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Waterborne diseases are contracted through exposure to contaminated water including drinking water, water used in food preparation, and swimming water.

They can be caused by bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Below is a partial list of waterborne disease pathogens, their microbial classification, and their resulting illnesses.

Who is Most Affected by Waterborne Diseases?

The vast majority of them are contracted by individuals who lack access to safe and sanitized water for drinking and personal hygiene. This problem is pervasive around the globe and impacts community health at large, so it's no surprise that medical professionals are keeping an eye on any waterborne disease they come across.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 2.2 billion people do not have access to safe drinking water, which equates to 1 in 3 people on the planet. Additionally, 4.2 billion people lack access to adequate sanitation facilities such as hygienic toilets. [1] This lack of access to safe water and sanitation results in 4  billion cases of waterborne diseases annually and 3.4  million deaths. [2]

Increasing access to clean water worldwide is the single most critical step we can take to prevent morbidity and mortality from these devastating diseases.

Symptoms of this type of the disease are primarily gastrointestinal and include fever, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. 88% of all deaths that occur as a result of diarrhea can be attributed to these infections. [3] 90% of diarrhea deaths involve children under the age of five years. [4] Children are particularly susceptible to disease, in part because their naive immune systems have not yet encountered most pathogens.

Another group that is at increased risk for contracting a waterborne disease is people that are immunocompromised, including individuals living with HIV/AIDS. Unfortunately, the HIV epidemic has hit hardest in areas where access to clean water is lacking.

Countries that have reported recent outbreaks of Cholera include The Democratic Republic of the Congo and Bangladesh, Haiti, Haiti have also reported recent outbreaks of Typhoid fever, as have Uganda and Pakistan. The Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Yemen. [5] [6]

How Can Travelers Avoid Them?

Tourists are at increased risk for contracting diseases, in part because they lack prior exposure and immunity. To avoid waterborne illnesses when traveling to an area of concern, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends the following [7] :

Travelers can also receive vaccines for some of these diseases, namely, Typhoid Fever, Hepatitis A, and Cholera. Since the efficacy of these vaccines varies, general precautions including avoidance of tap water should still be taken.

Which Ones are Seen in the Developed World?

Sporadic outbreaks of several of these diseases are also reported in industrialized countries. A well-known example occurred in 1993 in Milwaukee, Wisconsin when over a two-week period approximately 403,000 individuals experienced a diarrheal illness. The cause was determined to be A more recent example occurred in 2019 when over 2000 residents of a small island in Cryptosporidium that had contaminated one of the city's water-treatment plants. [8] Campylobacter contaminating the local water supply. Norway became ill as a result of [9]

In 2015, 31% of students at a school camp in and South Korea became ill as a result of water contaminated with E. coli. [10] There have also been outbreaks of typhoid fever in the United States . Outbreaks of waterborne disease increase after extreme weather events such as flooding caused by heavy rains and snowfall. After Hurricane Katrina, Salmonella enterica , [11] Norovirus were detected in individuals in evacuee camps.

Contracting Them While Swimming

These diseases can also be contracted by swimming in pools, lakes, rivers, and oceans. This includes Giardia lamblia , which is one of the most common intestinal parasites worldwide, including in the United States. Giardia lamblia can enter the body in a number of ways, including ingestion of water while swimming.

Another parasite that can be contracted while swimming is invades the body via the nose and travels to the brain by way of the olfactory nerve. Unlike Naegleria fowleri , which is found in freshwater and often referred to in headlines as "the brain-eating amoeba." Naegleria fowleri is almost always fatal. Fortunately, the condition is exceedingly rare. Giardiasis, Primary Amebic Meningoencephalitis caused by

Over 250 million persons suffer from Schistosomiasis - in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Parasites enter through the skin, usually while swimming, working, or simply walking through freshwater. The parasites travel through the bloodstream, eventually lodging in the liver, urinary system, and other organs with resultant damage to tissues, or even cancer which can develop over many years.

Recreational water areas such as pools, hot tubs, and spas are also at risk of contamination by a variety of pathogens. Between 2000 and 2014, 212 reported outbreaks of species is known as Pontiac fever, and the more severe form is known as Cryptosporidium were associated with recreational water facilities. [12] Adenovirus is also known to cause outbreaks from recreational water, as is Legionella pneumophila. Legionella pneumophila is a unique waterborne pathogen in that it often must be aerosolized to cause infection. The organism is transmitted via hot tubs, showers, humidifiers, and air conditioning systems. Aerosolization allows Legionella pneumophila to enter the lungs and thus, unlike other waterborne pathogens, it can cause respiratory illness. A milder form of the disease caused by Legionella Legionnaires' Disease.

Can SARS-COV-2 be Transmitted Through the Water Supply?

Fortunately, you contract cannot COVID-19 through contaminated water . Viruses may be classified as either enveloped or non-enveloped. Viruses with envelopes have an outer layer of proteins and lipids that surround their viral capsids. Non-enveloped viruses can survive for relatively long periods outside the body - and in much harsher conditions - than can enveloped viruses.

Viruses that cause waterborne diseases, such as Hepatovirus A, Norovirus, Rotavirus, and Adenovirus, are all non-enveloped. In contrast, members of the Coronaviridae (such as SARS-CoV-2) are enveloped and thus cannot be spread through the water supply.

Although we cannot contract SARS-CoV-2 from the water supply, inactive SARS-CoV-2 viral material can still be detected in the wastewater from areas with COVID-19 outbreaks. This can be useful in tracking outbreaks. In Switzerland, for example, laboratories were able to determine that a new "British variant" of SARS-CoV-2 had arrived by simply monitoring wastewater. [13] In fact, monitoring wastewater is an emerging epidemiological tool for tracking many pathogens, including many of the waterborne diseases discussed above.

The GIDEON Difference: How We Help Public Health and Medical Professionals

GIDEON is one of the most well-known and comprehensive global databases for infectious diseases. Data is refreshed daily, and the GIDEON API allows medical professionals and researchers access to a continuous stream of data. Whether your research involves quantifying data, learning about specific microbes, or testing out differential diagnosis tools - GIDEON has you covered with a program that has met standards for accessibility excellence.

[1] World Health Organization. 1 in 3 people globally do not have access to safe drinking water - UNICEF, WHO. New York, Geneva: World Health Organization; 18 June 2019. [cited 2021 Jan 10].

[2] World Bank. World Development Indicators 2015. Washington, DC: World Bank Publications; 2015. [cited 2021 Jan 10]. Available from: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/21634

[3] Prüss-Üstün A, et al. Safer water, better health: costs, benefits, and sustainability of interventions to protect and promote health. World Health Organization. 2008.
References:
[4] Jong-wook, L. Water, sanitation and hygiene links to health. Geneva: World Health Organization; Nov 2004. [cited 2021 Jan 10.]

[5] European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Cholera worldwide overview. Solna: ECDC; 2021. [cited 2021 Jan 11.]

