# data[].attributes.headline
George Washington (April 1789 - March 1797)

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George Washington (April 1789 - March 1797)

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Foreign Policy Event: Proclamation of Neutrality:

Date: April 22, 1793

Description: During the war against France and Britain in the wake of the French Revolutionary War, Washington issued a proclamation to keep the U.S. neutral. This marked a precedent of neutrality that would appear throughout American history.

Domestic Event: Whiskey Rebellion

Date: January 1794

Description: Alexander Hamilton proposed an excise tax on Whiskey. However, the Americans living on the frontier of Western Pennsylvania rose in rebellion against the excise tax. President Washington personally led the United States militia to stop the rebels in a show of force that the new Constitution was effective.

Political Event: The First Political Parties

Date: Early 1790s

Description: During George Washington's presidency, the first 2 political parties rose over the issue of the federal government. The federalists, led by Hamilton, called for a strong form of government with loose constructionist views, while the Democratic-Republicans, led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, called for a weaker central government with more states' rights and strict constructionist views.

Economic Event: The First National Bank of the United States

Date: February 25, 1791

Description: Proposed by Alexander Hamilton, the first national bank was designed to stabilize the economy and handle the federal government's finances. It issued currency for the nation and provided a means to manage public debt.

https://www.mountvernon.org/education/primary-source-collections/primary-source-collections/article/neutrality-proclamation-of-1793#:~:text=On%20April%2022%2C%201793%2C%20George,allies%20that%20included%20Great%20Britain.

https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/whiskey-rebellion

https://dk.usembassy.gov/usa-i-skolen/presidential-elections-and-the-american-political-system/#:~:text=By%20the%20presidential%20election%20of,the%20first%20major%20political%20parties.

https://www.nps.gov/inde/learn/historyculture/places-firstbank.htm#:~:text=After%20the%20Revolutionary%20War%2C%20the,to%20handle%20the%20fiscal%20situation.

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Foreign Policy: The XYZ Affair

Date: October 1797

Description: During the war between France and Britain, France was seizing American ships for service. Adams tried to send diplomats (Charles C. Pinckney, Elbridge Gerry, and John Marshall) in order to address the issue. However, French agents known simply as X, Y, and Z demanded bribes for the negotiations to start. The scandal that sparked outrage in the American public when they found out.

Domestic Policy: Alien and Sedition Acts

Date: July 6, 1798

Description: The Federalist Party was fearful of the Democratic-Republican criticism of their policies. It passed four laws. These laws raised the citizenship requirement from 5 to 14 years, let the president deport "aliens" and arrest them anytime during wartime. It also made it a crime for citizens to criticize the US government. These laws were heavily directed at the Democratic-Republicans because they were favored by new immigrants and citizens.

War/Internal Conflict: Quasi-War

Date: July 7, 1798 - September 30, 1800

Description: During Adam's presidency, an undeclared naval war between the US and France broke out due to the XYZ affair. Congress authorized American ships to capture any French vessels they came across. This event helped build the US Navy.

Political Event: First Peaceful Power Transition

Date: February 17, 1801

Description: In the 1800 election, there was a tie in the presidential election between Adams and Jefferson. The House of Representatives ended the tie when they voted Jefferson over Adams. This marked the first peaceful transition of power between rival groups, the Federalist and the Democratic-Republican, showcasing that the US's democracy worked.

https://www.monticello.org/research-education/thomas-jefferson-encyclopedia/xyz-affair/#:~:text=The%20XYZ%20Affair%20(1797%2D1798,bribe%20from%20the%20American%20delegation.

https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/alien-and-sedition-acts#:~:text=Passed%20in%20preparation%20for%20an,brink%20of%20war%20with%20France.

https://ussconstitutionmuseum.org/major-events/the-quasi-war-with-france/

https://www.history.com/articles/peaceful-transfer-power-adams-jefferson

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Thomas Jefferson (March 1801 - March 1809)

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Thomas Jefferson (March 1801 - March 1809)

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Foreign Policy: Louisiana Purchase

Date: April 30, 1803

Description: Jefferson purchased the Louisiana Territory from France for 15 million dollars. This doubled the size of the United States territory. However, being a strict constructionist, he had doubts about the deal. He justified it by emphasizing the practical benefits of the purchase.

Domestic Policy: Embargo Act of 1807

Date: December 22, 1807

Description: During this time, Britain and France were interfering with American shipping and impressing their sailors. Jefferson placed an embargo to try and protect US independence/neutrality, but it depressed the US's economy.

Economic Policy: Excise tax repealed

Date: 1802

Description: Being a Democratic-Republican, he had views of a weak central government. He repealed most federal internal taxes, including the whiskey tax, to reduce federal influence.

Political Event: Marybury v. Madison

Date: February 24, 1803

Description: Jefferson was outraged over Adams ' last-minute effort to pack the court with Federalist-leaning judges. In this court case, Chief Justice John Marshall established the Supreme Court's Judicial Review. It ruled that while Marybury was right to receive the position, the actual law giving him rights was unconstitutional.

https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/the-louisiana-purchase-jeffersons-constitutional-gamble

https://www.monticello.org/research-education/thomas-jefferson-encyclopedia/embargo-1807/

https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/whiskey-rebellion#:~:text=By%201802%2C%20then%20President%20Thomas,true%20challenge%20to%20federal%20authority.

https://www.oyez.org/cases/1789-1850/5us137

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Foreign Policy: War of 1812

Date: June 18, 1812 - February 17, 1815

Description: The US declared war on Britain due to continued issues of impressment and British support of Native Americans out West. Washington D.C., was burned down during the war. The conflict ended with the Treaty of Ghent, which really was a draw.

Domestic Policy: Chartering of the Second Bank

Date: April 10, 1816

Description: The First Bank's charter of expiring. The War of 1812 had financial challenges. Madison signed legislation to establish the Second Bank to address both issues and to continue establishing the national currency/managing the government's finances.

Political Event: Hartford Convention

Date: December 15, 1814 - January 5, 1815

Description: The Federalist party was discontent with the War of 1812, sympathizing with the British. Delegates convened to end the war and even proposed that New England secede from the Union. It was perceived as disloyalty that marked the decline of the Federalist Party.

Economic Policy: Tariff of 1816

Date: April 27, 1816

Description: Post-war 1812, the US faced competition from Britain. They enacted the Tariff of 1816, intended as a protective tariff for domestic companies.

https://ussconstitutionmuseum.org/major-events/war-of-1812-overview/

https://www.britannica.com/biography/James-Madison/The-father-of-the-Constitution

https://www.britannica.com/event/Hartford-Convention

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Foreign Event: Monroe Doctrine

Date: December 2, 1823

Description: Monroe gave an annual message opposing European colonism in America. He asserted that the Western Hemisphere was within the US's sphere of influence and that intervention would be viewed as a threat to the US.

Domestic Event: Missouri Compromise

Date: March 6, 1820

Description: During this time, the whole country was in upheaval due to the admission of Missouri which threatened the balance between free and slave states. Compromised was reached where Missouri was admitted as a slave state however a new state up Northeast, Maine, was admitted as a free state. It also resulted in the Missouri Compromise line on the 36th parallel that divided between slave and free state.

Economic Event: Panic of 1819

Date: 1819

Description: Post-war 1812 economic boom ended. This was partly due to the Second Bank tightening the credit and demanding loans be paid in gold/silver that caused instability in the banking system. many Americans suffered as poverty jumped.

