President Josip Broz Tito. A Presidency of 9 members assumes power, with one member from each constituent republic and province, along with the president of the Presidium of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia.

March 11 - April 3, 1981: Protests in Kosovo begin with student demonstrations at the University of Pristina. Demonstrators in Kosovo call for it to become a constituent republic within Yugoslavia instead of an autonomous province of Serbia. End of demonstrations, during which 9 people are killed and over 250 injured.

April 12 - 23, 1983: Bishops of the Serbian Orthodox Church sign a petition against the persecution of Serbs in Kosovo. The Slovenian music group Laibach plays a controversial concert in Zagreb, using videos of Tito and pornographic content, leading to violent intervention by authorities.

February 29, 1991: A referendum on independence is held in Bosnia and Herzegovina, with 99.7% voting in favor of independence.

The formal end came when the last two remaining republics, SR Serbia and SR Montenegro, proclaimed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia on April 27, 1992.

Guiding Questions:

1. ESPN+D

Economic: The Yugoslav economy operated as a unique system of socialist self-management from the end of World War II until the 1990s. It combined market mechanisms with state planning, emphasizing worker self-management and decentralized decision-making. After World War II, Yugoslavia faced infrastructure devastation due to the occupation and liberation struggle.

Social: Yugoslavia was a mosaic of ethnic groups and religions, including Orthodox Christianity, Catholicism, and Islam. The diverse ethnic composition created both cultural diversity and tensions. As communism collapsed and nationalism resurged in the late 1980s and early 1990s, these ethnic differences intensified. After the death of Yugoslavia’s leader, Josip Broz Tito, in 1980, uncertainty prevailed. Ethnic animosities erupted, culminating in the violent breakup of Yugoslavia in the 1990s.

Political: The rise of leaders like Josip Broz Tito and later Slobodan Milosevic played a pivotal role. Milosevic’s actions exacerbated divisions and led to mass killings among different ethnic groups.

Demographic: Ethnic animosities persisted after World War II, leading to turmoil as Yugoslavia broke apart. The demographic of people who participated pated to the falling apart of Yugoslavia were soldier in WWII who sided with Nazi Germany to avoid being invaded.

enviroNmental: Up to the collapse of Yugoslavia in 1991, the country faced environmental challenges such as droughts, pollution, and destruction left behind by WWII.

2. What role did the concept of sovereignty play in instigating or prolonging the conflict?

The breakup was instigated by the rise of nationalism and separatism in the late 1980s and early 1990s, as some republics, such as Slovenia, Croatia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina, sought to assert their sovereignty and independence from the federal government of Yugoslavia, which was dominated by Serbia. They were motivated by various factors, such as ethnic, religious, and cultural differences, economic grievances, and political aspirations.

Photo Explanation: The map attached above is a choropleth map the outlines the different factions of different ethnic groups who ended up fighting each other during the breakup of Yugoslavia and eventually became new republics in the established Balkan area.

Two Connections to another Unit:

1. Unit (Culture) - The breakup of Yugoslavia involves the interaction and conflict of different cultural groups, such as the Serbs, Croats, Bosniaks, Albanians, and others, who have different historical, linguistic, and religious affiliations and aspirations.

2. Unit (Industrialization and Development) - The breakup of Yugoslavia affects the economic development and integration of the region, as well as of the neighboring countries. For example, the breakup has disrupted the trade and infrastructure networks in the region, such as the roads, railways, and pipelines. It has also affected the access to natural resources, such as water, oil, and minerals.

Additional Questions:

1. How did the international recognition of Croatia and Slovenia influence the conflict?

2. What role did media propaganda play in shaping public opinion during the wars?

3. How did the fall of communism in Eastern Europe impact Yugoslavia’s stability?

Sources:

Yugoslavia | History, Map, Flag, Breakup, & Facts | Britannica

https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17632399?fbclid=IwAR1gyVaDtqj57CBAxevHjAhU173-IE6V5aR6raFJL_9OvcJzYJENLUiBGF0

https://www.csis.org/analysis/war-ukraine-aftershocks-balkans

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Western Sahara/Morocco & Algeria (June 17, 1970 - Present)

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Western Sahara/Morocco & Algeria (June 17, 1970 - Present)

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Who? The Western Sahara conflict is an ongoing dispute between the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR), represented by the Polisario Front, and the Kingdom of Morocco.

