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California Grad Requirements: Considerations for Students with Disabilities

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California Grad Requirements: Considerations for Students with Disabilities

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ACSA Home Base Doc: Tools and Stories from the Field: How to Navigate the New Frontier of the Alt Pathway

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ELD Content Connectors for English Learners with Significant Cognitive Disabilities

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ELD Content Connectors for English Learners with Significant Cognitive Disabilities

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Padlet- CA Pathways to a Diploma (51225.31 and 51225.32)

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Padlet- CA Pathways to a Diploma (51225.31 and 51225.32)

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California “Alt” Pathway to a High School Diploma for Students with Significant Cognitive Disabilities

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California “Alt” Pathway to a High School Diploma for Students with Significant Cognitive Disabilities

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MASTER Path to the Alt Pathway last updated 10.28.24 (1)

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The Alt Pathway to a High School Diploma for Students with Significant Cognitive Disabilities| 

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The Alt Pathway to a High School Diploma for Students with Significant Cognitive Disabilities| 

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Home Base Doc_ Alt Pathway to a HS Diploma updated 10.24

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California Alt Pathway to a High School Diploma for Students with Signiﬁcant Cognitive Disabilities

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CA COP on Secondary Transition General Meeting - June 3, 2024

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Community of Practice-Secondary Transition 

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Community of Practice-Secondary Transition 

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CA COP on Secondary Transition General Meeting - June 3, 2024

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Alt Pathway Info Flyer for Families-final

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CSBA Differential Standards Sample Policy with Comments

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CSBA Differential Standards Sample Policy with Comments

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Arcadia USD Alt Pathway Implementation Process

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Arcadia USD Alt Pathway Implementation Process

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Sample Policy: CSBA Differential Standards 

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Sample Policy: CSBA Differential Standards 

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El Dorado Charter SELPA Alternative Pathway to a Diploma

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El Dorado Charter SELPA Alternative Pathway to a Diploma

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DCN Direct Instruction Tools and Tips Padlet

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DCN Direct Instruction Tools and Tips Padlet

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 Inclusion for Students with Severe Disabilities 

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 Inclusion for Students with Severe Disabilities 

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Planning Templates for Students with Significant Needs

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Planning Templates for Students with Significant Needs

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Providing daily standards-based instruction for learners with complex and multiple disabilities, such as autism and deaf-blindness, requires a variety of materials, strategies, and differentiation. Quality instruction cannot be provided without detailed, collaborative pre-planning . Planning is essential to the delivery of high quality instruction. Plans should include the identification of learning targets based on both academic standards and transition skills and concepts such as social emotional skills and life applied skills. Planning should include the integration of Universal Design, differentiation and individualized instructional strategies, tools and interventions. This section of the website provides guidance and resources as you plan to meet the needs of diverse learners across all learning environments (LRE's). Discussion will include unit planning, collaborative tiered planning (MTSS tiers of support), and daily planning. Co-planning is also addressed in further detail as it aligns with the Ohio Improvement Process (OIP) and State Professional Development Grant (SPDG) work around equity and inclusivity.

Important Concepts:

Planning for ALL students means that "tiers of supports" and instructional methods will be needed

Pre-planning directly aligns learning targets and standards to instruction and assessment

Planning should address and include both pre and post assessments, ensuring they are universally designed and tiered so all students can show what they know

Student specific accommodations, assistive technology (AT), and scaffolds should be included in tiered plans to ensure that individualized education program (IEP) requirements are met

Look to Science and Social Studies standards as they contain concepts that can guide unit themes at each grade level or grade band

Identify tools and materials for each lesson in advance so that they can be gathered and/or created ahead of time

Self-Check:

Are pre and post assessments accessible to all students so that they can each show what they know?

Are materials used in teaching each lesson individualized or adapted to meet the learner's needs/challenges and strengths?

Is the activity aligned to learning standards that are an age/grade match for all learners in the class?

Does the assessment measure student knowledge of the pre-determined learning target/standard?

How might having a plan change the outcomes for one or more students in the class?