[6] World Health Organization. Emergencies preparedness, response - Typhoid fever. New York, Geneva: World Health Organization; 2021. [cited 2021 Jan 11].

[7] Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Travels Health - Disease Directory - Typhoid Fever. Atlanta: CDC; 01 Dec 2020. [cited 2021 Jan 10.]

[8] Mac Kenzie WR, et al. A massive outbreak of Cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med. 1994;331:161-167.

[9] Paruch L, et al. DNA-based faecal source tracking of contaminated drinking water causing a large Campylobacter outbreak in Norway 2019. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 2020 Mar;224:113420.

[10] Park J, et al. A waterborne outbreak of multiple diarrhoeagenic Escherichia coli infections associated with drinking water at a school camp. Int J Infect Dis. 2018

[11] Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Infectious Disease and Dermatologic Conditions in Evacuees and Rescue Workers After Hurricane Katrina - Multiple States, August - September, 2005. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 30 September, 2005;54(38):961-964.

[12] Hlavsa MC, et al. Outbreaks Associated with Treated Recreational Water - United States, 2000-2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2018;67:547-551

[13] Jahn, K. Detection of SARS-CoV-2 variants in Switzerland by genomic analysis of wastewater samples. medRxiv 2021.01.08.21249379; doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2021.01.08.21249379

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All You Need to Know About Waterborne Diseases | GIDEON

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Waterborne diseases are contracted through exposure to contaminated water including drinking water, water used in food preparation, and swimming water. They can be caused by bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Below is a partial list of waterborne disease pathogens, their microbial classification, and their resulting illnesses.

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Како религија утиче на воду

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Како религија утиче на воду

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У већини  религија , вода је основа физичког и духовног живота, симболизујући прочишћење, поновно рођење и плодност. Овај концепт наставља да игра значајну улогу у садашњим ставовима и поступцима везаним за воду.У Африци постоји више од педест различитих Богова за воду.Примера ради, у Индији постоји река која је у потпуности уништена.Док је река Ганг у свом највише религиозном делу тотално чиста.

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Вируси из воде

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Вируси из воде

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Болести које се преносе водом су болести узроковане микроскопским организмима, попут вируса и бактерија, које се уносе контаминираном водом или доласком у контакт са изметом.

Када би свака особа на планети била у могућности да практикује безбедну санитацију и хигијену и да има приступ чистој води, ове болести не би постојале. Владе, невладине организације и саме заједнице направиле су велике кораке у протеклих 20 година да окончају болести које се преносе водом. Ипак, има много тога да се уради.

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 5  животиња на које највише утиче загађење воде:

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 5  животиња на које највише утиче загађење воде:

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Пластика је свуда и у свему, и никада не нестаје. Временом се распада на сићушне комаде, који се пробијају у наше изворе воде, ланац исхране, па чак и ваздух који удишемо. Уочено је да десетине хиљада појединачних морских организама пате од заплитања или гутања пластике - од зоопланктона, корала и риба до морских корњача, морских сисара попут китова и морских птица. Конзумација пластике може довести до гладовања када је стомак пун пластике, као и других негативних ефеката на здравље које тек сада почињемо да схватамо. Наши океани се гуше пластиком, а и ових пет животиња, буквално.

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Загађење водених површина- Great Pacific garbage patch

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Загађење водених површина- Great Pacific garbage patch

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Такозвани "Great Pacific garbage patch"

Највећа колекција плутајућег смећа на свету - и најпознатија. Лежи између Хаваја и Калифорније и често се описује као „већи од Тексаса“. Не може се видети из свемира, како се често тврди. Откривен је 1997. Открио га је Чарлс Мур, јахташ који је пловио кроз гомилу плутајућих пластичних боца на путу кући у Лос Анђелес. Име му је дао Кертис Ебесмајер, океанограф из Сијетла.  Мета је кампање чишћења вредне 32 милиона долара коју је покренуо холандски тинејџер Бојан Слат, и шеф "Ocean cleanup" oрганизације, коју је основао да обави тај посао.

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SeaChange has the solution to get ocean plastic off the planet.
We've repurposed technology developed 25 years ago to deal with hazardous waste into a mobile response unit that can permanently eliminate plastic pollution and keep it out of our oceans. Within a year of reaching our funding goals we can be eliminating 15 TONS of plastic per day, while showing the world a better model for dealing with plastic waste. Every dollar contributed can get 3 pounds of plastic off the planet. You can make a difference today.

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Silicon dioxide 53.16%, aluminum dioxide 19.4%, calcium oxide 4.7%, magnesium oxide 2.3%.

Worldwide, we produce ~400 million tons of plastic per year. Roughly 10 million tons end up in the sea. That's a dump truck full of plastic added to the ocean every minute.

SeaChange's mission is to eliminate the unsorted, low-value plastics that cannot be economically recycled, and the abandoned fishing gear (ghost nets) entangling wildlife.

Those materials account for 60% of the waste currently being found on beaches around the world - and is most at risk of being burned or lost in the environment in areas lacking formalized waste management infrastructure.

"The sea, the great unifier, is man's only hope. Now, as never before, the old phrase has a literal meaning: we are all in the same boat."
JACQUES YVES COUSTEAU | OCEANOGRAPHER

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We've repurposed technology developed 25 years ago to deal with hazardous waste into a mobile response unit that can permanently eliminate plastic pollution and keep it out of our oceans. Within a year of reaching our funding goals we can be eliminating 15 TONS of plastic per day, while showing the world a better model for dealing with plastic waste.

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Опширно о води ...

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Опширно о води ...

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Вода покрива око 71% Земљине површине, а мора и океани чине већину воде на Земљи.
Вода игра важну улогу у светској економији. Отприлике 70% слатке воде коју људи користе одлази за пољопривреду. https://www.iwapublishing.com/news/brief-history-water-and-health-ancient-civilizations-modern-times

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Water is life - and life on earth is linked to water. Our existence is dependent on water, or the lack of it, in many ways, and one could say that our whole civilization is built on the use of water.

This article examines the influence of water on public health throughout history. Farming and the development of settlements lead to the beginning of the problem that faces mankind today - how to get drinkable water for humans and cattle and how to manage the waste we produce. The availability of water in large quantities has been considered an essential part of civilization throughout the different periods: Roman baths needed a lot of water, as do the water closets and showers used in current Western civilization. The importance of good quality drinking water has been established for years. However, the importance of proper sanitation was not understood until the 19th century.

This article outlines the importance of water throughout history. special attention is paid to the first urbanization of ancient civilizations, particularly in ancient Greece and Rome (Vuorinen 2007). However, the second, third and fourth phases of urbanization are also briefly described. Finally, the major findings and their implications for current water management and policies are discussed.

