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van de Werfhorst, H. G. (2002). Trends and developments: A detailed examination of the role of education in intergenerational social-class mobility. Social Science Information, 41(3), 407-438. https://doi.org/10.1177/0539018402041003003

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van de Werfhorst, H. G. (2002). Trends and developments: A detailed examination of the role of education in intergenerational social-class mobility. Social Science Information, 41(3), 407-438. https://doi.org/10.1177/0539018402041003003

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Educational reform has led to the creation of schools focused on vocational outcomes. This study examines the role of general educational studies and vocational educational studies on the social mobility of students. It was found that students trained in vocational studies do not have as much social mobility as those trained in general education. Students who took vocational studies looked to improve upon their family business and often ended in the same social class as their parents. It was also noted that students who did not complete either study would not be expected to have a positive social mobility, but those who did graduate had a higher chance to stay at their current SES or go slightly higher.

This article is important to this research as education aimed at tangible vocational outcomes still does not raise the ability for students to experience higher social mobility outcomes. Students who train in specific work areas will not experience higher SES due to their training for work. This shows that secondary education does not play a major factor in raising social mobility of students who graduate from secondary education. It is important to note that students should graduate high school for higher social mobilty.

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Fan, S., Pang, Y., & Pestieau, P. (2023). Nature versus nurture in social mobility under private and public education systems. Public Finance Review, 51(1), 132-167. https://doi.org/10.1177/10911421221134727

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Fan, S., Pang, Y., & Pestieau, P. (2023). Nature versus nurture in social mobility under private and public education systems. Public Finance Review, 51(1), 132-167. https://doi.org/10.1177/10911421221134727

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This study considers how talent and the families educational expenditure impact the ability for future opportunities for their child. While innate ability does play an impact on the social mobility for the child, it does not play as much of an impact on the educational opportunities that are presented to the student. Families of higher SES are able to purchase more educational enrichment strategies, like moving into neighborhoods with better schools or hiring private tutors. This research suggests creating equity by giving poor families access to better educational opportunities to be on par with families of higher SES.

Research in this paper connects to my topic due to the understanding that a family's SES impacts the social mobility of their children. A way to create equity would be through creating more educational opportunities for lower class families. It would allow poorer families to have education that is similar to families of rich students. This study notes that social mobility will rise with more educational opportunities for poorer families.

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Arnold, K., & Mihut, G. (2020). Postsecondary outcomes of innovative high schools: The Big Picture Longitudinal Study. Teachers College Record, 122(080303).

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Arnold, K., & Mihut, G. (2020). Postsecondary outcomes of innovative high schools: The Big Picture Longitudinal Study. Teachers College Record, 122(080303).

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School within a school system (SWIS) have become more prevalent within the last few years. This type of education reform allows more personalized education for students that can take their interests and prepare them for future steps towards their career goals. The Big Picture Learning Network uses a model that allows students to have internships instead of traditional classroom settings. The postsecondary outcomes for these students are low, however. Most of the students enrolled in the Big Picture Learning Network often have low math and literacy scores. Most of the students who enter college eventually dropout due to academic capabilities.

This study highlights an educational reform that tried to improve social mobility in students but mostly failed. These students had a different educational experience than their peers, but their shortcomings in core academic areas causes them to have failure in college, therefore limiting social mobility. Secondary education can influence social mobility but not in every case. This study proves that innovative programs that help students in the workplace do not aid in creating higher social mobility resulting from a secondary education.

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Fakkel, M., Branje, S., Vollebergh, W. A. M., Stevens, G. W. J. M., & Peeters, M. (2024). Intergenerational upward and downward social mobility: The role of intelligence, effortful control, assertiveness, and peer competence in early adolescence. Emerging Adulthood, 0(0), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1177/21676968241257585

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Fakkel, M., Branje, S., Vollebergh, W. A. M., Stevens, G. W. J. M., & Peeters, M. (2024). Intergenerational upward and downward social mobility: The role of intelligence, effortful control, assertiveness, and peer competence in early adolescence. Emerging Adulthood, 0(0), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1177/21676968241257585

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Intelligence and IQ are often cited as crucial indicators towards the social mobility of people. However, this study continues in a different thread than popular belief. Intelligence compared between students in the same SES showed that students with higher intelligence did better than their peers in social mobility outcomes. Comparing students by higher SES and lower SES and their intelligence indicated that intelligence in lower SES families did not allow them higher mobility as compared to intelligence in higher SES.

This connects to my point as social mobility resulting from a secondary education is not entirely dependent on a student's education, but rather their family SES background. It was noted that students who had a drastically high intelligence did have better SES if their family was in low SES, but most families in low SES experienced their children staying in their class or only moving up slightly. It is important to note that having a higher or lower intelligence will influence whether you continue, go down, or go up in social mobility.