What? The Western Sahara conflict revolves around competing claims to the territory, with the Polisario Front advocating for self-determination and independence, while Morocco asserts its sovereignty over Western Sahara

When? While the physical war lasted from 1970-1991, Despite the truce, the issue of Western Sahara’s status remains contentious, and efforts toward a peaceful resolution continue.

Why? During the era of Spanish colonial rule, the region was known as the Spanish Sahara. The indigenous Sahrawi people, represented by the Polisario Front, sought independence from Spanish control. The Polisario Front launched an insurgency against Spanish colonial forces in the early 1970s. Their goal was to achieve self-determination and independence for the Sahrawi people.

How? The Western Sahara dispute began in 1975 when Spain, which had been a colonial power, withdrew from the territories and left their future uncertain.

A brief Timeline of Events:

June 12, 1970: “Most other countries got independence. Look at Namibia, Mozambique…look at Bosnia and Kosovo even South Sudan. But why are the Sahrawis left behind?”

May 3, 1973: The Polisario Front, Frente Polisario, FRELISARIO or simply POLISARIO, a Sahrawi rebel national liberation movement working for ending the occupation of Western Sahara first from Spain and since 1975 from Morocco. The movement took up arms. Some 100,000 refugees still live in POLISARIO’s camps in Algeria.

1975: Beginning of guerrilla warfare between the POLISARIO and the Moroccan Army.

October 16, 1975: The ICJ issued an advisory opinion, concluding that “the materials and information presented to it do not establish any tie of territorial sovereignty between the territory Western Sahara and the Kingdom of Morocco or the Mauritanian entity, thus ruling in favor of the right to self-determination of the Sahrawi people.

November 6-12, 1975: By 1975, in the face of growing international pressure and fierce fighting by the newly formed Polisario, Spain is ready to relinquish what was then called Spanish Sahara. Following the Spanish evacuation of Spanish Sahara, Spain, Morocco, and Mauritania signed the Madrid Accords on November 14, 1975, leading to both Morocco and Mauritania moving in to annex the territory of now known as Western Sahara.

December 28, 1975: Spanish Sahara becomes known as Western Sahara.

February 27, 1976: Spain withdraws. The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) is proclaimed by the Polisario Front in Bir Lehlu, Western Sahara.

August 8, 1976: The current Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) president, Mohamed Abdelaziz, was elected POLISARIO secretary-general.

June 2, 1991: The UN suspends the identification process for voter eligibility in a referendum and recalls most MINURSO civilian staff. Military personnel stayed to oversee the truce.

Present Day: The first Sahrawi Intifada was a part of the on-going Western Sahara conflict for independence. It transformed into the Independence Intifada or the Second Intifada in 2005. The main phase lasted from September 1999 to early 2000. The first of successive peaceful uprisings in occupied Western Sahara (1999, 2001, 2005, and 2010) due to the lack of human and economic rights for the Sahrawi people, as well as due to the lack of progress in the referendum process.

Guiding Question:

1. ESPN+D

Economic: Maintaining the conflict imposes a substantial economic burden on Morocco. The ongoing war, which cannot be won outright, drains resources and diverts attention from other pressing domestic issues. The United States also has a stake in improving relations in the region. Addressing the Western Sahara conflict could enhance stability and cooperation, aligning with broader U.S. foreign policy goals.

Social: As Sahrawis became more aware of their identity and rights, anticolonial sentiments intensified. The conflict has led to the displacement of a significant number of Sahrawi people. Many Sahrawis live in refugee camps in neighboring Algeria, where they face challenges related to livelihood, education, and basic services. The unresolved status of Western Sahara perpetuates this humanitarian crisis.

