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Definition market place and the main forms of the market

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Definition market place and the main forms of the market

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The market form is the set of characteristics which contribute to determining the ways in which the commodity is offered, or demanded, and which explain the particular mechanism of price formation.

The markets form are
1)Perfect competition
2)Monopoly
3)Oligopoly
4)Monopolistic competition

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In the market of perfect competition there are an infinite numbers of small bidding companies, each of which can satisfy the market demand, and an infinite numbers of small buyers (ex. consumers).
Perfect competition is a form of market characterized by the impossibility of entrepreneurs to fix the selling price of the goods produced, which is fixed instead by the meeting of supply and demand, which in turn are an expression of utility and marginal cost.
Any price above the market price cancels the market demand of the firm.
The market of perfect competition is characterized by freedom of entry and exit of companies. There are no barriers to market entry or exit.

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Monopoly is that form of market where any kind of competition is absent.
This type of phenomenon is characterized precisely by the absence of competing companies or substitute products which could in some way compromise the exclusive operation of a single company which, within that market, produces and/or distributes that particular type of good or service.
In a particular type of market, the monopoly situation can occur for multiple reasons, which precisely give rise to two types of monopoly, namely: natural monopoly and legal monopoly. Natural monopoly occurs when entry into the market is hindered by natural barriers, determined by the exclusive ownership of a production factor by a company (e.g. a mine) or by the enormous economies of scale and production capacity from which the the only monopoly firm operating in the market. Legal monopoly occurs when the number of companies operating on the market is set by law by the State.
Although there are no economic or natural entry barriers, other companies cannot enter the reference market. The service or good can only be offered by the only authorized company.
In these circumstances the monopolist can be a public company, a public body or a private company under concession.

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Market form or situation characterized, in the face of perfect competition between buyers, by the presence of a limited number of large sellers, generally in competition with each other or interested in collusive practices.
Example: the car is a good produced in a defined oligopoly market: in fact, there are few producers of this good compared to the millions of consumers of the same
The forms of oligopoly
1) Pure oligopoly. Pure oligopoly is the market form in which few firms offer identical goods/services (homogeneous goods).
2) Imperfect oligopoly. Imperfect oligopoly is the form of market in which few firms offer competing but not identical goods/services (differentiated goods).
There is no lack of disadvantages in this form of market. First of all, the price turns out to be higher than that practiced in perfect competition. Oligopoly is characterized by entry barriers, which severely hinder the entry of new firms into this market.

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Monopolistic competition is a form of market intermediate between perfect competition and monopoly, in which some characteristic elements of the competitive market and others of the monopolistic market are present. In the monopolistically competitive market, firms offer a non-homogeneous and differentiated product (differentiation). Product differentiation determines a change in consumer preferences because, despite being similar, the products of companies are not considered by buyers as substitute goods. Each individual firm's product is distinguished by buyers as substitute goods. Every single company product is distinguished from the others by small material differences (technical characteristics, objective quality, etc.) or immaterial ones (brand reputation, perceived quality, advertising, etc.). As in a monopolistic market, in a monopolistically competitive market each individual firm can change both the quantity of production and the price Each firm has a downward sloping demand curve and enjoys a certain market power which derives from the fact of offering a differentiated asset from other firms. Market power is directly related to the degree of product differentiation. The more different a product is perceived by buyers, the less elastic the product demand curve is, other way.

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That is,the set of obligations and commitments that the company voluntarily take on in favor of the social context,in which it operates, or any case benefits from certain categories of subjects variously interested in the company's business.

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1)Conduct of the company
2)The willing character
3)The recipients of the various companies.

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Or the initiatives of responsability that the company takes into considerations.

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That is the obbligations and commitments that the company takes voluntarily.

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3)The recipients of the various companies

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3)The recipients of the various companies

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Those intended for the local community and those intended for particular categories of subjects.

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Behavior is ethical when it conforms to the moral norms of a society. The connection between the observation of ethical rules and global competition derives from the fact that compliance with the rules could harm observant companies and favor companies free from any scruples of an ethical nature.

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1)The traditional one, based on the separation between ethics and economics
2)The recent theory, from which the concept of ethical enterprise derives
The traditional conception according to which it is appropriate to keep ethical problems separate from economic ones from the idea of the perfect market. According to which the best way of everyone's well-being is to let everyone have their own interests, in this way each person develops his or her abilities to the fullest and produces the maximum possible quantity of goods.

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The essential criteria of an ethical company

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The essential criteria of an ethical company

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1)It must be a real company
2)There must be a company organized on the basis of ethical criteria
3)Must be a socially responsible company
Only in this way will it be possible to speak of a qualified ethical company.