Poltical Event: Era of Good Feelings

Date: 1817 - 1825

Description: With the decline of the Federalist party, the Democratic Party was the only major political party. This resulted in a temporary one-party system with national unity.

https://www.whitehousehistory.org/bios/james-monroe

https://www.history.com/articles/monroe-doctrine

https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/missouri-compromise

https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&psid=3531#:~:text=The%20panic%20had%20several%20causes,factories%20due%20to%20foreign%20competition.

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John Quincy Adams (March 1825 - March 1829)

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John Quincy Adams (March 1825 - March 1829)

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Foreign Event: Panama Congress Proposal

Date: 1826

Description: Adams wanted to attend the Congress of Panama which supported the newly independent Latin American nations. This marked an early step for a positive relationship between the United States and Panama, and the greater Latin American hemisphere.

Domestic Event: Internal Improvement Programs

Date: 1825 - 1829

Description: Throughout Adams's presidency, he advocated for improved national infrastructure. This included networks of roads and canals. He also promoted education and scientific advancements. However, most of his proposals were blocked by congress.

Economic Event: Tariff of 1828

Date: May 19, 1828

Description: Co-named the Tariff of Abomination, this tariff raised duties on raw materials and manufactured goods. While it protected Northern industries, it economically challenged the South, which relied on the export of cotton and importing manufactured goods.

Political Event: The Corrupt Bargain

Date: 1825

Description: During the 1824 election, neither Quincy Adams nor Andrew Jackson won enough electoral votes. The issue went to the House of Representatives when Henry Clay, the speaker of the House, spoke in support of Adams, which resulted in his victory. After Adams appointed Clay Secretary of State. Jackson accused Adams of striking a bargain with Clay.

https://millercenter.org/president/jqadams/foreign-affairs

https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/1600/presidents/johnquincyadams#:~:text=John%20Quincy%20Adams%2C%20son%20of,States%20from%201825%20to%201829.

https://millercenter.org/president/jqadams/domestic-affairs

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Andrew Jackson (March 1829 - March 1837)

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Andrew Jackson (March 1829 - March 1837)

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Foreign Event: Texas Independence

Date: March 3, 1837

Description: Near the end of his presidency, Jackson officially recognized the independence of Texas from Mexico. However, even though Texas petitioned to be admitted into the Union, Jackson was cautious, fearing war with Mexico.

Domestic Event: Indian Removal Act

Date: May 28, 1830

Description: Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act, which authorized the forced relocation of Native American tribes to the west of the Mississippi. This event was known as the Trail of Tears, where thousands of Indians died on their journey.

Economic Event: Veto of Second Bank Charter

Date: July 10, 1832

Description: During this time, Jackson vetoed the charter of the Second Bank of America. In his letter, he expressed his disapproval of he bank, calling it a tool of the elite. He created alternative "pet banks" for States instead of the federal government.

Political Events: Nullification Crisis

Date: 1832 - 1833

Description: South Carolina, which was led by John C. Calhoun, declared that the 1828 and 1832 tariffs were unconstitutional. They declared they had the right to nullify them and even threatened secession. Jackson responded with the Force Bill, asserting Federal authority, and negotiated a comprising tax.

https://millercenter.org/president/andrew-jackson/key-events

https://www.stateoftheunionhistory.com/2022/08/1836-andrew-jackson-rejects-annexation.html

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nullification-Crisis

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Martin Van Buren (March 1837 - March 1841)

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Martin Van Buren (March 1837 - March 1841)

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Foreign Event: Aroostook War

Date: 1838 - 1839

Description: US and Britain dispute over Maine and New Brunswick boundaries (Canada) resulted in tension. Both side mobilized with Buren deploying troops to Maine. The issue was resolved through diplomacy, and the event really wasn't a war.

Domestic Event: Texas Annexation Oppositions

Date: 1837-1841

Description: Buren refused to annex Texas because it could result in again an imbalance of free and slave state, while also provoking war with Mexico. However, his refusal was negatively received in the South which hurt his re-election.

Economic Event: Panic of 1837

Date: 1837

Description: The US faced significant economic depression due to bank failures and a collapse of land prices due to Jackson's earlier destruction of the national bank. Poverty, unemployment, and businesses closing happened all over America.

Political Event: Independent Treasury System

Date: 1840

Description: In response to the Panic of 1837, Buren proposed to separate federal funds from private banks. This new bank, called the Independent Treasury, allowed the federal government to store its money into its own national vault instead of Andrew Jackson's created "pet banks."

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/texas-annexation

https://www.britannica.com/event/Aroostook-War

https://millercenter.org/president/vanburen/domestic-affairs

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William Henry Harrison (March 1841 - April 1841)

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William Henry Harrison (March 1841 - April 1841)

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Foreign Event: Inaugural Address

March 4, 1841

Description: Harrison outlined a non-interventionist foreign affairs policy. Similar to George Washington's advice, he emphasized that the US should avoid foreign alliances and stay neutral in foreign affairs.

Domestic Event: Conflict of Henry Clay

Date: 1841

Description: William Henry Harrison and Henry Clay had a conflict over the leadership of the Whig party. Clay felt that he deserved the presidency, which was denied to him by Harrison's winning.

Social Event: Growth of Temperance

Date: 1841

Description: The temperance movement coincided with Harrison's brief presidency. They argued against alcohol and the poverty and moral decay associated with it.

Political Event: Death Transfer of Power

Date: April 4, 1841

Description: Harrison delivered the longest inaugural address outside in the cold, wet weather with few protection. He caught pneumonia and died. His vice president, John Tyler, ascended and assumed the presidency, marking the precedent that a vice president can ascend if the current president dies.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Henry-Clay/The-Whig-Party-years-and-disappointment

https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/death-of-the-president

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William Henry Harrison (March 4, 1841 - April 4, 1841)

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Foreign Event: Webster-Ashburton Treaty

Date: August 9, 1842

Description: The treaty helped to resolve the Maine-Canada border dispute. It reduced border tension in the Northeast while also trying to improve the US-British relationship.

Domestic Event: Annexation of Texas

Date: February 28, 1845

Description: Tyler pushed for the annexation of Texas but to a resistant Congress. He eventually succeeded through a joint resolution. This increased tension with Mexico later fueled the Mexican-American War.

Political Event: National Bank Veto

Date: 1841

Description: Originally a Democratic-Republican, he switched to the Whigs party. However, he still retained states rights ideologies. He would veto two bills re-establishng the national bank. In response, the Whigs would kick him from the party, and his Whig cabinet resigned. This made him a president without a party.

Economic Event: Tariff of 1842

Date: 1842

Description: Tyler signed tariffs that reinstated protective duties. This helped restore economic stability after the Panic of 1837, especially in the North, by helping American manufacturers.

https://millercenter.org/president/john-tyler/key-events#:~:text=On%20March%201%2C%201845%2C%20President,to%20be%20determined%20after%20annexation.

https://millercenter.org/president/tyler/domestic-affairs

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Foreign Event: Oregon Territory

Date: June 15, 1846

Description: Polk resolved disputes over the Oregon boundaries with Britain. He agreed to divide the territory at the 49th parallel.

Domestic Event: Department of the Interior

Date: March 3, 1849

Description: During Polk's last full day in office, Congress created the Department of the Interior to manage domestic matters regarding the newly claimed lands. This involved public lands, natural resources, and Native Americans.

War and Conflict: Mexican-American War

Date: April 25, 1846 - February 2, 1848

Description: Over disputes of the territory of Texas, the US and Mexico entered war. The war ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo after the US's army, led by General Winfield Scott, captured Mexico's capital. In the terms, Mexico ceded California and the Southwest to the US. This major victory for the US brought in huge amounts of land and fulfilled Polk's sole presidential goal of acquiring more land.