Political: The conflict dates back to the end of Spanish colonial rule in 1975 when Spain relinquished control of the territory known as Western Sahara. Morocco and Mauritania divided the territory, while the pro-independence Polisario Front, backed by Algeria, declared the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic and launched a military struggle against the occupying countries. The ensuing military stalemate laid the basis for a 1991 UN-mediated settlement plan, which established a cease-fire, called for a self-determination referendum.

Demographic: Because of the conflict, there are many Sahrawi people who are displaced or refugees in many African countries.

enviroNmental: Climate change plays a crucial role in exacerbating grievances and intensifying the conflict. Drought, desertification, and other environmental challenges impact the livelihoods of people in the region. Valuable resources, particularly fisheries and phosphate deposits, are found in the disputed territory. These resources are worth over $500 million and have become a significant incentive for Morocco to maintain control over Western Sahara. The scarcity of these resources and their increasing demand create new grounds for conflict. The conflict forced 125,000 Saharawis to flee to neighboring Algeria in 1975. These refugees settled in the Tindouf region, where approximately 175,000 Saharawis still live today.

2. How does geography/land shape how and why people fight over territory?

Western Sahara has a strategic location for both Morocco and the indigenous Sahrawi people, as it provides access to the Atlantic Ocean and the rich fishing grounds off its coast. It also has valuable natural resources, such as phosphate, iron ore, and potentially oil and gas.

Photo Explanation: The map attached above is a choropleth map the shows the areas where the Moroccan military has occupied of the Western Sahara. This map highlights the conflicts' induced refugee camps (shown in the red line) due to hundreds of thousands of Sahrawi peoples being displaced.

Two Connections to another Unit:

1. Unit (Culture) - The Western Sahara conflict involves the interaction and conflict of different cultural groups, such as the Arab-Berber Sahrawis and the Moroccans, who have different historical, linguistic, and religious affiliations and aspirations.

2. Unit (Industrialization and Development) - The Western Sahara conflict affects the economic development and integration of the region, as well as of Morocco and Algeria. For example, the conflict has disrupted the trade and natural resource sectors in the region, such as the fishing, phosphate, and oil industries.

Additional Questions:

1. How has the international community responded to the conflict, and what efforts have been made to find a resolution?

2. What are the implications of the conflict on regional stability and cooperation in North Africa?

3. What challenges do Sahrawi refugees face in the Tindouf camps in Algeria, and how has their displacement affected the conflict dynamics?

Sources:

https://arabcenterdc.org/resource/the-polisario-front-morocco-and-the-western-sahara-conflict/

https://ecfr.eu/publication/north-african-standoff-how-the-western-sahara-conflict-is-fuelling-new-tensions-between-morocco-and-algeria/

https://www.usip.org/publications/2022/04/uk

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Neocolonial Conflicts: France & China in Africa (2005 - Present)

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Neocolonial Conflicts: France & China in Africa (2005 - Present)

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Who? The Chinese & French Embassies as well as the Government of Senegal.

What? The neocolonial conflict between France and China in Senegal is a complex and multifaceted issue that involves economic, political, cultural, and security aspects. In general, it can be described as a rivalry between the former colonial power, France, and the rising global power, China, over the influence and interests in Senegal, a strategic and stable country in West Africa.

When? There is no clear answer to when the China-France neocolonial conflict in Senegal started but it is commonly suggested to have started around 2005 and still lasts till present day.

Why? France and China have competing interests in Senegal, a former French colony and a strategic partner for France in West Africa. France has cultural and diplomatic ties with Senegal, as well as economic and security cooperation. China has increased its trade and investment in Senegal, especially in the fields of agriculture, fisheries, and infrastructure. China has also built a Confucius Institute in Senegal, a cultural center that promotes Chinese language and culture.