Early Systems and Innovations

Modern humans (Homo sapiens) have dwelled on this earth for some 200 000 years, most of that time as hunter-gatherers and gradually growing in number. Approximately 50 000 years ago modern man began to inhabit every corner of the world and people were constantly on the move. Occasionally people were troubled by pathogens transmitted by contaminated water, but the general aversion for water that tasted revolting, stank and that looked disgusting must have developed quite early during the biological and cultural evolution of humankind. It has been postulated that the waterborne health risks of hunter-gatherers were small.

Archaeological and written sources concerning water and sanitation can, however, only be found from relatively recent times. Thus, in reconstructing the history of water and sanitation of this hunter-gatherer phase, we have to rely on the analogies of later societies. Modern anthropological studies and recorded mythologies of indigenous peoples play an important role in these analogies while observing primates and other more evolved mammals can also give us useful information.

Some 10 000 years ago, when people adopted an agrarian way of life, mankind established permanent settlements. This new type of livelihood spread everywhere and the population began to expand faster than ever before. Sedentary agricultural life made it possible to construct villages, cities and eventually states, all of which were highly dependent on water. This created a brand new relation between humans and water. Pathogens transmitted by contaminated water became a very serious health risk for the sedentary agriculturists. In this world guaranteeing pure water for people became a prerequisite for successful urbanization and state formation.

The earliest known permanent settlement, which can be classified as urban, is Jericho from 8000-7000 B.C., located near springs and other bodies of water. In Egypt there are traces of wells, and in Mesopotamia of stone rainwater channels, from 3000 B.C.. From the early Bronze Age city of Mohenjo-Daro, located in modern Pakistan, archaeologists have found hundreds of ancient wells, water pipes and toilets. The first evidence of the purposeful construction of the water supply, bathrooms, toilets and drainage in Europe comes from Bronze Age Minoan (and Mycenaean) Crete in the second millennium B.C.

The experience of humankind from the very beginning testifies to the importance and safety of groundwater as a water source, particularly springs and wells. The way in which water supply and sanitation was organized was essential for early agricultural societies. If wells and toilets were in good shape, health problems and environmental risks could be avoided.

The realization of the importance of pure water for people is evident already from the myths of ancient cultures. Religious cleanliness and water were important in various ancient cults. Ideas of the salubrity of water were connected to the general "scientific" level of the society. The first known Greek philosophical thinkers and medical writers also recognized the importance of water for the public health.

Ancient Greece and Rome

The first urbanization in Europe occurred during antiquity (500 B.C. - 500 A.D.) around the Mediterranean region. The share of urban population reached some 10-20 % in the centuries around the birth of Christ. The most urbanized areas were the Eastern Mediterranean, Egypt, North Africa (modern Tunisia), the Apennine Peninsula (modern Italy), and the southern part of the Iberian Peninsula, most of which were areas of quite modest rainfall. In this period the archaeological and written sources become richer, and consequently improve our possibilities to study the relationship between water and health of people.

Alcmaeon of Croton (floruit ca. 470 B.C.) was the first Greek doctor to state that the quality of water may influence the health of people. (Aëtius, On the opinions of the philosophers V.30.1) Hippocratic treatise Airs, Waters, Places (around 400 B.C.) deals with the different sources, qualities and health effects of water in length. ( Airs, Waters, Places. 1, 7, 8, 9) Various other Hippocratic treatises (mostly written around 400 B.C.) contain short comments on the influence of water on the health of people ( Internal Affections. 6, 21, 23, 26, 34, 45, 47; Diseases I. 24; Epidemics II. 2.11; Epidemics VI. 4.8, 4.17; Aphorisms. 5.26; Humours. 12; Regimen IV or Dreams. 93).

According to B.C. Vitruvius from the late first century, marshy areas must be avoided when the site of a city is chosen. ( De Architectura. I.iv.1) Pliny the Elder in the first century A.D. had in his works a long section concerning the different opinions on what kind of water is the best. (Plinius NH, XXXI, xxi-xxiii). One of the most famous doctors during antiquity Galen (2nd century A.D.) summarises the preferable qualities of water (Galen. De Sanitate Tuenda. I.xi).

The quality of the water was examined by the senses: taste, smell, appearance and temperature. Also the health of the people and animals using a water source was considered (Vitruvius De Architectura. I,iv,9,10; VIII, iv,1,2). Throughout antiquity tasty or tasteless, cool, odourless and colourless water was considered the best, and stagnant, marshy water was avoided. These ideas were held until the end of antiquity as expressed by Palladius (5th century, Opus Agriculturae. I, 4) or Paulus Aeginata (7th century, Paulus Aeginata I.50). The ancient Greeks and Romans were also quite aware of the dangers of water coming from hills and mountains where mining was practised ( Airs, Waters, Places. 7;Vitruvius. De Architectura. VIII,iii,5).

The ancient authors have thus made some comments about the influence of different kinds of water on the health of people, but had these comments any influence on the health of people is hard to infer. Because of the inadequacy of sources, it is practically impossible to evaluate the health of ancient populations and the role of water in it. It is, however, quite safe to conclude that despite the impressive measures used to obtain pure potable water, urban centres had serious public health problems. The ancient Greek or Roman society did not have the interest or the means to deal adequately with matters of public health (Nutton 2005: 26).

The Greeks and Romans used different methods to improve the quality of the water if it did not satisfy their quality requirements. From written sources and archaeological excavations, we know that using settling tanks, sieves, filters and the boiling of water were methods used during antiquity. At least boiling of water, which was widely recommended by the medical authors during antiquity, would have diminished the biological risks of poor quality water. Although the boiling of water might have been feasible from a hygienic point of view, it was ecologically and economically not feasible in extensive use since firewood and other combustibles would sooner or later have become a scarce resource around the Mediterranean.

The poor level of waste management, including wastewater, most probably involved a major risk for public health during antiquity. For instance, toilet hygiene must have been quite poor. The abundance of water that was conducted to the bath could also be used to flush a public toilet. The Romans, however, lacked our toilet paper. They probably commonly used sponges or moss or something similar, which was moistened in the conduit in front of the seat and then used to rinse their bottoms. In public toilets facilities were common to all; they were cramped, without any privacy, and had no decent way to wash one's hands. The private toilets most likely usually lacked running water and they were commonly located near the kitchens. All this created an excellent opportunity for the spreading of intestinal pathogens.

Water-borne infections must have been among the main causes of death. Dysentery and different kinds of diarrhoeas must have played havoc with the populations. Although the ancient medical writers described different kinds of intestinal diseases, the retrospective diagnoses are difficult and the causative agents cannot be identified. Summer and early autumn, when water resources were meagre in the Mediterranean world, must have been a time when drinking water was easily contaminated, and intestinal diseases were rife as presented in several passages in the Hippocratic writings (e.g. Airs, Waters, Places. 7; Aphorisms. III, 11, 21, 22; Internal Affections. 26, 45). The mortality of children, especially recently weaned, must also have been high ( Prorrhetic II. 22).