Economic: California Gold Rush

Date: 1848

Description: Gold was discovered at Sutter's Mill in California. Polk confirmed this discovery in his annual address to Congress. This sparked massive westward migration into California that marked California's statehood.

https://millercenter.org/president/polk/foreign-affairs

https://millercenter.org/president/polk/domestic-affairs

https://www.britannica.com/event/Mexican-American-War

https://www.history.com/articles/gold-rush-of-1849

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Foreign Event: Clayton-Bulwer Treaty

Date: April 19, 1850

Description: This treaty between the US and Britain was negotiated during Taylor's administration. The treaty stated that neither nation could gain exclusive control over any canals built through Central America.

Domestic Event: Slavery Conflict in the Mexican Cession

Date: 1849

Description: After the Mexican cession, fierce debate over slavery erupted over slavery's expansion in the new territories. Although Taylor was a Southern slaveholder, he supported California's entry as a free state. These events added fuel to sectional tensions that eventually erupted into the Civil War down the line.

Political Event: California Statehood

Date: 1849

Description: Taylor supported California's entry as a free state. This political move upset the Southern states that feared losing balance in the Senate. If the free states had a majority, they feared that they would abolish slavery and disrupt the Southern way of life and economy.

Economic Event: California's Gold Rush

Date: 1849

Description: The Gold Rush continued, coinciding with Taylor. Boom towns were established like San Francisco,o and more US commerce shifted westward. Those migrating for the gold rush were known as the "Forty-Niners."

https://millercenter.org/president/taylor/foreign-affairs

https://millercenter.org/president/taylor/domestic-affairs

https://enotrans.org/article/zachary-taylor-1849-to-1850-the-rush-to-california/

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Millard Fillmore (July 1850 - March 1853)

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Millard Fillmore (July 1850 - March 1853)

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Foreign Event: Commodore Perry Expedition

Date: 1852

Description: Fillmore authorized Commodore Matthew Perry to travel to Japan and open trade after Japan's years of isolation.

Domestic Event: Compromise of 1850

Date: September 1850

Description: The Compromise of 1850 was a package of laws that was meant to ease sectional tensions. It admitted California as a free state and allowed popular sovereignty in Utah and New Mexico. It abolished the salve trade in Washington D.C. However, as a concession, stricter Fugitive Slave Laws were passed that sparked controversy in the North.

Political Event: Enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act

Date: 1850-1853

Description: Fillmore, to fulfill the 1850 Compromise, strictly enforced the Fugitive Slave Act. This greatly angered abolitionists in the North, which caused a further divide between the North and South while radicalizing abolitionists. This law required the recapturing of runaway slaves and denied them a jury trial.

Economic Event: Transcontinental Railroad

Date: 1850

Description: During Fillmore's administration, surveying was conducted to plan the possible routes of the transcontinental railroad that connected the East with the West.

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/opening-to-japan

https://www.history.com/articles/compromise-of-1850

https://millercenter.org/president/fillmore/domestic-affairs

https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/may-10/transcontinental-railroad-completed

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Franklin Pierce (March 1853 - March 1857)

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Franklin Pierce (March 1853 - March 1857)

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Foreign Event: Gadsden Purchase

Date: 1854

Description: The US purchased land from Mexico in southern Arizona and the Southwest of New Mexico. This land would help in the construction of a southern transcontinental railroad.

Domestic Event: Kansas-Nebraska Act

Date: May 30, 1854

Description: In this controversial law, Pierce signed into law that allowed settlers in Kansas and Nebraska to decide the issue of slavery through popular sovereignty. This directly interfered with the Missouri Compromise as both were above the line and allowed the expansion of slavery. Violence ensued due to radical members of both abolitionists and Southerners who migrated to vote, known as "Bleeding Kansas."

Political Event: Republican Party Rise

Date: 1854

Description: Anti-slavery Whigs, Free Soilers, and Northern Democrats formed the Republican Party. A new major political party emerged that challenged Slavery.

Economic Event: Railroad Boom

Date: 1853 - 1857

Description: During Pierce's presidency, railroads more than doubled. This was due to federally stimulated support through land grants and surveys in the West. These railroads greatly stimulated the economy.

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/gadsden-purchase

https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/Kansas_Nebraska_Act.htm#:~:text=It%20became%20law%20on%20May,territories%20to%20sway%20the%20vote.

https://www.history.com/articles/republican-party

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James Buchanan (March 1857 - March 1861)

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James Buchanan (March 1857 - March 1861)

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Foreign Event: Ostend Manifesto Controversy

Date: 1858

Description: Buchanan pushed for the annexation of Cuba from Spain. The secret was leaked Ostend Manifesto, which proposed taking Cuba by force if Spain refused to sell it and the potential for it to be a slave state. This greatly damaged the Northern trust of the Southern states.

Domestic Event: Lecompton Constituion

Date: 1857

Description: Buchanan supported the Lecompton Constitution, which was a pro-slavery document for Kansas's admission into the Union as a Slave state. This further increased tension over the issue of slavery.

Political Event: Dred Scott v. Sandford Decision

Date: March 6, 1857

Description: In this court case, the Supreme Court, led by Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, ruled that African Americans were not citizens and that Congress had no authority to prohibit slavery in territories of the United States. Buchanan supported this decision however, it further accelerated tension between the North and the South.

Economic Event: Panic of 1857

Date: August 1857

Description: There was a financial panic due to over-speculation of railroads, banking instability, and US goods demands in the global market. The North was hit harder than the South, which reinforced Southern confidence in their cotton economy.

https://www.britannica.com/event/Ostend-Manifesto

https://millercenter.org/president/buchanan/domestic-affairs

https://millercenter.org/president/james-buchanan/key-events

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Abraham Lincoln (March 1861 - April 1865)

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Abraham Lincoln (March 1861 - April 1865)

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Foreign Policy: Trent Affair

Date: November 8, 1861

Description: During the Civil War, a Union warship intercepted a British ship that had two Confederate diplomats en route to Europe. Union troops arrested the two diplomats, and US almost went to war with Britain. Lincoln escalated the issue by releasing the two diplomats.

Domestic Event: Emancipation Problamation

Date: January 1, 1863

Description: Lincoln issued an executive order to free warring states slaves. However, the order didn't abolish slavery everywhere. In the border states, Lincoln still allowed slavery to keep them on the Union side and prevent them from defecting to the Confederacy. Furthermore, it also changed the tone of the Civil War into a war about abolishing slavery. This greatly dissuaded Britain from joining the war, as it had recently abolished slavery.

Political Event: Habeas Corpus Suspension

Date: April 27, 1861

Description: Lincoln in wartime felt he needed to maintain Union authority. To combat Confederate sympathizers, he suspended Habeas Corpus which allowed the government to arrest dissenting citizens without trial. This was controversial, yet it was upheld due to the necessity of wartime.

Economic Event: National Banking Act

Date: February 25, 1863

Description: The Union needed to stabilize the economy and currency. Lincoln signed into law the National Banking Acts that created a system of nationally chartered banks and a national currency. This helped to reduce inflation in the wartime economy.

https://www.britannica.com/event/Trent-Affair

https://millercenter.org/president/lincoln/domestic-affairs

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Andrew Johnson (April 1865 - March 1869 

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Andrew Johnson (April 1865 - March 1869 

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Foreign Event: Purchase of Alaska

Date: March 30, 1867

Description: Also known as "Seward's Folly." Johnson's Secretary of State, William H. Seward, negotiated to purchase Alaska from Russia for 7.2 million dollars.