How? France and China both have security interests and challenges in Senegal, which is located in a volatile and conflict-prone region. France has a military base in Senegal, which hosts about 500 French troops and serves as a hub for its regional operations against Islamist militants and other threats. France also provides training and equipment to the Senegalese army and police and participates in peacekeeping missions in the region. China, on the other hand, has a limited military presence in Senegal, but has increased its security cooperation with the country in recent years. China has donated military vehicles and equipment to the Senegalese army and has conducted joint exercises and exchanges with the Senegalese navy and coast guard.

Brief Timeline of Events:

2005: China cancelled Senegal’s debt of $20 million and offered a new loan of $64 million for infrastructure projects.

June 27, 2007: Senegal broke diplomatic ties with Taiwan and recognized China as the sole legitimate government of China.

January 7, 2008: France signed a new defense agreement with Senegal that reduced its military presence and increased its cooperation on security and development.

September 17, 2011: China became Senegal’s largest trading partner, surpassing France, and invested heavily in sectors such as agriculture, fishing, mining, and energy.

2014: Senegal joined the China-led Belt and Road Initiative, a global infrastructure and development project that aims to connect Asia, Africa, and Europe.

November 1, 2018: Senegal hosted the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation, a summit that brought together leaders from China and 53 African countries to discuss cooperation and development.

2019: France launched the Africa-France Summit, a platform that aimed to renew and strengthen its ties with African countries, especially in the areas of security, education, and innovation.

March 3, 2020: Senegal faced a public backlash over a fishing agreement with China that granted Chinese vessels access to Senegal’s waters, which was seen as a threat to the livelihoods of local fishermen and the sustainability of marine resources.

2021: Senegal received donations of COVID-19 vaccines from both China and France, as part of their efforts to support the global fight against the pandemic.

Guiding Questions:

1. ESPN+D

Economic: China has become Senegal’s largest trading partner and investor, surpassing France, which still maintains a strong presence in the country’s key sectors such as banking, telecommunications, and energy. China offers loans, grants, and infrastructure projects to Senegal, often without the conditions and scrutiny that come with Western aid. France, on the other hand, advocates for more transparency and accountability in China’s economic activities in Senegal, and tries to preserve its preferential access to the country’s natural resources and markets.

Social: France and China both aim to promote their culture and language in Senegal, which has a rich and diverse cultural heritage.

Political: France and China have different approaches and agendas in their diplomatic relations with Senegal. France supports Senegal’s democratic institutions and values, and cooperates with the country on regional and international issues such as counter-terrorism, migration, and climate change. China, meanwhile, follows a principle of non-interference in Senegal’s internal affairs, and seeks to gain the country’s support for its global initiatives such as the Belt and Road Initiative and the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation.

Demographic: France has a long history of cultural cooperation with Senegal, and supports the development of the country’s education, media, and arts sectors. France also considers Senegal as a key partner in the promotion of the Francophonie, the international organization of French-speaking countries. China, on the other hand, has increased its cultural presence in Senegal through the establishment of Confucius Institutes, cultural centers, and scholarships for Senegalese students to study in China.

enviroNmental: Senegal’s colonial history plays a significant role in shaping its current vulnerabilities. The effects of climate change disproportionately impact the poorest, including smallholder farmers in developing countries. Senegal’s reliance on rainfall for peanut farming makes it particularly vulnerable to fluctuations in annual rainfall. Severe droughts and failed crops have occurred, affecting vegetation and soil quality.

2. How do people go about fighting for territory (soft vs. hard power)?

France and China both have security interests and challenges in Senegal, which is located in a volatile and conflict-prone region. France has a military base in Senegal, which hosts about 500 French troops and serves as a hub for its regional operations against Islamist militants and other threats. France also provides training and equipment to the Senegalese army and police and participates in peacekeeping missions in the region. China, on the other hand, has a limited military presence in Senegal, but has increased its security cooperation with the country in recent years. China has donated military vehicles and equipment to the Senegalese army and has conducted joint exercises and exchanges with the Senegalese navy and coast guard.