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Tucker, M. (2013, April 12). The myth of education as the ‘great equalizer’. EducationWeek. https://www.edweek.org/leadership/opinion-the-myth-of-education-as-the-great-equalizer/2013/04

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Tucker, M. (2013, April 12). The myth of education as the ‘great equalizer’. EducationWeek. https://www.edweek.org/leadership/opinion-the-myth-of-education-as-the-great-equalizer/2013/04

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The idea of education being the equalizer between classes of people is not entirely the case. Studies have noted that the family's SES often effects the outcomes of their child. Neighborhoods of families of high SES and low SES attend different schools as well, leaving schools with high SES students with a better education. This is important for my purposes in research to show the impact of the families prior SES to social mobility. While the American dream led us to think that our education holds the keys to the future, our family background unlocks more for us than our education.

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This article examines a study done in 2015 that looked at the development of students who started their schooling in 2010. This study showed that students who started in a poor class had lesser educational success than their peers in a higher class. This is important for my research as it continues to point to the idea that students who come from a lesser SES than their peers will stay in their same class. This aids in the writing of policy steps to create equity in schools.

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The background to a family shows the possible economic future of their children. Students who grow up in a home few fewer books tend to score lower on reading scales than their peers who have more books. In addition, students who grow up in homes with factors contributing to emotional instability in children tend to do worse than their peers in future outcomes. This aids in my research by showing that students in backgrounds where less educational material can be afforded does not lead to better SES outcomes. The emotional instability of many of families who are in poverty also impacts their ability for social mobility. This can be taken into a policy recommendation for material and emotional support for students in lower SES.

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Sparks, S. D. (2024, February 26). Next NAEP to take deeper look at poverty’s connection to students’ achievement. EducationWeek. https://www.edweek.org/leadership/next-naep-to-take-deeper-look-at-povertys-connection-to-students-achievement/2024/02

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Sparks, S. D. (2024, February 26). Next NAEP to take deeper look at poverty’s connection to students’ achievement. EducationWeek. https://www.edweek.org/leadership/next-naep-to-take-deeper-look-at-povertys-connection-to-students-achievement/2024/02

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The way that organizations classify students by poverty has changed recently. A new way of identifying students in poverty will allow schools to adjust their understanding of their population. This new way of classifying students takes into account items that have been linked to better outcomes in students. This is important for my research as this is helping to identify that schooling has not led to social mobility from their secondary education. This model should be enacted into every state to identify ways to increase equity in families.

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"Of course, educationally determined status is frequently criticized by reference to the considerable volume of research showing that in practice systems of formal education rarely offer fully equal opportunity to suceed in school for everyone, for a variety of non-educational reasons." Baker, 2014 p. 182

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"Of course, educationally determined status is frequently criticized by reference to the considerable volume of research showing that in practice systems of formal education rarely offer fully equal opportunity to suceed in school for everyone, for a variety of non-educational reasons." Baker, 2014 p. 182

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Educational that determines status is an idea that does not have support in the schooled society in just secondary outcomes. Secondary outcomes do not offer equal opportunity to success. I believe that this quote aids in my research by showing that education in itself does not lead to better outcomes for students. I can use this portion to support policies to bring equity in education.

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"Over a relatively short sociological period, education has approached worldwide acceptance as the one appropriate and legitimate playing field in which to compete for merit." Baker, 2014 p. 183

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"Over a relatively short sociological period, education has approached worldwide acceptance as the one appropriate and legitimate playing field in which to compete for merit." Baker, 2014 p. 183

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This quote supports the idea that education does have value in creating for equity. While social mobility gained from education may be low, it is still better to provide education because it does allow students who graduate from secondary school the ability to receive further education in postsecondary sources. This serves my research by showing the value of education in providing equity. I can use this to further the idea that education is already helping in creating equity, but needs to be furthered.

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"... namely, that a new model of society holds that secondary education has become necessary to be a modern person." Baker, 2014 p. 227

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"... namely, that a new model of society holds that secondary education has become necessary to be a modern person." Baker, 2014 p. 227

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The Schooled Society advocates that education has become a chief provider in value of one's idea of self. It is necessary to receive a secondary education so that you can succeed in a modern world. The idea stated here is important for my purposes as this shows secondary education provides the ability to succeed in this world or lose social mobility. While other areas of research done on this topic has shown that education only slightly increases mobility, dropping out of schooling reduces social mobility. This helps me in recommending policy that aids students in staying in school.