Domestic Event: Reconstruction Plan

Date: 1865

Description: John implemented a lenient Reconstruction plan that continued Lincoln's intended plan to allow Southern states to rejoin the Union with minimal requirements. However, controversially, he pardoned many former Confederates and allowed Southern legislatures to pass Black Codes.

Political Event: Impeachment

Date: February 24, 1868

Description: Johnson was impeached on charges of violating the Tenure of Office Act after removing Secretary of War Edwin Stanton. However, the Senate fell only 1 vote short of convicting Johnson. He was the first president to be impeached.

Economic Event: Freedmen's Bureau Veto

Date: 1866

Description: Johnson vetoed a bill that extended the Freedmen's Bureau to provide food, housing, education, and help to former enslaved people. Congress overrode his veto. This showcases the different views over reconstruction between the President and Congress.

https://millercenter.org/president/johnson/foreign-affairs

https://millercenter.org/president/johnson/domestic-affairs

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Ulysses S. Grant (March 1869 - March 1877)

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Ulysses S. Grant (March 1869 - March 1877)

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Foreign Event: Santo Domingo Annexation

Date: 1869

Description: Grant proposed to annex the Dominican Republic to establish a Caribbean naval base. He planned to offer African Americans a place to escape Southern racism. However, the plan failed.

Domestic Event: Enforcement Acts

Date: 1870-1871

Description: Congress passed the Enforcement Acts to respond to Southern white supremacist violence that affected newly freed African Americans. It gave Grant the power to use federal troops to suppress the Ku Klux Klan and protect Black voters.

Political Event: Grant Administration Scandal

Date: 1872 - 1875

Description: Grant's Administration was rampant with corruption as appointed individuals defrauded money, such as General John McDonald, who was indicted in 1875 for conspiring with distillers to avoid federal taxes.

Economic Event: Panic of 1873

Date: 1873

Description: The US experienced a financial crisis that began with the collapse of Jay Cooke & Co who was a major bank involved in railroad speculation. It caused widespread poverty, unemployment ,and business failures. This contributed to Northern disinterest with Reconstruction due to economic problems that eventually ended Reconstruction down the road.

https://millercenter.org/president/grant/foreign-affairs

https://millercenter.org/president/grant/domestic-affairs

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Rutherford B. Hayes (March 1877 - March 1881)

# data[].attributes.subject
Rutherford B. Hayes (March 1877 - March 1881)

# data[].attributes.body
Foreign Event: Transoceanic Route

Date: 1879 - 1880

Description: Hayes declared that only the US should control a potential canal in Central America. He greatly opposed European involvement in Latin America. This foreshadowed the building of the Panama Canal.

Domestic Event: End of Reconstruction

Date: April 1877

Description: Hayes would begin withdrawing federal troops from the South which effectively ended Reconstruction. These troops were there to protect freed African Americans and to enforce Reconstruction laws, and without their presence, racial violence accelerated. The withdrawal also marked the era of Jim Crow.

Political Event: Compromise of 1877

Date: 1877

Description: The election of 1876 between Hayes and Tilden resulted in 20 disputed electoral votes to decide the presidency. A special commission and compromise would give Hayes and the Republican Party the presidency, but with concessions. The South demanded the end of Reconstruction by withdrawing troops, which was agreed to in the compromise.

Social Event: Rise of Jim Crow

Date: April 1877

Description: Southern states quickly regained political control after federal troops were withdrawn. They began passing Jim Crow laws that enforced racial segregation and prevented African Americans from voting through poll taxes, literacy tests, and the grandfather clause. Coupled with he rise of racial violence through the Ku Klux Klan, this marked a bitter century of legal racial discrimination.

https://millercenter.org/president/hayes/foreign-affairs

https://www.history.com/articles/compromise-of-1877

https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/jim-crow-era

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James A. Garfield (March 4, 1881 - September 19, 1881)

# data[].attributes.subject
James A. Garfield (March 4, 1881 - September 19, 1881)

# data[].attributes.body
Foreign Event: Pan-Americanism

Date: 1881

Description: Garfield expressed a strong desire to expand trade and cooperation in Latin America. He planned to call the first Pan-American conference to pursue his foreign policy goals.

Domestic Event: Civil Service Reform

Date: 1881

Description: Garfield opposed the corrupt spoils system that appointed political backers. He pushed for reforms that would shift the government toward a merit-based federal employment.

Political Event: Assassination

Date: July 2, 1881

Description: Garfield was shot by Charles J. Guiteau, who was angered that he was denied a patronage job by Garfield. Garfield died on September 19, 1881, succumbed to infection of the bullet wound. The assassination greatly shocked the nation and led for a push toward opposition to the spoils system and toward civil service reforms.

Economic Event: Gold Standard

Date: 1881

Description: Garfield supported policies that tied the dollar to the gold standard to promote economic stability during a period of industrialization.

https://www.supremecourt.ohio.gov/courts/judicial-system/supreme-court-of-ohio/mjc/interest/grand-concourse/james-abram-garfield/

https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/the-federal-civil-service-and-the-death-of-president-james-a-garfield.htm

https://millercenter.org/president/garfield/death-of-the-president

https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/james-a-garfield.htm#:~:text=He%20agreed%20with%20those%20who,%2C%20was%20%E2%80%9Chonest%20money.%E2%80%9D

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James A. Garfield (March 4, 1881 - September 19, 1881)

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Chester A. Arthur (September 1881 - March 1885)

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Chester A. Arthur (September 1881 - March 1885)

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Foreign Event: US Navy Modernization

Date: 1882 - 1884

Description: Arthur pushed for rebuilding and modernizing the US Navy, which had been neglected during the Civil War. He supported building new steel warships that would push the US as a rising naval power.

Domestic Event: Pendleton Civil Service Act

Date: January 16, 1883

Description: Following the Assassination of President Garfield, Arthur signed the Pendleton Act that established the Civil Service Commission to make federal jobs merit-based instead of corrupt patronage appointments.

Social Event: Nativism

Date: 1881 - 1885

Description: Anti-immigrant sentiment coincided with Arthur's presidency. White laborers feared job competition and blamed Chinese immigrants for economic hardships. This resulted in support for the Chinese Exclusion Act, marking a focus on anti-Chinese immigrants. Nativists also supported restricting immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe.

Economic Event: Tariff of 1883

Date: 1883

Description: Arthur created a Tariff Commission to address the growing federal surplus. The resulting Tariff of 1883 was only a modest reduction and minor tariffs.

https://millercenter.org/president/arthur/foreign-affairs

https://millercenter.org/president/arthur/domestic-affairs

# data[].attributes.headline
Grover Cleveland (March 1885 - March 1889)

# data[].attributes.subject
Grover Cleveland (March 1885 - March 1889)

# data[].attributes.body
Foreign Event: Samoa Dispute

Date: 1887 - 1889

Description: Germany tried to install a puppet monarch on the island of Samoa. The US had the right to establish a naval base on the island. Cleveland dispatched warships to the island, but it was eventually compromised into a tripartite protectorate signed by Germany, Britain, and the US.

Domestic Event: Veto of Union Veteran Pension Bill

Date: Feburary 11, 1887

Description: Cleveland vetoed hundreds of pension bills, arguing that it was too generous and fraudulent. These vetoes angered the national veterans' organization, the Grand Army of the Republic that weakened his political support.