Photo Explanation: The map attached is a simple choropleth with highlights the French "controlled" areas of Western Africa, including Senegal. Due to not being able to find an accurate map of China's influence over several African countries, this map is the best option to show just how much colonial influence France has over Senegal over West African countries and the competition China has to gain the region for themselves.

Two Connections to another Unit:

1. Unit 1 - The neocolonial conflict requires the use of different types of maps, data, and spatial analysis to understand the physical and human characteristics of Senegal, as well as the historical and contemporary forces that shape its boundaries and identity.

2. Unit (Industrialization and Development) - The neocolonial conflict affects the economic development and integration of Senegal, as well as of France and China. For example, the conflict has involved the competition and cooperation over natural resources, such as oil, gas, and minerals, which are vital for industrialization and energy.

Additional Questions:

1. How does Senegal balance its relations with China and France, and what are the benefits and challenges of this strategy?

2. How do the Senegalese people perceive and react to the presence and influence of China and France in their country, and what are the implications for their national identity and culture?

3. How does the neocolonial conflict between China and France affect Senegal’s development and governance, especially in terms of its economic growth, social welfare, environmental sustainability, and human rights?

Sources:

https://jacobin.com/2020/01/franc-zone-french-neocolonialism-africa

https://mronline.org/2022/08/03/neo-colonial-currency-enables-french-exploitation/

https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2018/jul/31/china-in-africa-win-win-development-or-a-new-colonialism

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Jammu and Kashmir (August 17, 1947 - Present)

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Jammu and Kashmir (August 17, 1947 - Present)

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Who? India (controls about 55% of the land area of Kashmir including Jammu), Pakistan (controls about 30% of the land area of Kashmir) & China (controls about 15% of the land area of Kashmir, including the Aksai Chin region). In addition to these three countries, there are also various groups and factions within Kashmir that have different aspirations and agendas.

What? The Jammu and Kashmir conflict is a territorial dispute between India, Pakistan, and China over the region of Kashmir.

When? August 15, 1947 - Present day. Since then, the three countries have fought several wars and skirmishes over the region.

Why? India, China, and Pakistan are fighting over Kashmir because they have different claims and interests in the region, which is divided by disputed borders. The conflict has historical, political, religious, and strategic dimensions, and involves various groups within Kashmir as well.

How? It started after the partition of India in 1947, when both India and Pakistan claimed the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir.

A brief Timeline of Events:

1947: The British partition India into two independent states: India and Pakistan. The princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, ruled by a Hindu maharaja, has the option to join either country. The maharaja signs a treaty of accession with India after a Pakistani tribal invasion. India and Pakistan go to war over Kashmir and agree to a UN-brokered ceasefire, dividing the region along a Line of Control.

1950s-1960s: India and Pakistan fight two more wars over Kashmir, in 1965 and 1971. China also occupies parts of eastern Kashmir and cedes some territory to Pakistan.

1980s-1990s: A pro-independence insurgency erupts in Indian-administered Kashmir, supported by Pakistan. India accuses Pakistan of sponsoring terrorism and violating human rights in the region. India and Pakistan also clash over the Siachen Glacier.

2000s-2010s: India and Pakistan attempt several peace initiatives, such as a ceasefire agreement in 2003, a bus service across the Line of Control in 2005, and a joint anti-terrorism mechanism in 2006.

2020s: India revokes the special status of Jammu and Kashmir in 2019, splitting it into two union territories directly governed by Delhi. Pakistan condemns the move and downgrades diplomatic ties with India. China also opposes India’s actions and engages in border skirmishes with India along the Line of Actual Control.