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The different forms of ethical business:

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The different forms of ethical business:

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- Socially responsible;  retain the principles of corporate social responsibility
- Cooperative companies;  mutual purpose
- No profit;  private entities with the aim of social solidarity
- Ethical finance;  financial activity that is carried out according to criteria of social utility
- Social enterprises regulated by legislative decree number 155 of 2006

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To some, sustainability is the ability to remain in business. To others, it is about ensuring that the negative environmental impacts are managed and mitigated. A third sees it as synonymous with Corporate Social Responsibility.
Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
How should business translate this idea to its context? The best-known framework for this was postulated by John Elkington as what is known as the triple bottom line, elegantly interpreted by Shell in one of its earlier sustainability reports
- people, planet, profits. What this says is that if a company wishes to stay in business and protect and grow its financial bottom line, then it has to recognise that it can only do this if it manages the social and environmental responsibility of being in business simply because society provides its customers, its employees and its legitimacy to stay in business while the environment provides it its key resources. So, sustainable development as applied to business is about recognising that its future lies in performing well not just financially, but also how good its social and environmental bottom lines are. Or simply put, sustainability is balancing a company's financial, social and environmental performance.

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a substance, especially a metal, that allows an electrical current to move freely through it at a very low temperature.

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Superconductors are materials that have no electrical resistance at low temperatures and exhibit the phenomen of magnetic levitation.
The phenomen of superconducity was discovered by Kamerlingh Onnes,who observed a strange beehavior of a mercury wire at -268.96 degrees.
A typhical use of superconductors is to build magnet coils:the use of superconducting wires greatly reduces their size,weight and energy consumption for the same magnetic field strenghth.

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Superconducting materials are
titanium, vanadium, niobium, tin, niobium-aluminum, niobium-tin, etc.), therefore called superconductors, which takes place at temperatures close to absolute zero. An electric current introduced into a superconducting loop flows practically indefinitely and without producing heat.

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Best superconductor is hydrogen sulphide

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Best superconductor is hydrogen sulphide

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The superconductor with the highest temperature currently known is hydrogen sulphide, which to become such must be subjected to about 90 gigaPascals of pressure (10 are sufficient for the creation of diamonds), and still remain below -70 degrees Celsius .

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The science of magnetism and electrical currents

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Electromagnetism is the current which, passing through an iron element, makes it magnetic because it produces a polarity. When the current is suspended and, therefore, its passage through the iron element is interrupted, the latter no longer has any magnetic characteristics. This means that when, inside a conductor, current is made to flow from the positive pole to the negative pole, a magnetic field is produced which is perpendicular to the direction of flow of the current, and whose intensity is proportional to the intensity of the current. The greater the current flowing through the conductor, the more intense the magnetic field will be produced.

It is therefore important to remember that the electric and magnetic fields are deeply interconnected, in the sense that no propagation of an electric field is possible if it is not accompanied by a magnetic field. In physics, electromagnetic waves are produced as a result of the acceleration of electric charges.

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Electromagnetism in metalworking: the SPD electro-permanent system

Based on what has been illustrated so far, it is easy to understand that if electromagnetism were used to anchor metal pieces during their processing, the suspension of the current would cause the piece to be released with consequent risk for the operators.

To solve this problem, SPD has developed an electro-permanent system for its magnetic chuck which produces a current shock capable of magnetizing the iron piece. In practice, this means that direct current production will no longer be necessary to operate, but on the contrary it will be possible to operate with a safer and more sustainable technology.

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An electrical circuit is an interconnected assembly of electrical components and their connections in a closed path so that electric current can flow continuous

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The simplest electrical circuit consists of a generator, a user appliance and the metal conductors that connect them to complete the circuit. In a flashlight, the generator is the battery and the user is the bulb.
Two different types of circuits can be constructed: the series circuit and the parallel circuit.
An electrical circuit is made up of:

active elements: they are generators of electricity, such as batteries, dynamos, alternators;

passive elements: they are resistors, inductors and capacitors;

connection conductors.

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In a series circuit all the components are connected to the same circuit. This means that they share the same current flowing through all connected components.

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In a parallel circuit, the components are arranged in such a way that the heads of each component are connected to each other with a common point. While the tails are connected to each other with another common point. Thus forming more parallel branches in the circuit.

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Based on reading the book «Angels and demons»

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The chopper banked hard. his stomach dropping, langdon gazed farther into the distance. His eyes found the crumbling ruins of the roman coliseum. The coliseum, langdon had always thought, was one of history’s greatest ironies. Now a dignified symbol for the rise of human culture and civilization, the stadium had been built to host centuries of barbaric events–hungry lions shredding prisoners, armies of slaves battling to the death, gang rapes of exotic women captured from far-off lands, as well as public beheadings and castrations.