Furthermore, it should be kept in mind that the salubrity of the water supply must have differed markedly in accordance with the social status of people in the Roman towns. The rich had running water in their homes; the poor had to fetch their water from public fountains. The rich had their own baths and toilets, while the poor had to use public toilets and baths. All this must have lead to different health conditions and levels among rich and poor people.

A lot of the water in a Roman town was consumed in bath(s) connected to the aqueduct(s) (Figure 1). Ideally shining marble walls and limpid water were considered a feature of a bath in Rome, the cleanliness of which was watched over by aediles (Seneca. Ad Lucilium epistulae morales. 86). Baths were probably also beneficial for public health in towns where there was an abundance and rapid turnover of water. However, in towns where water was in short supply, cisterns had to be used and the turnover of water was slow, the role of baths was probably negative for public health.
Figure 1. Aqueduct in Agia Napa, Cyprus (Photo: P. Juuti).
Water supply and sanitation for military needs was a primary concern of the authorities of an imperial power like the Roman Empire needing a strong military machine. The Romans did know how to obtain adequate amounts of drinking water for their garrisons, cities and troops in the field and thus successfully planned their operations according to the availability of water. Army veterans were well accustomed to baths and to an ample water supply during their active service, and they may have been a quite important pressure group for building an aqueduct and bath in a town.

The contamination of water by lead has been a topic in the discussions concerning the health of people in Roman times. Roman authors expressed doubts concerning the use of lead pipes and recommended the use of ceramic pipes (Vitruvius. De Architectura. 8.6.10-11; Palladius. Opus Agriculturae. 9.11; Columella. Rei Rusticae 1.5.2; Plinius. NH. XXXI.31.57). However, in practice it seems that although ceramic pipes were used, water was in many situations routinely distributed by lead pipes, as revealed by both written sources (Vitruvius De Architectura. 8.6.1, 4-6; Frontinus. 25.2, 27.3, 29.1, 30.1, 39-63, 105.5, 106.3, 115.3, 118.4, 129.4-6) and archaeological remains (Bruun 1991: 124-127; Hodge 1992: 307-315). Yet, there are two reasons to believe that exposure through water was quite minimal, as pointed out by A. Trevor Hodge (Hodge 1981 and 1992: 308). Firstly, as a consequence of the quality of the water, a calcium carbonate coating separated the lead and the water in most cases. Secondly, because of the constant flow, the contact time of water in the pipe was too short for contamination by lead.

The indirect public health effects of water might have been greater than the direct effects during antiquity. Agriculture depended on the proper amount of available water. Droughts and floods led to food shortages and famines. Food, people and pathogens moved most easily by water during antiquity. Maritime trade was especially vigorous around the Mediterranean in the period 200 B.C.- 200 A.D.. This meant that the Mediterranean world became more or less a common pool of infectious diseases (McNeill 1979, 78-140). Two important diseases caused by parasites were intimately connected with water and the ways water was managed during antiquity: namely malaria and schistosomiasis.

The breeding of mosquitoes depended on water and mosquitoes spread malaria, which was a serious and widespread health problem around the Mediterranean during antiquity. Malaria was well documented by Greek and Roman medical authors from the Hippocratic writings onwards. Among the cases in Epidemics I and III, a serious complication of chronic malaria, blackwater fever, has been identified by Mirko D. Grmek at least in one patient, Philiscus, but probably also in another, Pythion ( Epidemics I, fourteen cases, case 1; Epidemics III, sixteen cases, case 3; Grmek 1989: 295-304). A fine description of malarial cachexia is to be found in Airs, Waters, Places, ( Airs, Waters, Places, 7; Grmek 1989: 281).

Schistosomiasis (bilharzias) has been for millennia a scourge in Egypt. The parasite (blood-vessel inhabiting worms) has an intricate relationship between the human host and a snail intermediate host. The type of agriculture (irrigation, flooding of the Nile) must have spread the disease. Although the evidence from ancient Egyptian medical papyri remains hard to interpret, there is strong paleopathological evidence of schistosomiasis in human remains from ancient Egypt.

Frontinus expressed clearly that a water system needed constant maintenance to function efficiently (Frontinus 116-123). For instance, calcium carbonate incrustation that formed inside the conduits needed constant removal, otherwise the flow of water would eventually stop (Hodge 1992: 227-232). In Italy aqueducts and baths seem to have been maintained even after other monumental buildings in the towns, with the exception of town walls and palaces, fell into disuse in late antiquity (Ward-Perkins 1984: 31, 128). In Antioch and other Near Eastern towns, at least part of the ancient water system was maintained into the Byzantine period and possibly up to the Era of Islam (Kennedy 1992). Although there were continuities from antiquity to the Middle Ages, the water supply was more limited and the Christian water patronage replaced the classical one: it was a move from luxuria to necessitas (Ward-Perkins 1984: 152).

The Second Urbanisation: Period of Slow Development

After the fall of the Roman Empire, water supply and sewage systems experienced fundamental changes in Europe. Medieval cities, castles and monasteries had their own wells, fountains or cisterns. Usually towns built a few modest latrines for the inhabitants, but these were mostly inadequate for the size of the population. The lack of proper sanitation increased the effects of epidemics in medieval towns in Europe.

Fundamental changes began to appear: science and knowledge were institutionalized for the first time when the development of modern universities started in the 13th century, and the agricultural world set out to industrialize from the 18th century onwards. Consequently, the growth of world population increased (Figure 2). All this profoundly affected
Fig 2. Estimated human population growth from 10 000 B.C. until year 2050 (Source: Juuti et al 2006: 13).
Along with the industrialization and urbanization of the Western world, enlightened people were fascinated with the idea of progress. Ever since the 18th century, science and reason were considered to be able to lead humankind towards an ever-happier future. This was the period when the first actual water closet was developed. By 1900, the water closet became a generally accepted cultural necessity in the Western world - the same way aqueducts had been in the Roman Empire. The water closet was seen as a victory for public health without any consideration for where the human excreta went through sewer pipes.

The start of industrialization and the related growth of cities created a situation where public health and environmental problems overwhelmed city governments to a greater degree than before, and novel technology was often seen as the solution. In the 19th century, Great Britain was seen as the forerunner of modern water supply and sanitation systems, but the innovations soon spread to Germany, other parts of Europe, USA and later also elsewhere.

Sanitation in towns around Europe was one of the great achievements of the 19th century. During the century the role of water in the transmission of several important diseases - cholera, dysentery, typhoid fever and diarrhoeas - was realized. The final proof came when the microbes causing these diseases were discovered. Especially cholera served as a justification for the sanitary movement around the world in the 19th century.

Sensory evaluation of water quality was complemented with chemical and microbiological examination. During the 19th century, filtering of the entire water supply of a town was introduced and the systematic chlorination of drinking water started in the early 20th century. The discovery of microbes and the introduction of efficient ways of treating large amounts of water paved the way to an era in which the public health problems caused by polluted water seemed to belong to history.