Guided Questions:

1. What role did the concept of sovereignty play in instigating or prolonging the conflict?

The concept of sovereignty was challenged by the partition of India in 1947, which left the fate of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir undecided. The ruler of Kashmir, who had the right to choose between India and Pakistan, opted for India under certain conditions of autonomy. However, Pakistan disputed this decision and invaded Kashmir, claiming that the majority-Muslim population should belong to Pakistan. The concept of sovereignty was also violated by China, which occupied parts of eastern Kashmir in 1962, and later ceded some territory to Pakistan. China claimed these areas on historical and geographical grounds, and also sought to secure its strategic interests in the region. China’s entry into the conflict added another dimension of complexity and tension, as it challenged India’s claim over the entire region. The concept of sovereignty was finally challenged by India’s revocation of Article 370 in 2019, which abolished the special status and autonomy of Jammu and Kashmir. India argued that this move was necessary to integrate the region with the rest of the country, and to curb terrorism and corruption. However, Pakistan condemned the move as illegal and unilateral, and downgraded diplomatic ties with India. China also opposed India’s actions and engaged in border skirmishes with India along the Line of Actual Control.

2. How does geography/land shape how and why people fight over territory?

Geography and land can provide strategic advantages or disadvantages for the parties involved in a conflict. For example, mountainous terrain can offer natural defense and protection, while flat and open land can facilitate mobility and invasion. Geography and land can also affect the costs and benefits of fighting, as well as the likelihood of intervention by third parties. Geography and land can also create resource competition or cooperation among the parties involved in a conflict. For example, land can contain valuable natural resources, such as oil, gas, minerals, or water, that can be a source of wealth or scarcity. Geography and land can also affect the distribution and access of these resources, creating inequalities or interdependencies among the countries.

Photo Explanation: The map above is a choropleth map that roughly outlines each country involved in the conflict's control over an area in Kashmir and Jammu. This highlights how the Kashmir and Jammu conflict is very volatile due to powerful countries wanting the territory for strategic purposes and how the unrecognized state has been vulnerable since the partition of India.

Two Connections to another Unit:

1. Unit 1 - This unit examines how political boundaries and divisions affect human societies and the environment. The Kashmir and Jammu conflict is a prime example of a territorial dispute that has resulted from the partition of India in 1947, and the subsequent involvement of Pakistan and China.

2. Unit (Culture) - The Kashmir and Jammu conflict involves the interaction and conflict of different cultural groups, such as the Hindus, Muslims, Buddhists, and Sikhs, who have different historical, linguistic, and religious affiliations and aspirations.

Additional Questions:

1. How has the Kashmir conflict affected the human rights situation in the region?

2. What are the main challenges and opportunities for resolving the Kashmir conflict peacefully?

3. How has the Kashmir conflict influenced the regional and global security dynamics?

Sources:

https://www.bbc.com/news/10537286

https://www.npr.org/2022/05/13/1098730987/india-kashmir-conflict

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/kashmir-conflict-how-did-it-start

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Who? The U.S. military and The United Arab Emirates.

What? The Strait of Hormuz is a narrow waterway that connects the Persian Gulf with the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Sea. It is a vital passage for international trade, especially for oil.

When? The dispute started on 27 December 2011, when Iranian Vice President Mohammad-Reza Rahimi also threatened to close the strait. In 2008 and 1988, there were also incidents of Iranian speedboats and U.S. warships clashing in the strait.

Why? The U.S. and Iran have had stand-offs over the Strait of Hormuz, a strategic waterway for global oil supplies. The conflict escalated in May 2018, when the U.S. withdrew from the 2015 nuclear deal signed with Iran and imposed sanctions on the country’s trade, aiming to stop Tehran’s oil exports and strangle its economy.

How? In 2008 and 1988, there were also incidents of Iranian speedboats and U.S. warships clashing in the strait. The Strait of Hormuz has been a site of escalating U.S.-Iran tensions and a potential flash point for a military confrontation.

A brief Timeline of Events:

The 1980s Tanker War: During the Iran-Iraq War, both sides attacked oil tankers and merchant ships in the Strait of Hormuz, causing significant damage and disruption to the oil trade. The U.S. and other countries intervened to protect their interests and escort the vessels.