Why are some students not participating or engaged in class activities? Could access to prepared materials change their ability to participate?

Planning Self-Assessment Checklist

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ohio center for autism and low incidence

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Ohio Center for Autism and Low Incidence

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Planning to Meet the Needs of Diverse Learners

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Ohio Center for Autism and Low Incidence

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Co-Teaching Core Competency Framework by Wendy W. Murawski and Wendy W. Lochner

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Co-Teaching Core Competency Framework by Wendy W. Murawski and Wendy W. Lochner

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http://nebula.wsimg.com/13e0321b34184bff731a8a33a76351f1?AccessKeyId=762D00E6E8616E18D161&disposition=0&alloworigin=1

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25 Questions for New Co-Teachers to Answer Together

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25 Questions for New Co-Teachers to Answer Together

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New BRIGANCE Transition Skills Inventory 2 and Transition Skills Activities 2

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Help your learners transition to what’s next with our new editions of BRIGANCE Transition Skills Inventory and Transition Skills Activities.

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Literacy Instruction for Students with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities

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Literacy Instruction for Students with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities

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Abstract

This chapter addresses research-based literacy instruction for students with intellectual and developmental disabilities. It begins with a discussion of these disabilities, highlighting some common impairments that exist across such disability labels which can make literacy learning a challenge. Examples are provided that outline ways to address literacy skills, specifically in the area of reading. In addition, this chapter invites teachers to consider the ways in which traditional forms of literacy instruction can result in barriers to some students' participation in literacy learning and encourages finding ways to remove such barriers so that all students, including those with more significant forms of disability, can benefit.

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, readers will be able to

define what it means to presume competence in the learning potential of students with intellectual and developmental disabilities, and discuss the significance in doing so;

identify common barriers to literacy learning that often exist in classroom settings for students with intellectual and developmental disabilities and describe ways to remove these barriers;

discuss evidence-based ways to instruct students with intellectual and developmental disabilities in phonemic awareness, phonics, comprehension, vocabulary, and fluency;

design instructional reading activities and experiences for students with intellectual and developmental disabilities that effectively meet their needs in skill development while also maintaining their meaningful participation in the inclusive literacy classroom.

Introduction

Students with intellectual and developmental disabilities have generally been taught literacy using a curriculum focusing on functional life skills (Katims, 2000). Through functional skills curricula, students are frequently taught to recognize and write a limited number of the sight words to support their participation in the community or at work (Mosley, Flynt, & Morton, 1997). For example, a student might be taught to recognize the words danger and exit for safety purposes and the days of the week to read a work schedule. Although learning such words would be beneficial, a functional skills approach to literacy instruction does not equip students with the skills needed to identify words beyond the specific sight words they have been taught. This inhibits their abilities to read and write for other purposes, and therefore, limits their opportunities to take part more fully in their communities (Copeland & Keefe, 2007). Students with intellectual and developmental disabilities may not be afforded other types of literacy instruction because it is often believed that they are incapable of learning other, more sophisticated aspects of literacy (Kluth & Chandler-Olcott, 2008).

According to Joseph and Seery (2004), " The potential for individuals with [intellectual disabilities] to grasp and generalize literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers" (p. 93). Although research is still limited in the area of higher-level literacy instruction (i.e., literacy instruction that extends beyond a functional skills approach) for students with intellectual disabilities and developmental disabilities, a number of studies have shown that students with such disabilities have learned to decode words, comprehend narrative and expository texts, and write for expression (e.g., Allor, Mathes, Roberts, Jones, & Champlin, 2010; Conners, Rosenquist, Sligh, Atwell, & Kiser, 2006; Pennington, Stenhoff, Gibson, & Ballou, 2012).