Social Event: Enforcement of the Dawes Act

Date: 1887 - 1889

Description: Arthur enforced the act which divided Native American tribal lands into individual plots. This policy tried to assimilate the Native Americans but resulted in massive land loss. It also resulted in destruction of tribal structures and their way of life.

Economic Event: Interstate Commerce Act

Date: February 4, 1887

Description: The law regulated railroad monopolies and established the Interstate Commerce Commission. This agency ensured fair rates and prevented discriminatory prices. It was the first federal regulatory agency.

https://millercenter.org/president/cleveland/foreign-affairs

https://www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org/Learn-About-TR/TR-Encyclopedia/Capitalism-and-Labor/The-Interstate-Commerce-Act

https://millercenter.org/president/cleveland/domestic-affairs

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Benjamin Harrison (March 1889 - March 1893)

# data[].attributes.subject
Benjamin Harrison (March 1889 - March 1893)

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Foreign Event: Attempted Annexation of Hawaii

Date: 1893

Description: Harrison supported the overthrow of Hawaiian Queen Liliuokalani. A provisional government by the American sugar planters in Hawaii requested the annexation. However, before it could be ratified, Cleveland withdrew it.

Domestic Event: Admission of Western States

Dates: 1889-1890

Description: Harrison presided over the admission of the six new Western states: North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Washington, Idaho, and Wyoming.

Political Event: Sherman Antitrust Act

Date: July 1890

Description: The law outlawed monopolistic business practices aimed at stopping the growth of trusts and restoring competition in the economy.

War and Conflict: Battle of Wounded Knee

Date: December 29, 1890

Description: US troops massacred over 250 Lakota Sioux at the battle of Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota. The US response was a crackdown on the Native Ghost Dance.

https://millercenter.org/president/bharrison/foreign-affairs

https://millercenter.org/president/bharrison/domestic-affairs

https://millercenter.org/president/bharrison/the-american-franchise

# data[].attributes.headline
Grover Cleveland (March 1893 - March 1897)

# data[].attributes.subject
Grover Cleveland (March 1893 - March 1897)

# data[].attributes.body
Foreign Event: Venezuela Boundary Dispute

Date: December 17, 1895

Description: Cleveland confronted Britain over a boundary dispute in Venezuela. He invoked the Monroe Doctrine and warned against European interference with the Western Hemisphere. Britain eventually agreed to arbitration, and Cleveland's move strengthened the diplomatic authority of the US.

Domestic Event: Pullman Strikes

Date: 1894

Description: Workers at the Pullman Company struck in protest against wage cuts organized by the American Railway Union, led by Eugene V. Debs. Cleveland sent federal troops to break up the strike that marked a controversial move in federal intervention against labor movements.

Social Event: Coxey's Army March on Washington

Date: April 1894

Description: Jacob Coxey led a march of jobless workers toward Washington, D.C., as the Panic of 1893 gripped the nation. He demanded public works job programs.

Economic Event: Panic of 1893

Date: May 1893

Description: The depression was one of the worst economic recessions in US history. Railroad bankruptcies and declining gold reserves triggered it. Unemployment soared as banks failed. However, Cleveland's hands-off approach did little to help the nation's dissatisfaction.

https://millercenter.org/president/cleveland/foreign-affairs

https://millercenter.org/president/cleveland/domestic-affairs

# data[].attributes.headline
William McKinley (March 1897 - September 1901)

# data[].attributes.subject
William McKinley (March 1897 - September 1901)

# data[].attributes.body
Foreign Event: Annexation of Hawaii

Date: July 7, 1898

Description: McKinley formally annexed Hawaii through a joint resolution of Congress. Hawaii offered a key military outpost in the Pacific, which expanded the US sphere of influence.

Domestic Event: Gold Standard Act

Date: March 14, 1900

Description: The law formally placed the US on the gold standard. It stabilized the economy and reassured investors about its currency. However, this greatly upset farmers and laborers who also supported the addition of silver.

War and Conflict: Spanish-American War

Date: April 21 - August 13, 1893

Description: After the USS Maine exploded in Havana Harbor, Americans blamed Spain. McKinley asked Congress to declare war. The US quickly defeated Spain and, in peace talks, acquired Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. This event also established itself as a global power.

Economic Event: Dingley Tariff

Date: July 24, 1897

Description: Sponsored by Republican Congressman Nelson R. Dingley from Maine, it raised rates to an average of 49 percent. The tariff protected American manufacturing and businesses and marked one of the highest tariffs in US history.

https://millercenter.org/president/mckinley/foreign-affairs

https://millercenter.org/president/mckinley/domestic-affairs

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Theodore Roosevelt (September 1901 - March 1909

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Theodore Roosevelt (September 1901 - March 1909

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Foreign Event: Panama Canal and Roosevelt Corollary

Date: 1903 - 1904

Description: Roosevelt supported the Panama independence movement from Colombia to secure land for the Panama Canal. During which, Roosevelt also announced the Roosevelt Corollary, which built on the Monroe Doctrine. It asserted US rights to intervene in Latin American nations to preserve American interests.

Domestic Event: North Securities Co. v. United States

Date: March 14, 1904

Description: Roosevelt aggressively enforced the Sherman Antitrust Act and broke up monopolies that he deemed harmful to the public. The court case dissolved the massive railroad trust and following court cases followed suit of trust busting.

Social Event: Conservation and National Parks

Date: 1901 - 1909

Description: Roosevelt led the conservation movement and protected over 230 million acres of public land. He established 5 national parks, 18 national monuments, and 150 national forests.

Economic Event: Anthracite Coal Strike and Square Deal

Date: 1902

Description: Coal miners went on strike demanding better wages and working hours. Roosevelt chose not to side with either side but intervene as a non-biased force. He invited both workers and owners to negotiate, marking a major shift in federal labor policies that once favored businesses called the Square Deal.

https://millercenter.org/president/roosevelt/foreign-affairs

https://millercenter.org/president/roosevelt/domestic-affairs

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William Howard Taft (March 1909 - March 1913)

# data[].attributes.subject
William Howard Taft (March 1909 - March 1913)

# data[].attributes.body
Foreign Event: Dollar Diplomacy

Date: 1909 - 1913

Description: Taft promoted the Dollar Diplomacy, which was a foreign policy that encouraged American banks and businesses to invest in Latin America and East Asia. Taft aimed to promote US interests not through force but through economic influence.

Domestic Event: Federal Government Oversight

Date: 1909 - 1913

Description: During Taft's presidency, he strengthened federal regulation in the economy. He gave the Interstate Commerce Commission more power to regulate railroads. For example, the Mann-Elkins Act of 1910 strengthened federal regulations of the communication and transport industries.

Political Event: Republican Party Rift

Date: 1912

Description: Taft and his predecessor, Theodore Roosevelt, had issues over trust busting and conservation that led to a rift in the Republican Party. Roosevelt ran as a third-party progressive called the Bull Moose, which split the Republican vote. This helped Woodrow Wilson win the presidency.

Economic Event: Payne-Aldrich Tariff

Date: August 5, 1909

Description: The law was aimed at lowering tariffs; however, it raised them, especially in chemicals and oil. It introduced excise taxes on corporate net income, allowing the government to audit corporate records and address federal deficits.

https://millercenter.org/president/taft/foreign-affairs#:~:text=President%20Taft%20was%20more%20committed,Caribbean%2C%20and%20the%20Far%20East.

https://millercenter.org/president/taft/domestic-affairs

https://www.britannica.com/event/United-States-presidential-election-of-1912

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Woodrow Wilson (March 1913 - March 1921)

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Woodrow Wilson (March 1913 - March 1921)

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Foreign Policy: 14 Points and the League of Nations

Date: January 8, 1918

Description: Wilson proposed his 14 Points for postwar peace in the League of Nations to resolve disputes diplomatically. However, the US Senate ultimately rejected US membership due to fears of US self-determination being threatened, and the League's Power was weakened.