The Third Urbanisation: Modern Urban Infrastructure

The 1900s was a period of extensive population growth - the global population about quadrupled while the urban population increased 13-fold (Figure 2). By 2000 A.D., in almost every country, over half of the population lived in urban areas. During the century industrial production increased 40-fold and the consumption of energy by a factor of tens. Water and sanitation services had a definite role in this rapid socio-economic change of the entire globe.

In the early 20th century the health problems associated with water pollution seemed to have been resolved in the industrialized countries when chlorination and other water treatment techniques were developed and widely taken into use. Microbiological problems related to water were largely considered a problem of the developing world. However, in the late 20th century the biological hazards transmitted by water emerged again in the post-modern Western world. Anxiety about chemical and radioactive environmental hazards and their impacts on human health mounted in the 1960s. The overall amount of known biological and chemical health hazards transmitted by water increased manifold during the last half of the 20th century.

In today's world around 10 000 people die every day due to diseases like dysentery, cholera, and various diarrhoeal diseases, caused by a lack of safe water and adequate sanitation. Yet, since most of those who die are children and old people, whose death is considered "natural", or people who are more or less marginalized in their societies (e.g. refugees, the poor) or living outside areas that are important for the global economy, mortality due to these waterborne diseases is too often considered unavoidable.

The Fourth Urbanisation: Future Challenges

In the historical context, the growth of urban centres has been a continuous and even an escalating trend. Many of these centres are today located in developing economies, while the ensuing problems are concentrated on the poorest people - as always. The most severe constraints include poor living conditions, a lack of democracy, poor hygiene, illiteracy, corruption and a lack of proper water and sanitation services. Especially women and children suffer from these constraints.

Today there is a global shortage of potable water. When making fundamental decisions concerning water supply and sewerage, it is also necessary to be ready to make big investments. Services that are now at a high operational level were not achieved easily and without massive inputs and efforts. This is something to keep in mind when assessing future options and considering required strategies.

The level of water supply and sanitation in a society is not necessarily bound with time and place as much as the capability of that society to take responsibility for developing the living environment of its citizens and proper policies. In some cases, the situation was even better earlier than nowadays. Decisions have been made concerning water and sanitation systems - e.g. the universal acceptance of the water closet as a cultural necessity - that through path dependence have limited future options. There have also been situations where the choice of a technology has been regarded as problematic from the first beginning but has been chosen anyway. For instance, lead pipes were considered hazardous for health already in antiquity but continued to be used in house connections until recently.

Water supply and sanitation systems have always required continuous maintenance and adequate rehabilitation. This was already evident with the Roman aqueducts: calcium carbonate incrustation forming within the conduits needed to be removed constantly or it would have stopped the flow of water. The same is true for modern systems: they must be maintained to function properly.

Major Findings and their Relevance

The 30 cases from all the continents covering various historical phases indicate that the level of water supply and sanitation is not necessarily bound with time and place as much as the capability of society to take responsibility for developing the living environment of its citizens.

Below we will shortly discuss some of the key findings according to the horizontal themes of the book: population growth, health, water consumption, technological choices and water governance.

Population density & poverty

Throughout the history major problems seem to be concentrated largely on the same people - the poor, if not the poorest of the poor. They suffer from poor sanitation, lack of good water, ensuing health problems, poor education and often lack of good governance and basic democracy. Women, children - and especially girls - are often the ones who fetch the water from distant sources of water. This daily task prevents the latter going to school, learning to read etc. Eventually they become adults who might not be able to act as an active citizen and all in all have effect on their own lives let alone the society as a whole.

From the point of view of our and the environment's wellbeing, it is essential that water is good and safe - regardless whether it is from piped systems or point sources like wells. The same is the case with sanitation - it is a question of being connected either to the sewer or using proper on-site sanitation solutions. It is just vitally important to operate and maintain the systems properly. A well and an eco-toilet, especially in areas with scattered settlements, will also provide in future durable and ecological solutions. Investing in water supply and sewerage and thus also in the environment is always worthwhile. Studying wells and toilets needs more resources, so that we could find the best solutions and paths of action for different conditions - there is no such thing as cookie-cutter solution for systems which have such direct interaction with the environment.

For economic but also for several other reasons, it is not feasible to have waterborne sewerage everywhere while obviously they are needed in densely-populated areas at the moment. In dispersed rural areas at least such alternative on-site systems can be considered. These alternative systems seem particularly be subject to local conditions.

Health

Public health has always been a major factor influencing the ways how water supply has been solved by societies. The source of water supply was chosen according to its salubrity: clear, odourless water e.g. from springs or wells was preferred. Already from antiquity it was known that certain kinds of water caused health problems. Stagnant and marshy waters were avoided throughout times. New waterborne health hazards were recognized from the 19th century onwards: microbes, chemical pollutants.

We know that people have used their senses to perceive the quality of drinking-water at least from antiquity and most probably long time before. Related to the technological development new methods to study the quality of water were introduced from the 19th century onwards including chemical and microbiological studies. Concerning these two factors in historical perspectives we can see a clear continuity and also strong changes that both are depending on the scientific and technological level of the society.

Already in antiquity various methods like sieves, filtration and boiling were used to improve the quality of drinking-water. However, it was only in the 19th century that filtration of drinking water in urban centres became a common practise. Disinfection of drinking-water by different methods was introduced in the early 20th century. By proper use of the water treatment technologies the salubrity of drinking-water could be guaranteed to ever growing population.

The importance of good quality drinking-water for urban population was realized already in antiquity. Yet, the importance of proper sanitation for the health of town people was not discovered until the 19th century. The building of "modern" urban sewerage systems started in Britain and rapidly spread all over the globe.

Water use

Water used in large quantities has been deemed as an essential part of civilized way of life in different periods: Roman baths needed a lot of water as does the current way of life with water closets, showers and jacuzzis. Particularly high rates of water use are noticed when it is not properly charged for. The evidence indicates that as soon as water but also wastewater are charged according to the real costs wastage diminishes remarkably. Although at the global scale the great majority of water is used for irrigation, the highest priority of water use purposes is for the community water supply.

Throughout history there have been different solutions to guarantee an ample amount of water for human settlements. Indigenous people have been very ingenious in drawing their water. They have considered water a very crucial and often a sacred element. In the long run the availability of abundant or adequate amount of water has been one of the crucial factors for the development of a society - cities and communities.

Technological choices

In some cases the technological choices may have been erroneous or less successful. Example of these are lead pipes, used in the antique and continued to be used in house connections until recently. Ultimately water supply and sanitation systems need continuous maintenance and adequate rehabilitation. This was already evident in the Roman aqueducts: calcium carbonate incrustation formed inside the conduits needed constant removal, while otherwise stopping the water flow. The same is true for the modern systems, the maintenance of them must be taken care of otherwise they do not function properly. The bigger - if not the biggest - problem is related to the need of continuous replacement and rehabilitation.