Up until quite recently, it has been difficult to determine what constitutes good evidence-based literacy instruction for students with intellectual disabilities and developmental disabilities (Lemons, Mrachko, Kostewicz, & Paterra, 2012). This difficulty is largely because much of the research done on best reading practices has not included this population of students. Further, conventional wisdom once suggested that students with intellectual and developmental disabilities might need qualitatively different instruction than their peers without disability labels. It makes sense though, that on some level, the same type of high-quality instruction that works with other struggling students should be beneficial to any student, despite disability label. Researchers have recently begun to test this premise, and the results are promising. In this chapter, you will learn more about literacy instruction for students with intellectual and developmental disabilities and how to devise lessons to meet their individual needs in reading.

Defining Intellectual Disabilities (ID)

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013) defines an intellectual d isability as "a disorder with onset during the developmental period that includes both intellectual and adaptive functioning deficits in conceptual, social, and practical domains" (p. 33). In other words, it is a disorder that forms before age 18 that affects a person's intellectual development and ability to effectively use life skills. The term intellectual disability has replaced the term mental retardation in this edition of the DSM-5. Intellectual disabilities may occur alone or as a part of genetic syndromes or other developmental disabilities (see below) such as Down syndrome, Prader-Willi Syndrome, or autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

Defining Developmental Disabilities (DD)

According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2013), developmental disabilities "are a group of conditions due to an impairment in physical, learning, language, or behavior areas. These conditions begin during the developmental period, may impact day-to-day functioning, and usually last throughout a person's lifetime" (para. 1).

In some schools these terms are used interchangeably; however, there is a difference between them. Developmental disabilities encompass intellectual disabilities. That is, intellectual disabilities are considered a type of developmental disability, but developmental disabilities also include other disabilities that are fundamentally physical in nature, such as cerebral palsy (American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities [AAIDD], 2013).

Although these common definitions are used in diagnosing ID and DD, it is important to use these definitions with caution, as they provide only one perspective on such disabilities, mostly in line with a medical model perspective which tends to have its focus on impairments and treatment of the individual (Thomas, 2002). Although the medical model perspective has much to offer toward the health and well-being of individuals with disabilities, there is a push from a number of educational researchers to shift thinking about disability from a medical model to a social model. A social model of disability recognizes that while individuals may have impairments, it is society that needs to change, as society "creates" disability by denying those with disabilities equal participation in their communities (Couser, 2002). Kluth and Chandler-Olcott (2008) explain this notion in relation to individuals with autism:

Although many individuals with autism share that "it" is real-that they do experience things in different ways, that their bodies are uncooperative or that they have sensory or communication problems-many of these same individuals indicated that autism is, at least in moments, "created" by an inflexible society. Therefore, people may feel more or less challenged on any given day based on whether appropriate supports are provided for them or whether they are expected to communicate, behave, move, or interact in a conventional way. (p. 4)

Another point to consider is that there is wide variation among individuals with ID and DD. No label is ever sufficient to describe the intricacies, needs, abilities, or potentials of a human being. In fact, society has been wrong many times in its understanding of individuals with disabilities and assumptions about what they might be able to accomplish. As teachers, disability labels can help us consider some of the different needs our students may have; however, we should always take our understanding of our students from what they show us about themselves and what we are able to figure out from careful and flexible assessment of their needs, not just from textbook definitions of their disabilities.

Changing Perspectives

There is no doubt about the importance of literacy in our society. Among other things, being literate increases one's ability to learn independently, to gain and maintain employment, and to care for oneself. Access to literacy instruction, therefore, is imperative. Too often, however, educators and other adults in the lives of students with ID and DD have assumed that these students would not be able to benefit from literacy instruction because they view the tasks involved to be too complicated or unnecessary for students with ID and DD to understand or perform. This view has led many educators to forego literacy instruction for the children or to address it in superficial ways.

Presuming Competence

The first step in helping a child with ID or DD to become literate is to presume competence (Biklen & Burke, 2006) in his or her abilities to gain such knowledge and skills. This means to put aside doubts and preconceived notions about what a student may be able to accomplish based on a student's label of disability, estimates of IQ, or assumed limitations and instead, teach as if the child will learn. Put another way, to presume competence in students is to act on the belief "that all individuals can acquire valued skills if given appropriate structures and supports" (Copeland & Keefe, 2007, p. 2).