Domestic Event: Espionage and Sedition Acts

Date: June 15, 1917, and May 16, 1918

Description: The laws suppressed dissent during wartime in WW1. Wilson passed laws that limited free speech and punished anti-war protestors. Thousands were arrested, and it was heavily controversial for violating civil liberties.

War and Conflict: US Entry into WW1

Date: April 6, 1917

Description: Repeated German submarine attacks on American ships and the Zimmermann Telegram forced America's hands in joining WW1. Wilson framed the war to the American public as a war to make the world safe for Democracy.

Social Event: 19th Amendment

Date: August 18, 1920

Description: Women gained the right to vote with the passage of the 19th Amendment. Wilson endorsed the amendment, recognizing women's war contribution as pivotal during WW1.

https://millercenter.org/president/wilson/foreign-affairs

https://millercenter.org/president/wilson/domestic-affairs

https://www.crusadeforthevote.org/wilson#:~:text=It%20was%20not%20until%20his,see%20the%20need%20for%20suffrage.

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Warren Harding (March 1921 - August 1923)

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Warren Harding (March 1921 - August 1923)

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Foreign Event: Washington Armament Conference

Date: November 12, 1921 - February 6, 1922

Description: The conference was the first international disarmament conference. The resulting treaty resulted in agreements between the US, Britain, Japan, France, and Italy to limit naval armaments and preserve peace in the Pacific Ocean.

Political Event: Budget and Accounting Act 1921

Date: June 10, 1921

Description: The law created the Bureau of the Budget (which is now the Office of Management and Budget) and the General Accounting Office that would oversee federal spending, helping to improve monetary efficiency in the government.

Social Event: Return to "Normacy"

Date: 1920

Description: Harding's campaign called for a return to normalcy of conservatism. He promoted traditional values, isolationism, and withdrawal from the earlier progressive era.

Economic Event: Fordney-McCumber Tariff

Date: September 21, 1922

Description: The tariff was signed to protect US manufacturers and farmers from foreign competition. It contributed to reduced international trade and harmed European recovery after WW1.

https://millercenter.org/president/harding/foreign-affairs

https://www.loc.gov/collections/world-war-i-and-1920-election-recordings/articles-and-essays/from-war-to-normalcy/presidential-election-of-1920/#:~:text=Harding's%20campaign%20promised%20a%20return,speeches%20for%20the%20Nation's%20Forum.

https://millercenter.org/president/harding/domestic-affairs

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Calvin Coolidge (August 1923 - March 1929)

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Calvin Coolidge (August 1923 - March 1929)

# data[].attributes.body
Foreign Event: Kellogg-Briand Pact

Date: August 27, 1928

Description: The treaty was a multinational treaty in which countries would renounce war as a means of resolving disputes. It ultimately was ineffective at preventing future wars because there was little enforcement, and eventually failed to stop WW2.

Domestic Event: Immigration Act of 1924

Date: May 26, 1924

Description: The act established strict immigration quotas that were based on national origin. It sharply reduced immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe. This reflected domestic nativism and racial bias during the 1920s.

Social Event: Rise of Consumer Culture and Mass Media

Date: 1920s

Description: The roaring 1920s saw a cultural revolution driven by radio, advertisement, movies, and automobiles. The jazz movement also formed that sweeping across cities.

Economic Event: Economic Boom

Date: 1923 - 1929

Description: The US economy experienced rapid industrial growth. The stock market rose with a consumer culture. The Coolidge presidency also promoted Laissez-faire policies that had low regulation of businesses, letting them thrive. However, this era of nonregulation would eventually lead to the Great Depression.

https://millercenter.org/president/coolidge/foreign-affairs

https://millercenter.org/president/coolidge/domestic-affairs

https://www.loc.gov/collections/calvin-coolidge-papers/articles-and-essays/introduction-to-prosperity-and-thrift/prosperity-of-the-coolidge-era/

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Herbert Hoover (March 1929 - March 1933)

# data[].attributes.subject
Herbert Hoover (March 1929 - March 1933)

# data[].attributes.body
Foreign Event: Hoover-Stimson Doctrine

Date: January 7, 1932

Description: Secretary of State Henry Stimson declared that the US would not recognize any territorial changes by force when Japan invaded Manchuria, China. The doctrine was a symbolic protest on the world stage, but it was not practical in stopping imperialist Japan's invasion.

Domestic Event: Bonus Army March

Date: July 1932

Description: Over 15k WW1 veterans marched on Washington demanding an early payment of their promised war bonuses. Hoover ordered the US Army to remove the protesters after Congress had refused their demands. This greatly devastated Hoover's reputation in the public's eye.

Economic Event: Stock Market Crash

Date: October 29, 1929

Description: Also known as "Black Tuesday," the crash of the stock market marked the beginning of the Great Depression. It was fueled due to over-speculation and a lack of regulation. Massive bank failures swept across the nation as banks had no money to give back to people demanding their savings back.

Social Event: Hoovervilles

Date: 1930-1933

Description: Homelessness was rampant during the Great Depression. Shantytowns were nicknamed "Hoovervilles" to mock the president's inaction to help the people, who clung to Laissez-faire economics.

https://millercenter.org/president/hoover/foreign-affairs

https://millercenter.org/president/hoover/domestic-affairs

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Franklin D. Roosevelt (March 1933 - April 1945)

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Franklin D. Roosevelt (March 1933 - April 1945)

# data[].attributes.body
Foreign Event: US Entry into WWII

Date: December 8, 1941

Description: The US was forced to join WW2 after Japan attacked Pearl Harbor in a surprise attack. Roosevelt addressed Congress to declare war, joining both the Pacific and European fronts. He established wartime diplomacy with Britain and the Soviet Union and helped lay the groundwork for the United Nations.

Domestic Event: New Deals Programs:

Date: 1933 - 1945

Description: FDR proposed to the American public a "New Deal" to combat the Great depression. His initiatives sought to relieve, recover, and reform the economy and its people. It created public works projects aimed at creating jobs and put more regulations into the American system. Most notably, FDR reformed banks to protect them from failing through the FDIC.

Political Event: Court-Packing Scheme

Date: February 1937

Description: FDR was frustrated with the Supreme Court striking down some of his New Deal programs. FDR proposed expanding the court that was sympathetic to his cause. His plan was to appoint one new justice for every justice over the age of 70. It faced massive backlash from both parties as an attempt to undermine checks and balances.

Economic Event: Social Security Act

Date: August 14, 1935

Description: The act was part of the New Deal. It created a federal retirement program funded through a payroll tax. It provided aid to the disabled, unemployed, and the poor elderly. It withstood time and is still implemented today/

https://millercenter.org/president/fdroosevelt/foreign-affairs

https://millercenter.org/president/fdroosevelt/domestic-affairs

# data[].attributes.headline
Harry S. Truman (April 1945 - January 1953)

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Harry S. Truman (April 1945 - January 1953)

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Foreign Event: Truman Doctrine

Date: March 12, 1947

Description: The doctrine declared that the US would support countries around the world who was resisting communism. This marked the beginning of his Cold War containment policies, which marked the new era.