From the  chapter 33

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SECOND DAY-BASILICA DI SAN PIETRO, PIAZZA SAN PIETRO, CITTÀ DEL VATICANO

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SECOND DAY-BASILICA DI SAN PIETRO, PIAZZA SAN PIETRO, CITTÀ DEL VATICANO

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Langdon and Vittoria looked out and saw it. Like a mountain parting the morning fog, the colossal dome rose out of the haze before them: St. Peter’s basilica. “now that ,” Langdon said to Vittoria, “is something Michelangelo got right.” Langdon had never seen St. Peter’s from the air.  The marble façade blazed like fire in the afternoon sun. Adorned with 140 statues of saints, martyrs, and angels, the herculean edifice stretched two football fields wide and a staggering six long. The cavernous interior of the basilica had room for over 60,000 worshipers... over one hundred times the population of Vatican city, the smallest country in the world. Incredibly, though, not even a citadel of this magnitude could dwarf the piazza before it.  A sprawling expanse of granite, St. Peter’s square was a staggering open space in the congestion of Rome, like a classical central park. In front of the basilica, bordering the vast oval common, 284 columns swept outward in four concentric arcs of diminishing size... an architectural trompe de l’oiel used to heighten the piazza’s sense of grandeur. As he stared at the magnificent shrine before him, Langdon wondered what St. Peter would think if he were here now.  The saint had died a gruesome death, crucified upside down on this very spot. Now he rested in the most sacred of tombs, buried five stories down, directly beneath the central cupola of the basilica. “Vatican city,” the pilot said, sounding anything but welcoming.“

From the chapter 35

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THIRD DAY- PIAZZA SAN PIETRO, CITTÀ DEL VATICANO

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THIRD DAY- PIAZZA SAN PIETRO, CITTÀ DEL VATICANO

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Inside there is the west ponent

"“Yes! Air! And it was carved and put there by the original architect!”
VIttoria looked confused. “But  I thought MIchelangelo designed  ST. Peter’s.”
“Yes, the basilica !” Langdon exclaimed, triumph in his voice. “But  St. Peter’s square was designed by bernini!”

from the  chapter 35

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FIRTH DAY- CAPPELLA SISTINA, CITTÀ DEL VATICANO

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FIRTH DAY- CAPPELLA SISTINA, CITTÀ DEL VATICANO

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Cardinal mortati gazed up at the lavish ceiling of the sistine chapel and tried to find a
moment of quiet reflection. The frescoed walls echoed with the voices of cardinals from nations
around the globe. The men jostled in the candlelit tabernacle, whispering excitedly and consulting
with one another in numerous languages, the universal tongues being english, italian, and spanish.
the light in the chapel was usually sublime–long rays of tinted sun slicing through the
darkness like rays from heaven–but not today. As was the custom, all of the chapel’s windows had
been covered in black velvet in the name of secrecy. This ensured that no one on the inside could
send signals or communicate in any way with the outside world. the result was a profound darkness
lit only by candles... a shimmering radiance that seemed to purify everyone it touched, making
them all ghostly. . . like saints.

From the chapter 35

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The cavernous interior of the basilica had room for over 60,000 worshipers... over one hundred times the population of vatican city, the smallest country in the world.
Incredibly, though, not even a citadel of this magnitude could dwarf the piazza before it.

from the chapter 38

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The term electronic commerce can refer to several concepts:
it can refer to all transactions for the marketing of goods and services between producer (supply) and consumer (demand), carried out via the Internet;
In the telecommunications industry, electronic commerce can also be understood as the set of applications dedicated to commercial transactions.
a further definition describes e-commerce as the set of communication and management of commercial activities through electronic methods, such as EDI (Electronic Data Interchange) and automated data collection systems.

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There are different types of e-commerce depending on the mode of transaction (full name and acronym):

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It is a term that refers to generic processes between business partners, and that can also refer to all transactions carried out in an industrial value chain, before the finished product is sold to the final consumer.
More specifically, Business-to-Business or B2B indicates the relationships that a company has with its suppliers for procurement activities, production planning and monitoring, or subsidies in product development activities, or the relationships that the company holds with professional customers, i.e. other companies, located at different points in the production chain.
The volume of B2B transactions is much higher than that of B2C transactions. According to estimates, in 2018 the value generated by B2B transactions was about 2,700 billion euros (of which 335 billion generated by B2B e-commerce alone), with a weight of 75% on the entire turnover of Italian companies.
One reason is that businesses have adopted e-commerce technologies much more than consumers have. In addition, in a typical supply chain, there are many B2B transactions, but only one B2C transaction, since the complete product is sold at retail to the end customer.
To give an example, the business relationship between a manufacturer and a wholesaler is a B2B relationship. The direct relationship between the producer or wholesaler, on the one hand, and customer/consumer/final private user, is defined as B2C. Another example of a B2B transaction is a chicken feed company selling its product to a chicken farm, which is another company.
Another example of a B2C transaction is a grocery store that sells grain-fed chickens to a consumer. B2B can also describe marketing activities between companies, not just final transactions that result from marketing, although the term can in fact be used to identify commercial transactions between companies (also referred to as "institutional sales").