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Upward Mobility Requires Education. Here's how America falls short.

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Upward Mobility Requires Education. Here's how America falls short.

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This video discusses how America has fallen short in education. Arne Duncan tells a story of a student who grew up in a dangerous setting and has a chance to play basketball on a scholarship, but is illiterate. This aids my research in showing the devastating effect that background has on the opportunities for a person while also showing what poorer schools need to change. This helps bring policy recommendations to encourage programs to aid families in poverty and provide more funding in schools of poorer areas.

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Upward mobility requires education. Here’s how America falls short. | Arne Duncan | Big Think

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Current Trends in Social Mobility: Raj Chetty

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Current Trends in Social Mobility: Raj Chetty

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Social mobility levels are dependent on where a person lives. This study shows a heat map of the United States where people have social mobility. This is important for my research as it helps us understand that there are many factors that impact social mobility. This also discusses the impact of the quality of schools on social mobility. This helps in recommending policy that gives funding to schools that serve lower income families.

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Stanford Center on Poverty and Inequality

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Current Trends in Social Mobility: Raj Chetty

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Barack Obama speaks on the diminished social mobility in the United States. He acknowledges that a quality education is one of the first steps in leading a person to upward mobility. This is important for my research as a leader of our nation acknowledges education has the power to increase upward mobility, but needs greater funding to do so. This helps in recommending policies to increase funding for schools that serve families in poverty.

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This cartoons depicts what families pass onto their kids. This connects to my topic by telling the story of how a family's background will impact their future children. This helps in enacting policy that creates an awareness that families born in poverty will likely continue.

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This cartoon shows how schools are at different levels of where they start. Students in School B, who win in this climbing contest, start at the highest point but really did not do much work. School A starts at the lowest but made the most progress. This is a representation of schools in areas of poverty where their students often start lower in educational skills. This shows that schools in poorer areas need funding to help create equity.

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This picture represents the idea that students who grow up in families of wealth can advance more than their peers of lesser wealth. This is connects to my research by showing how wealth improves upward mobility. The student with the purple backpack needs funding to allow him to move along with his peers.

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The first policy that I want to mention is the free education that is provided by states that students must attend until a certain age. This greatly enhances the social mobility of a person by teaching them how to be part of formal organizations in the professional world. Students who do not complete their initial schooling typically do not succeed. While education may not be an indicator of upward social mobility, it does indicate downward mobility, where if a person's initial schooling is not completed, they will not have much success.

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A program in the United States called HeadStart serves families of poverty and low-income. They provide social and educational benefits to families who enroll their children. This connects to my research by helping families who are in poverty formally educate their children. This hopes to prepare them for school so that they are on level or above their classmates when school starts. My research has shown that education can be a source of aiding in upward mobility and increasing the chances of future success.

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In many states like North Dakota, a Free and Reduced Price program for school meals is given. This allows students who grow up in poverty to be guaranteed a free lunch when they are at school, therefore lifting pressure off of parents of low income. This gives families who are poverty the ability to both keep more money in their bank accounts and reduce stress in students.

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1. A comprehensive list of identifying factors limiting social mobility in school age children

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1. A comprehensive list of identifying factors limiting social mobility in school age children

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The first policy that I would recommend is creating a list of factors that limit social mobility in children. This is important because poverty is not the only indicator of future social mobility. It has been shown that even the number of books a family has is an indicator of social mobility. This list will be used in the next action step.

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2. Increasing funding for schools that serve families of low social mobility. 

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2. Increasing funding for schools that serve families of low social mobility. 

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My research has shown that a policy is needed to improve schools that serve impoverished families. This policy could take into effect a new system that identifies families that have low social mobility, as seen in my first policy recommendation. Schools that serve students in wealthier neighborhoods are better than those who do not. There needs to be a policy that increasing funding for schools that serve the impoverished, so that there is equity.

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3. Families who send their students to educational opportunities in the summer months can do so free of charge.

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3. Families who send their students to educational opportunities in the summer months can do so free of charge.

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It has been shown that students who receive additional education opportunities have a greater chance of upward mobility. Therefore, families who send their children to additional education should be able to do so without the monetary cost. This should be able to lighten the burden of families and create equity in students of a lower class. This is included with increasing funding for schools who serve families that are impoverished.

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Social mobility the ability for a family to move up in their socioeconomic class. Many people believe that America has allowed all to achieve a higher social class with their free public education, but this is not the situation. Families that start in a low SES typically have their children end in the same social class. This is brought further if their child does not finish their secondary schooling. Schools that serve students who are impoverished are not as successful as students who attend schooling in richer neighborhoods. Schools need funding that provides them the ability to create equity across the school system.