Domestic Policy: Desegregation of the Armed Forces

Date: July 26, 1948

Description: Truman, in a historic step toward civil rights, ordered the integration of the US Army. This marked the first federal institution to end segregation and promote civil rights.

Social Event: Taft-Hartley Act

Date: June 23, 1947

Description: Post-WWII, there were significant strikes by workers in the steel, coal, and rail industries. Congress passed the Taft-Hartley Act to restrict the power of labor unions. Although Truman vetoed it, it was overridden by Congress.

Economic Event: GI Bill Implementation

Date: 1944

Description: The bill provided veterans with education, housing, and business loans. It helped provide for Americans to rise to the middle class, and many opportunities for veterans to return home after their service.

https://millercenter.org/president/truman/foreign-affairs

https://millercenter.org/president/truman/domestic-affairs

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Dwight D. Eisenhower (January 1953 - January 1961)

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Dwight D. Eisenhower (January 1953 - January 1961)

# data[].attributes.body
Foreign Event: Eisenhower Doctrine

Date: January 5, 1957

Description: In his speech, Eisenhower pledged that the US would use military force to defend any Middle Eastern nation under threat by communism. This doctrine increased Cold War tension with the Soviet Union and expanded upon the containment policy to the Middle East.

Domestic Event: Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956

Date: June 29, 1956

Description: The act established the Interstate Highway System. The public works project was the largest in US history. It boosted the economy and expanded on America as a motive civilization with a key suburban life.

Social Event: McCarthyism

Date: 1954

Description: Senator Joseph McCarthy accused officials of being communists, accruing fame and creating an era based on McCarthyism,m which was a gripping fear of communism. However, when McCarthy's court hearings were televised, it exposed his tactics and led to his downfall.

Economic Event: Prosperity of 1950

Date: 1953 - 1961

Description: The nation was in a period of growth with low inflation, a strong GDP, and low unemployment. The New Deal programs were kept however, the US also started to reduce the deficit. The middle class also rose with consumer culture.

https://millercenter.org/president/eisenhower/foreign-affairs

https://millercenter.org/president/eisenhower/domestic-affairs

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John F. Kennedy (January 1961 - November 1963)

# data[].attributes.subject
John F. Kennedy (January 1961 - November 1963)

# data[].attributes.body
Foreign Event: Creation of the Peace Corps

Date: March 1, 1961

Description: The Peace Corps sent American volunteers abroad to provide education, healthcare, and technical support to developing countries. It aimed at building America's labor force while also committing to humanitarian services.

Domestic Event: New Frontier Agenda

DateL 1961-1963

Description: The Kennedy agenda aimed to address poverty, civil rights, education, and space exploration. It was synonymous with his youthful energy and progressive vision for America's future.

War and Conflict: Cuban Missile Crisis

Date: October 16-28, 1962

Description: The US discovered nuclear missiles in Cuba, shipped from the Soviet Union. The result was a standoff between the nuclear power nations. Kennedy imposed a naval blockade on Cuba. A peace resolution was achieved when the US pledged not to invade Cuba and remove nukes from Turkey if the Soviet Union removed its nukes from Cuba.

Economic Event: Proposed tax cuts and economic stimulus

Date: 1962 - 1963

Description: Kennedy proposed tax cuts to stimulate the economy and boost consumer demand. However, it would not come to pass under his presidency due to his assassination.

https://millercenter.org/president/kennedy/foreign-affairs

https://millercenter.org/president/kennedy/domestic-affairs

https://www.jfklibrary.org/learn/about-jfk/jfk-in-history/john-f-kennedy-on-the-economy-and-taxes

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Lyndon B. Johnson (November 1963 - January 1969)

# data[].attributes.subject
Lyndon B. Johnson (November 1963 - January 1969)

# data[].attributes.body
Foreign Event: Vietnam War

Date: August 7, 1964

Date: Following an attack on the US ship in the Gulf of Tonkin, Congress granted LBJ military powers in Vietnam. He dramatically escalated US involvement by sending in thousands of troops. The war became deeply unpopular at home.

Domestic Event: Civil Rights Act of 1964

Date: July 2, 1964

Description: Johnson signed into law a ban on segregation in public spaces and prohibited employment discrimination. It was a huge win for the Civil Rights movement and a cornerstone for domestic achievement.

Political Event: The Great Society

Date: 1964 - 1967

Description: LBJ's Great Society aimed at eliminating poverty. It included the creation of Medicare and Medicaid. These programs expanded welfare in America and strengthened the federal government's involvement in the lives of citizens.

Economic Event: War on Poverty and Economic Opportunity Act

Date: August 20, 1964

Description: Johnson declared a "War on Poverty" and created an act that funded job training and anti-poverty initiatives. It sought to break the cycle of poverty in families with government involvement.

Social Event: Voting Rights Act of 1965

Date: August 6, 1965

Description: Johnson signed the act, which banned literacy tests and authorized the federal government to crack down on discriminatory practices in America. This resulted in significant black voter turnout in the South. He worked with any significant Civil Rights leader such as MLK.

https://millercenter.org/president/lbjohnson/foreign-affairs

https://millercenter.org/president/lbjohnson/domestic-affairs

# data[].attributes.headline
Richard Nixon (January 1969 - August 1974)

# data[].attributes.subject
Richard Nixon (January 1969 - August 1974)

# data[].attributes.body
Foreign Policy: China Diplomacy

Date: Feburary 21-28, 1972

Description: Nixon shocked the world by being the first president to visit Communist China in his meeting with Mao Zedong. This foreign shift in detente marked an easing of tension in the Cold War.

Domestic Event: The EPA

DateL December 2, 1970

Description: Nixon signed major environmental laws, such as the creation of the EPA, to regulate and protect the environment.

Political Event: Watergate Scandal

Date: June 17, 1972

Description: Nixon's agents attempted to break into the Democratic National Committee HQ to gain an advantage during re-election. After the scandal was revealed, Nixon was forced to resign in disgrace.

Economic Event: End of the Gold Standard

Date: August 15, 1971

Description: Nizon took the US off the gold standard to move the US toward a fully fiat currency. America now fully relied on a paperback currency, and this also shocked global markets.

https://millercenter.org/president/nixon/foreign-affairs

https://millercenter.org/president/nixon/domestic-affairs

# data[].attributes.headline
Gerald R. Ford (August 1974 - January 1977)

# data[].attributes.subject
Gerald R. Ford (August 1974 - January 1977)

# data[].attributes.body
Foreign Event: Helsinki Accords

Date: August 1, 1975

Description: Ford signed the accord with 34 other nations to promote human rights, economic change, and the integrity of Europe. The agreement later helped to empower Eastern Europe and loosen Soviet control.

Political Policy: Nixon pardon

Date: September 8, 1974

Description: Just one month after taking office, Ford offered Nixon a full pardon for his earlier controversy. The move heavily damaged Ford's reputation and credibility in his presidency.

Domestic Event: WIN Campaign

Date: October 1974

Description: Ford launched the WIN campaign to fight inflation. It encouraged Americans to voluntarily cut back spending and conserve energy. It was mocked and ultimately failed under stagflation.