The 2008 Naval Dispute: In January 2008, Iranian speedboats approached and harassed U.S. Navy warships in the Strait of Hormuz, making threatening radio transmissions and maneuvers. The U.S. accused Iran of provoking a confrontation, but Iran denied the allegations.

The 2011-2012 Dispute: In December 2011, Iran threatened to close the Strait of Hormuz in response to the U.S. and the EU imposing sanctions on its oil exports over its nuclear program. The U.S. and other countries sent a flotilla of warships to deter any Iranian attempt to block the Strait. Iran also conducted several naval drills and missile tests in the area.

The 2019-2020 Crisis: In June 2019, Iran shot down a U.S. drone that it claimed had violated its airspace over the Strait of Hormuz. The U.S. denied the claim and prepared to launch a retaliatory strike, but called it off at the last minute. In July 2019, Iran seized a British-flagged oil tanker in the Strait, accusing it of violating maritime rules. The U.S. and the UK condemned the move and increased their military presence in the region. In January 2020, the U.S. killed Iranian general Qasem Soleimani in a drone strike in Iraq, sparking a major escalation of tensions. Iran responded by launching missile attacks on U.S. bases in Iraq and accidentally shooting down a Ukrainian passenger plane near Tehran.

Guiding Questions:

1. How does geography/land shape how and why people fight over territory?

Geography and land can provide strategic advantages or disadvantages for the parties involved in the conflict. For example, Iran has a long coastline along the Strait of Hormuz, which gives it the ability to monitor and control the traffic in the waterway. Iran also has several islands in the Strait, such as Qeshm, Hormuz, and Hengām, which can serve as military bases or launch pads for missiles and drones. Geography and land can also affect the costs and benefits of fighting over the Strait of Hormuz. For example, the Strait of Hormuz is a vital lifeline for the oil and gas exports of Iran and its neighbors, such as Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. Any disruption or closure of the Strait would have severe economic and political consequences for these countries and the global market.

2. What role did the concept of sovereignty play in instigating or prolonging the conflict?

The concept of sovereignty was challenged by the dispute over the three islands in the Strait of Hormuz: Abu Musa, Greater Tunb, and Lesser Tunb. These islands were occupied by Iran in 1971, a day before the UAE’s independence from Britain. The UAE and other Arab states have since claimed the islands as their own, and accused Iran of violating their sovereignty and territorial integrity. Iran, on the other hand, has asserted its sovereignty over the islands, and used them as military bases and launch pads for missiles and drones.

Photo Explanation: The map attached to this pin is topographic map of the strategic trade routes connected to the Strait of Hormuz. This map highlights the Strait of Hormuz's value as an international trading port of oil to many Western, Southeast Asian, and East Asian countries.

Two Connections to another Unit:

1. Culture - The Strait of Hormuz conflict is influenced by the cultural and religious differences between Iran and its rivals, such as the U.S., Saudi Arabia, and the UAE. The conflict also affects the cultural and religious identity and expression of the people living near the Strait, such as the Shia Muslims in Iran and the Sunni Muslims in the Arabian Peninsula.

2. Industry and Development - The Strait of Hormuz is a major source of income and development for the countries that border the Persian Gulf, such as Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. These countries rely on the oil and gas exports that transit through the Strait of Hormuz for their economic growth and diversification.

Additional Questions:

1. What are the potential consequences of a military confrontation between Iran and the U.S. in the Strait of Hormuz for regional stability and security?

2. How has the withdrawal of the U.S. from the Iran Nuclear Deal affected the relations between the two countries and the situation in the Strait of Hormuz?

3. What are the possible diplomatic solutions to ease the tensions and prevent a conflict in the Strait of Hormuz?

Sources:

https://www.reuters.com/graphics/MIDEAST-ATTACKS-HORMUZ/0100B0B50N3/index.html

https://time.com/5632388/strait-of-hormuz-iran-tanker/

https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-49070882