One long-term debatable issue has been, and still is, whether to use ground or surface water as raw water for community purposes, or more generally, what sources to use. For small systems often ground water was available but for bigger systems surface water was needed. This is connected to the current question how far is it economically feasible to expand such systems. Once the systems expand other criteria such as vulnerability are also to be considered.

Governance

World Water Development Report 2003, produced practically by all the UN family and thus almost all the sectors of human life and society, pointed out how the water crisis is largely a crisis of governance. The report pointed further "many of the leading obstacles to sound and sustainable water management: sector fragmentation, poverty, corruption, stagnated budgets, declining levels of development assistance and investment in the water sector, inadequate institutions and limited stakeholder participation"

The findings of our book refer to the need of good governance - as pointed recently by several international water policy documents.

are largely along the same lines. People should be allowed and encouraged to use their own experiences and abilities to solve their problems. Such empowerment will most probably have more sustainable results than any mere top-down approaches. In overall god and effective water governance We obviously need to balance the centralised requirements such as legislation and decentralised requirements of water services management at local levels of cities, communities and households. It is The findings of this book also imply the important to involve all the stakeholders in decision-making in their proper roles as well as participation of users and citizens - the ultimate users, beneficiaries and payers of these services.

Interestingly enough, some of the basic principles of sustainable and viable water governance and services were written more than 2000 years ago. Using these principles many of the present problems could be avoided and solved. In spite of this mankind does not use largely these principles due to lack of proper governance but also resistant attitudes among people. It seems to be difficult, if not impossible, to resist advantages and profits gained on short-run by some, instead of thinking of long-term benefits potentially achieved by far many.

It seems to be very challenging for mankind to adopt systems and issues of fundamental importance - such as water supply and sanitation. Unfortunately it is psychologically much easier to promote bottled water or handing-over water services to international private operators - both interested mainly on short-term profits. Indeed, any sustainable water services will require long-term actions and planning, which the current western culture largely ignores. The time frame and related thinking seem to become shorter and shorter.

Yet, change itself should not be an end in itself. Decisions made in antiquity and in the late 19th century had a minimum frame of a century and often even more. In the foreseeable future such time frame should also be used if any sustainable results are to be achieved.

More than just a commodity, water is an economic and social good. This places responsibility for its management and oversight in the public sphere. Balancing of water use priorities, water quantity and water quality is of high importance for the futures. While water supply will continue to have the highest priority water quality issues will be relatively even more important than quantity. At the same time it is more and more important to use water wisely and avoid wastage of this important natural resource. In global context water pollution control and sanitation are probably the biggest challenges - removing substantially wastewater loadings from communities, industries and agriculture in many parts of the world.

Finally, the historical cases reveal that there is probably wider diversity of options and development paths - whole sets of institutional arrangements - than believed or recognised so far. The role of capital cities has not been as dominant as earlier assumed. In many cases remarkable networking of professionals has taken place in the early phases.

There is a huge variety of development paths and solutions in urban water supply and sanitation. Local conditions, traditions and people have to be in the core of decision making when future solutions are considered. However, since water sources for every city have their own unique location and quality, and each city has its own unique physical, social and administrative morphology, solutions of one city may not work for another.

In the long historical perspective it is evident that regardless of the political system good local solutions can be found based on local conditions, needs and traditions. Although water - and particularly water services - are largely dependent on local conditions.Yet, it is useful to make comparative studies between cities and communities in various regions and cultures, and identify possibly applicable and replicable principles and practices.

Resources

This article summarizes the general outline and the main results of the book, Environmental History of Water: Global View of Community Water Supply and Sanitation by Petri S. Juuti, Tapio S. Katko, and Heikki S. Vuorinen published by IWA Publishing. The focus of the book, Environmental History of Water, is on water, sanitation services and their evolution. Altogether, 34 authors were invited to put together 30 chapters for this multidisciplinary book. The book is divided into four chronological parts; from ancient cultures to the challenges of the 21st century, each part includes an introduction and conclusion written by the editors. The authors represent such disciplines as: the history of technology, the history of public health, public policy, development studies, sociology, engineering and management sciences.

The book emphasizes that the history of water and sanitation services is strongly linked to current water management and policy issues, as well as future implications. Geographically the book consists of local cases from all inhabited continents. The key penetrating themes of the book include population growth, health, water consumption, technological choices and governance. The history of water and sanitation services is strongly linked to current water management and policy issues, as well as future implications. Cross-sectional and historical intra-national and international comparisons have been recognized in many contexts as a valuable method of studying different sectors of human life - including technologies and governance. With regards to the latter, the World Water Development Report 2003 pointed out the extensive problem that: 'Sadly, the tragedy of the water crisis is not simply a result of the lack of water but is, essentially, one of poor water governance.'

Book Reviews

The book has been reviewed in several journals, such as Natural Resources Forum 32 (2008) 168-170 and Water Alternatives 1(2): 289-291.

Editors' Affiliations

Petri S. Juuti - PhD, Adjunct Professor, Department of history, University of Tampere, Finland

Tapio S. Katko - Doctor of Technology, Adjunct Professor, Tampere University of Technology, Finland

Heikki S. Vuorinen - MD, Adjunct Professor, Department of Public Health, University of Helsinki, Finland

References

Juuti, Katko & Vuorinen Eds., Environmental History of Water: Global View of Community Water Supply and Sanitation, IWA Publishing, 2007, ISBN: 9781843391104

Aëtius, On the opinions of the philosophers V.30.1. In Longrigg, J. Greek Medicine. From the Heroic to the Hellenistic Age. A Source Book. London: Duckworth, 1998, p. 31.

Airs, Waters, Places. In Hippocrates Volume I, with an English translation by W. H. S. Jones. The Loeb Classical Library

Aphorisms. In Hippocrates Volume IV, with an English translation by W. H. S. Jones. The Loeb Classical Library.

Bruun, C. (1991). The Water Supply of Ancient Rome. A study of Roman Imperial Administration. Helsinki: Societas Scientiarum Fennica. Commentationes Humanarum Litterarum 93.

Columella. Rei Rusticae. Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella on Agriculture in three volumes; with a recension of the text and an English translation by Harrison Boyd Ash. The Loeb Classical Library.

Diseases I. In Hippocrates Volume V, with an English translation by Paul Potter. The Loeb Classical Library.

Epidemics I. In Hippocrates Volume I, with an English translation by W. H. S. Jones. The Loeb Classical Library.

Epidemics II. In Hippocrates Volume VII, edited and translated by Wesley D. Smith. The Loeb Classical Library.

Epidemics III. In Hippocrates Volume I, with an English translation by W. H. S. Jones. The Loeb Classical Library.

Epidemics VI. In Hippocrates Volume VII, edited and translated by Wesley D. Smith. The Loeb Classical Library.