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B2C e-commerce has the following advantages:
Purchases can be faster and more convenient.
Offers and prices can change instantly.
Companies can assess their competitiveness
Call centers can be integrated with the website.
Broadband communications will increase sales satisfaction.
Examples of companies operating in the B2C market segment are: JD.com, Amazon.com, eBay,
in China: Alibaba Group and its subsidiary AliExpress, Taobao.in India: Flipkart, ShopClues, Paytm, Snapdeal
in Southeast Asia:
WeMall (formerly iTrueMart) of the Thai Ascend Group:;
Rakuten, Japanese site.
Rocket Internet, Singapore (site based in Germany).
Lazada, founded by Rocket Internet.
in Bangladesh: FoodPanda, JAAGOdeal, HungryNaki, Foodpeon, Chaldal.com.

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Customer to customer (C2C) is a business model whereby customers can trade with each other, typically in an online environment. Two implementations of C2C markets are auctions and classified advertisements. C2C marketing has soared in popularity with the arrival of the internet and companies such as eBay, Etsy, and Craigslist.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Customer to customer (C2C) is a business model that enables customers to trade with each other, frequently in an online environment.

C2C businesses are a type of business model that emerged with e-commerce technology and the sharing economy.

Online C2C company sites include Craigslist, Etsy, and eBay, which sell products or services through a classified or auction system.

Some C2C companies have problems, such as a lack of quality control and payment guarantees.

C2C can be contrasted with B2C and B2B business models.

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Consumer to business, or C2B, differs from other e-commerce models because it's the consumers who create value for a product or business. In the traditional business-to-consumer e-commerce model, businesses sell products or services directly to consumers. With C2B, consumers offer products or services to businesses in exchange for payment or other benefits.
Benefits of consumer to business

There are many benefits to both consumers and businesses in the C2B e-commerce model, including:

Flexibility: Businesses and sellers can define their own revenue parameters, such as the duration of services, how often payment gets collected or product supply dates. This offers more scheduling flexibility for freelancers to enjoy while providing their services.

Higher earning potential: Sellers have unlimited earning potential; they can work as much as they want and provide their services and product to as many businesses as they choose.

Wider reach: Businesses have the opportunity to prioritize how they hire sellers, which gives them the ability to hire from specific regions, such as where the average income or cost of living is lower, thereby reducing their costs.

Variety of work: Sellers have the opportunity to gain valuable work experience with different businesses across multiple projects, and they have the opportunity to be paid well for their services.

Independence: Consumers can provide their products or services to a business without having to create a business or go into business for themselves.

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Banks perform various functions:
the credit function;
the monetary function;
the investment function;
the function of services;
the economic and social function.

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The credit function is the main function performed by banks.
Banks assume an intermediary role in the credit sector between:
those who offer capital to lend;
those who need capital to borrow.
In fact, those who have money deposit it with banks. In this way, banks collect money from savers.
These operations, for the bank, are passive operations. On the sums received from savers, the bank pays interest.
In turn, the bank uses the sums of money received from savers by granting loans to those who request them. These operations, for the bank, are active operations. Both households and businesses can apply for loans. On the sums that the bank lends to customers, it receives, from the latter, interest.
The bank earns the difference between the interest received on the sums borrowed and the interest paid to those who have deposited sums of money with it.

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Banks perform a monetary function in that they create means of payment used to regulate trade. Example: bank checks and bank drafts, transfers. They are called electronic money.
THE LESSON CONTINUES UNDER ADVERTISING

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Banks perform investment functions because they employ part of their own and raised capital in:
investments in securities;investments in foreign currencies;
structural-organizational investments necessary for the performance of their activities. Example: offices, furniture, armored systems, electronic devices.

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Banks offer many services to their customers.
These services are differentiated in:
traditional services, i.e. the services traditionally offered by banks. Example: custody deposits, collection and payment services, collection services of bills of exchange and bank receipts, proxies for payment of taxes, rental of safe-deposit boxes, administration and custody of securities;
complementary services, i.e. services provided to customers together with the management of their deposit and against payment of a fee. Example: bank transfers, debit cards, credit cards, home banking;
innovative services, i.e. ancillary services that are added to those traditionally offered by banks. Example: financial advisory services.

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Finally, banks play an economic and social role. They:
direct savings towards productive activities, promoting economic development;are directly affected by many economic policy decisions taken by monetary authorities;
They invest part of the funds raised in public securities, thus financing public spending.