Economic Event: Stagflation

Date: 1974 - 1975

Description: During Ford, the economy was struggling under the weight of stagflation, which was high inflation, high unemployment, and slow growth. His policies of voluntary measures and tax cuts failed to resolve the crisis.

https://millercenter.org/president/ford/foreign-affairs

https://millercenter.org/president/ford/domestic-affairs

# data[].attributes.headline
Jimmy Carter (January 1977 - January 1981)

# data[].attributes.subject
Jimmy Carter (January 1977 - January 1981)

# data[].attributes.body
Foreign Event: Camp David Accords

Date: September 17, 1978

Description: Carter broker a peace agreement between Egypt and Israel where Egyptian President Anwar Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem agreed to mutual recognition and peace.

Domestic Event: Department of Energy

Date: August 4, 1977

Description: Carter established the department as a response to the 1970 energy crisis. It consolidated federal energy programs and reduced the US dependency on foreign oil.

Social Event: Three Mile Island Nuclear Accident

Date: March 28, 1979

Description: A partial meltdown at the nuclear plant caused widespread fear and public skepticism about nuclear energy. It resulted in nuclear energy protests and reshaped US energy policies to meet the protests.

Political Event: Malaise Speech and Crisis and Confidence

Date: July 15, 1979

Description: Carter addressed the national pessimism and the energy crisis. He criticized the American people about how they should reignite the American spirit and endure rough times. The speech backfired politically as Carter's approval rating dropped, and the public mocked his perspective while the American people suffered.

https://millercenter.org/president/carter/foreign-affairs

https://millercenter.org/president/carter/domestic-affairs

# data[].attributes.headline
Ronald Reagan (January 1981 - January 1989)

# data[].attributes.subject
Ronald Reagan (January 1981 - January 1989)

# data[].attributes.body
Foreign Event: Iran-Contra Scandal

Date: November 1986

Description: It was revealed that US officials secretly sold arms to Iran and used the profits to fund anti-communist Contra rebels in Nicaragua. The scandal damaged Reagan's credibility,y although he claimed that he had no direct knowledge of it.

Domestic Event: Strategic Defense Initiative

Date: March 23, 1983

Description: Reagan proposed a missile defense system intended to protect the US from nuclear attacks. His critics called the initiative "Star Wars" to mock how expensive and fantastical the idea was. It ultimately failed as the technology simply was not capable and it cost too much money.

Economic Event: Reaganomics

Date: 1981 - 1989

Description: Reagan implemented a supply-side economics that favored businesses and the rich. He hoped that prosperity above would trickle down to the bottom and benefit the nation as a whole. He cut income taxes, deregulated industries, and cut spending on social programs. While it fueled a national recovery in the 1980s, it also increased income inequality.

War on Drugs

Date: 1980s

Description: Reagan escalated the War on Drugs by increasing penalties for drug offenses. He funded campaigns such as the "Just Say No" anti-drug campaign. However, this led to mass incarceration among minorities.

https://millercenter.org/president/reagan/foreign-affairs

https://millercenter.org/president/reagan/domestic-affairs

# data[].attributes.headline
George H. W. Bush (January 1989 - January 1993)

# data[].attributes.subject
George H. W. Bush (January 1989 - January 1993)

# data[].attributes.body
Foreign Event: Gulf War

Date: January 17 - February 28, 1991

Description: Bush built an international coalition that led a swift US military operation against Iraq when it invaded Kuwait in 1990. Operation Desert Storm was a huge success that demonstrated US forces and restored confidence in the military.

Domestic Policy: Americans with Disabilities Act

Date: July 26, 1990

Description: The ADA prohibits discrimination against people with disabilities in employment, transportation, and in public spaces. It was a progressive policy that expanded equality for millions of Americans.

Social Event: Los Angeles Riots

Date: April 29 - May 4, 1992

Description: Riots erupted in Los Angeles after the court acquitted four white police officers who beat Rodney King. The violence and ensuing tension deepened racial tensions as Bush had to deploy federal troops to restore order.

Political Event: No New taxes Campaign

Date: 1988

Description: Bush promised in his Read My Lips campaign that there will be no new taxes. However, he would later break the promise with new taxes to reduce the federal deficit. It angered conservatives who voted him into power, and it hurt his re-election campaign.

https://millercenter.org/president/gwbush/foreign-affairs

https://millercenter.org/president/gwbush/domestic-affairs

# data[].attributes.headline
Bill Clinton (January 1993 - January 2001)

# data[].attributes.subject
Bill Clinton (January 1993 - January 2001)

# data[].attributes.body
Foreign Event: NATO in Kosovo

Date: March 24 - June 10, 1999

Description: Clinton led a NATO bombing against Serbia to stop their ethnic cleansing of Albanians in Kosovo. The action was a humanitarian victory and marked the first major military action by NATO.

Domestic Event: Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act

Date: August 22, 1996

Description: Clinton signed a bipartisan welfare reform bill that gave states block grants to work on welfare instead of the federal government. Supporters thought it promoted self-reliance, while critics thought it weakened the social net.

Political Event: Clinton Impeachment

Date: December 19, 1998

Description: Clinton was impeached for perjury and obstruction of justice due to his relationship with Monica Lewinsky scandal. The Senate acquitted him in 1999.

Social Event: Don't Ask Don't Tell

Date: 1994

Description: Clinton implemented a compromise to allow gay and lesbian Americans to serve in the military if they did not disclose their sexuality. It was hailed for progress at the time, however later repealed in 2011.

https://millercenter.org/president/clinton/foreign-affairs

https://millercenter.org/president/clinton/domestic-affairs

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George W. Bush (January 2001 - January 2009)

# data[].attributes.subject
George W. Bush (January 2001 - January 2009)

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Foreign Event: Invastion of Iraq

Date: March 20, 2003

Description: Bush launched a global war on terror beginning with the invasion of Afghanistan and later Iraq in response to 9/11. The war was justified because Iraq was building weapons of Mass destruction.

Domestic Event: No Child Left Behind

Date: January 8, 2002

Description: The education reform law aimed to increase standardized testing and accountability of public schools. It raised attention to underperforming schools and tried to raise their standards for the children of America.

Political Event: Bush v. Gore

Date: December 12, 2000

Description: Bush lost the popular vote but won the electoral college against Gore. The decision gave Bush the presidency and stopped the recounting of votes called by Florida.

Economic Event: Emergency Economic Stabilization Act

Date: October 3, 2008

Description: The housing bubble burst in 2007 that resulting in a major financial crisis. Bush signed the $700 billion bailout to stabilize the system and prevent economic collapse.

https://millercenter.org/president/gwbush/foreign-affairs

https://millercenter.org/president/gwbush/domestic-affairs

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Barack Obama (January 2009 - January 2017)

# data[].attributes.subject
Barack Obama (January 2009 - January 2017)

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Foreign Event: Killing of Osama Bin Laden

Date: May 2, 2011

Description: The US Navy Seals conducted a raid in Abbottabad, Pakistan, that killed the terrorist leader Osama bin Laden, who orchestrated 9/11. The mission was a cornerstone in the War on Terror and boosted Obama's rating.

Domestic Event: Affordable Care Act

Date: March 23, 2010

Description: The act aimed to expand healthcare insurance coverage, banning discrimination for pre-existing conditions. It helped many Americans gain affordable health insurance.

Political Event: 2008 Election

Date: November 4, 2008

Description: Obama became the first African American president in the history of the United States, defeating republican John McCain, marking a significant point in American history.

Economic Event: American Recovery and Reinvestment Act

Date: February 17, 2009

Description: Obama signed a $787 billion stimulus package to combat the Great Recession. It included infrastructure spending, aid to states, tax cuts, and green energy investments. It helped pull the US out of the economic recession.

https://millercenter.org/president/obama/foreign-affairs

https://millercenter.org/president/obama/domestic-affairs