Frontinus Sex. Iulius. De aquaeductu urbis Romae. The stratagems and The aqueducts of Rome; with an English translation by Charles E. Bennett; edited and prepared for the press by Mary B. McElwain, The Loeb Classical Library.

Galen. De Sanitate Tuenda. A translation of Galen's Hygiene (De Sanitate Tuenda) by Robert Montraville Green. With an introduction by Henry E. Sigerist. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas, 1951.

Grmek M.D. (1989). Diseases in the ancient Greek world. Translated by Muellner, M. and L. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

Hodge A.T. (1981). Vitruvius, lead pipes and lead poisoning. American Journal of Archaeology, 85, 486-491.

Hodge A.T. (1992). Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply. London: Duckworth.

Humours. In Hippocrates Volume IV, with an English translation by W. H. S. Jones. The Loeb Classical Library.

Internal Affections. In Hippocrates Volume VI, with an English translation by Paul Potter. The Loeb Classical Library.

Juuti P.S., Katko T.S., and Vuorinen H.S. (Edited by) (2006). Environmental History of Water - Global View of Community Water Supply and Sanitation. IWA Publishing

Kennedy H. (1992). Antioch: from Byzantium to Islam and back again. The City in Late Antiquity, J. Rich (ed.). London: Routledge, pp. 181-198.

McNeill W.H. (1979). Plagues and Peoples. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.

Nutton V. (2005). Ancient Medicine. London and New York: Routledge.

Palladius. Opus Agriculturae. In Palladii Rutilii Tauri Aemilian Vri Inlustris. Opus Agriculturae, De Veterinaria Medicina, De Insitione. Bibliotheca Scriptorum Graecorum et Romanorum Teubneriana. Leipzig: B.G. Teubner Verlagsgesellschaft, 1975.

Paulus Aeginata. Paulos von Aegina des besten Arztes Sieben Bücher. Uebersetzt und mit Erläuterungen versehen von I. Berendes. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1914

Pliny (the Elder). Natural History; in ten volumes; with an English translation by H. Rackham, The Loeb Classical Library.

Prorrhetic II. In Hippocrates Volume VIII, edited and translated by Paul Potter. The Loeb Classical Library.

Regimen IV or Dreams. In Hippocrates Volume IV, with an English translation by W. H. S. Jones. The Loeb Classical Library.

Seneca L. Annaeus minor. Ad Lucilium epistulae morales; in three volumes; with an English translation by Richard M.Gummere, The Loeb Classical Library.

Vitruvius. On Architecture; in two volumes; translated into English by Frank Granger, The Loeb Classical Library.

Vuorinen H.S. (2007). Water and health in antiquity: Europe's legacy. Environmental History of Water -Global view of community water supply and sanitation, P.S. Juuti, T. S. Katko and H. S. Vuorinen (eds.). IWA Publishing, pp. 49-71.

Ward-Perkins B. (1984). From Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages. Urban Public Building in Northern and Central Italy AD 300-850. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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A Brief History of Water and Health from Ancient Civilizations to Modern Times

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Water is life - and life on earth is linked to water. Our existence is dependent on water, or the lack of it, in many ways, and one could say that our whole civilization is built on the use of water. This article examines the influence of water on public health throughout history.

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Како је настао такозвани "Great Pacific garbage patch"?

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Како је настао такозвани "Great Pacific garbage patch"?

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Настаo је ротирајућим океанским струјама које се називају "кругови". Можете их замислити као велике вртлоге који увлаче предмете унутра. Кругови повлаче крхотине на једну локацију, често у центар вртлога, формирајући „закрпе“.

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https://www.theregister.com/2022/07/26/pacific_garbage_patch/

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Река Урубамба

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Река Урубамба

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Река Урубамба је свето место за изумрли народ Инка.

Иако што су Инке изумрле, локално становништво и даље чисти реку, зато што се верује да су присутне духовне ствари у самој води.

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Инфекција црева, дизентерија је болест која се преноси водом. Дизентерија је добар разлог да увек перете руке, јер се болест шири углавном лошом хигијеном. Могу га изазвати бактерије, вируси или паразити у небезбедној храни и води и људи који долазе у контакт са фекалним материјама. Ако неко ко пати од дизентерије не може довољно брзо да замени течност, његов живот би могао бити угрожен.

Симптоми укључују:

Грчеви и бол у стомаку,
дијареја,
Грозница,
Мучнина,
Повраћање,
Дехидрација.

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Тифусна грозница

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Тифусна грозница

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Бактеријска инфекција проузрокована бактеријом салмонела типхи. Иако ретка у индустријализованим земљама, тифусна грозница је добро позната у изузетно сиромашним деловима земаља у развоју; процењује се да до 20 милиона људи широм света пати од ове болести сваке године. Шири се контаминираном храном, небезбедном водом и лошим санитарним условима и веома је заразан.

Симптоми укључују:

Грозница која се постепено повећава,
Болови у мишићима,
Умор,
Знојење,
Дијареја или затвор.

Вакцине се препоручују људима који путују у областима где су лоши санитарни услови и неисправна вода уобичајени. Вакцина се може убризгати ињекцијом или узимати орално неколико дана. Да бисте то спречили, уздржите се од пијења воде која није флаширана и запечаћена, и немојте јести храну из села или уличних продаваца. Тифус се лечи антибиотицима.

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Китови

Пластика је пронађена у скоро свим врстама китова у нашим океанима. Студија о китовима белугама из 2019. године, спроведена у канадским удаљеним арктичким водама, открила је микропластику у желуцу и цревима сваког тестираног. Неки китови конзумирају пластику директно кроз храњење филтером, процес у којем узимају велике гутљаје воде и извлаче ситан плен попут планктона. Друге врсте га конзумирају индиректно кроз ланац исхране, када једу рибу и друге животиње које су већ конзумирале пластику.

Морске корњаче

Постоји седам врста морских корњача које се налазе широм светских океана, а истраживања су показала да је свих седам прогутало пластику. Многи од нас се можда сећају да су видели снимак морске корњаче којој се извлачи слама из носа. Ово је веома суштински подсетник да морамо да радимо ка будућности без непотребне пластике за једнократну употребу.

Морске птице

Попут китова, морске птице случајно прогутају пластику и директно и индиректно. Неки га погрешно сматрају пленом, док га други акумулирају у својим телима од пластике у рибама и другим животињама које једу. Одрасле птице такође хране своје пилиће овом пластиком, угрожавајући њихове шансе за преживљавање. Нажалост, научници процењују да је 90 одсто морских птица прогутало пластику. Како производња пластике наставља да расте, неки научници предвиђају да ће се она наћи у пробавном систему 99 одсто свих врста морских птица до 2050. године.

Рибе

За многе рибе, одређена микропластика изгледа слично изворима хране, као што су фитопланктон и зоопланктони. У студији спроведеној на рибама које једу планктон у северном Пацифику, научници су открили да су боје пластике у пробавном систему риба биле најчешће беле, јасне и плаве – исте боје као планктон у том подручју, њихова примарна храна. Нису погођене само рибе у океанима; слатководне рибе суочавају се са истим претњама. Студија спроведена 2018. године открила је пластику у свакој риби тестираној у Великим језерима.

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Boats and boating--Equipment and supplies

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Река Јордан је такође под заштитом Унеска. По Новом завету, верује се да су Исус Христос и Јован Крститељ у самој води реке Јордан.

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Колера се обично налази у хуманитарним хитним случајевима, или у местима где су сиромаштво и лоши санитарни услови раширени. Болест се шири преко контаминиране воде и изазива тешку дехидрацију и дијареју. Колера може бити фатална у року од неколико дана или чак сати након излагања бактеријама, али само 1 од 10 људи ће развити симптоме опасне по живот.

Симптоми укључују:

Мучнина,
Повраћање,
Дијареја,
Грчеви у мишићима.

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Пластика и људи

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Пластика и људи

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Људи

Пластика штети људском здрављу у свакој појединачној фази свог животног циклуса. Пробија се у нашу храну, воду и ваздух. Утврђено је да све, од соли до меда, пива до морских плодова, садржи микропластику.Студија објављена почетком 2021. открила је микропластику у постељици нерођене бебе. Неоспорно је да једемо и пијемо пластику, али још увек није јасно како она утиче на наше здравље. Научници настављају да проучавају шта наша потрошња пластике може учинити нашим телима.

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Хепатитис А је инфекција јетре узрокована конзумирањем контаминиране хране и воде или доласком у блиски контакт са неким ко има инфекцију. Људи који често путују у земље у развоју или раде у руралним заједницама са лошим санитарним условима и хигијеном су највише изложени болести.

Симптоми укључују:

Умор,
жутица,
Мучнина и повраћање,
Бол у стомаку, посебно у близини јетре,
Губитак апетита,
Изненадна грозница,

Инфекција обично нестаје за неколико недеља, али је могуће да постане озбиљна и да траје неколико месеци.

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https://oceana.ca/en/blog/five-animals-impacted-plastic-pollution-and-how-you-can-help-protect-them/

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Plastic is everywhere and in everything, and it never goes away. Over time, it breaks down into tiny pieces, which makes its way into our water sources, the food chain and even the air we breathe. Tens of thousands of individual marine organisms have been observed suffering from entanglement or ingestion of plastics - from zooplankton, corals and fish to sea turtles, marine mammals like whales and seabirds. Plastic consumption can lead to starvation once an animal's stomach is full of plastic, as well as other negative health effects that we are just now starting to understand. Our oceans are choking on plastics, and so are these five animals, literally.

Help protect these animals, add your voice to #EndThePlasticDisaster by signing the petition here.
Whales
Plastic has been found in almost every species of whale in our oceans. From whales as small as the harbour porpoise to incredibly rare beaked whales and fin whales - the second largest whale in the ocean. A 2019 beluga whale study, conducted in Canada's remote Arctic waters, found microplastics in the stomach and intestines of every single one tested. Some whales consume plastic directly through filter feeding, a process where they take large gulps of water and siphon out tiny prey like plankton. Other species consume it indirectly through the food chain, when they eat fish and other animals that have already consumed plastics.
Sea turtles
There are seven species of sea turtles found throughout the world's oceans and research has shown that all seven have ingested plastic. A 2018 study investigating plastic in 102 individual sea turtles found it in the digestive system of every single sea turtle. Many of us may remember seeing the heart-wrenching video of a sea turtle having the straw pulled from its nose. This is a very visceral reminder that we need to work toward a future without unnecessary single-use plastics.
Seabirds
Like whales, seabirds accidentally ingest plastic both directly and indirectly. Some mistake it for prey, such as krill and fish eggs, while others accumulate it in their bodies from plastic in the fish and other animals they eat. Adult birds also feed this plastic to their chicks, threatening their chances of survival. Unfortunately, scientists estimate that 90 per cent of seabirds have ingested plastic. As plastic production continues to grow, some scientists predict that it will be found in the digestive system of 99 per cent of all seabird species by 2050.
Fish
For many fish, certain microplastics look similar to their food sources, such as phytoplankton, zooplankton and fish eggs. In a study conducted on fish that eat plankton in the North Pacific, scientists found that the colours of the plastics in the fishes' digestive systems were most commonly white, clear and blue - the same colours as the plankton in the area, their primary food source. It's not just fish in the oceans that are affected either; freshwater fish face the same threats. A study conducted in 2018 found plastic in every single fish tested in the Great Lakes.
Humans
Plastic is harming human health at every single stage of its life cycle, from extraction and production to consumer use and end of life. It is making its way into our food, water and air. Everything from salt to honey to beer to seafood has been found to contain microplastics.7 In fact, it is estimated that humans may consume approximately one credit card worth of plastic each week, and a s tudy published in early 2021 revealed microplastics in the placentas of unborn babies. It is undeniable that we are eating and drinking plastic, but just how it is impacting our health is still unclear. Scientists continue to study what our plastic consumption may be doing to our bodies.

Recent polling has shown that the vast majority of Canadians want a future without plastic pollution. The Canadian government made a commitment to reduce single-use plastics, and it's critical that this commitment is fulfilled, for the sake of our oceans, for ourselves and our future.

Canada has an opportunity to show strong global leadership in the face of the plastic disaster and join other countries in creating a plastic-free future. Join Oceana Canada to lend your support and sign the petition here, urging the Canadian government to fulfill its commitment to ban unnecessary single-use plastics that are choking the oceans and devastating marine life by 2021.

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Five animals impacted by plastic pollution and how you can help protect them

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Plastic is everywhere and in everything, and it never goes away. Over time, it breaks down into tiny pieces, which makes its way into our water sources, the food chain and even the air we breathe. Tens of thousands of individual marine organisms have been observed suffering from entanglement or ingestion of plastics - from ...

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Начини помоћу којих се може смањити загађење воде:

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Начини помоћу којих се може смањити загађење воде:

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https://raleighnc.gov/water-and-sewer/6-ways-prevent-water-pollution

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The best way to protect streams from pollution is to prevent it at the source! This means keeping litter and other trash out of creeks in Raleigh. It’s also important to keep trash out of yards and streets.

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https://www.padi.com/aware/dive-against-debris

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A Dive Against Debris Diver takes direct 'fins on' action for the ocean, collecting critical survey data from any or every dive that can be used by marine researchers and policymakers for conservation efforts. No one is better suited to tackle marine debris than PADI Divers.

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How To Participate in a Dive Against Debris | PADI

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A Dive Against Debris Diver takes direct 'fins on' action for the ocean, collecting critical survey data from any or every dive that can be used by marine researchers and policymakers for conservation efforts. No one is better suited to tackle marine debris than PADI Divers.