Literacy Initiations and Access to Instruction

While many students with ID and DD interact with texts in traditional ways, some students with such disabilities may interact with texts in ways that seem unusual or different than how students without such disabilities interact with texts. For example, some students, particularly those with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), may be interested in a book's texture or fascinated by how a book looks when it is spun around. Other students may be interested in and insist on reading books on one specific topic for a substantial period of time. Take for example the ways in which Steven, a boy with ASD and an intellectual disability, reads for information:

He had with him, as always, several different public library books, all related to butterflies and insects. He laid three of the books, opened, on the floor, then centered himself among them, glancing at each of the exposed pages. He then flipped to the next page of each book and repeated the process. (Kliewer & Biklen, 2001, p. 5)

Students like Steven are sometimes dismissed as readers because their teachers misinterpret their unique ways of interacting with texts as indications that they are not attending to and/or are not ready for instruction involving the written word. Others feel compelled to restrict students' access to texts that they worry might be topics of overfocus, insisting that the student read something other than books about their favorite subjects. However, students' interactions with texts should be welcomed despite differences. A child's spinning of a book or investigation of the book's texture should never be taken as a sign that the child is not ready for literacy instruction. Nor should we avoid inviting them to use texts in more conventional ways. On the contrary, students will benefit from learning to use texts in the intended fashion. An important understanding, though, is that there is nothing wrong with interacting with texts in unusual ways. As long as a child is interested in texts, teachers should use the child's interactions as a starting point for further invitations to literacy growth and also encourage the child to interact with texts in ways that are pleasing to them.

Students with ID and DD can learn literacy skills, but a pitfall of many educators in helping the students attain literacy is to focus only on early or basic literacy skills in the absence of other more meaningful, generative, and socially-based forms of literacy. For example, a student who has not mastered the alphabet might not be invited to respond to read-alouds through discussion, drama, or art, and may be excluded from story time altogether. This is because it is often thought that students will not be able to benefit from other literacy activities until early skills are mastered. This assumption is incorrect, however, and can be detrimental to student learning. One does not need to be able to read words or even identify letters to be able to take part in classroom read-alouds and response activities, and much can be learned about literacy through taking part in such activities. Through read-alouds, for instance, students are provided with a model of fluent reading, how a story is structured, and what the purposes are for various kinds of texts. While the teaching of skills is important and should not be denied to students with disabilities, reading must also not be construed as a linear and rigid process for which only some students are able to participate (Kliewer & Biklen, 2001).

Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC)

Many students who have ID or DD also have complex communication needs (CCN). Some students may not use speech to communicate. Others may not have reliable speech, that is, speech that consistently and accurately reflects the message the speaker wishes to convey (Broderick & Kasa-Hendrickson, 2001). Some students may have reliable speech, but their speech may be difficult for others to understand. Teaching literacy skills to a student who is not verbal or who has unreliable speech can seem daunting. As teachers, we often expect students to communicate their knowledge through speaking, particularly as students learn to read. Think about how you would work with a typically-developing kindergartener on letter sounds. You would likely show the child a letter on the chalkboard or on a flashcard and ask the child to respond orally with the sound of the letter. Similarly, when meeting with a student to assess his or her reading ability, you would likely want to hear the child read a passage so you could make note of his or her strengths and struggles during oral reading. How then, can a teacher approach such important learning activities and assessments when working with a child who does not speak? How could the child show a teacher his or her competence in reading? How can a teacher determine a child's understanding as new skills are taught?

Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) refers to the techniques and supports used by individuals with limitations in spoken language to enhance their ability to communicate. While these supports are often bundled under the term AAC, there are important differences in augmentative versus alternative communication. Augmentative communication refers to the techniques and supports used in addition to speech, spoken sounds, or gestures, while alternative communication refers to techniques or supports used in place of speech and gestures (Copeland & Keefe, 2007). Numerous options for AAC exist, including "manual sign language, as well as non-electronic and electronic communication devices and software options" (p. 132), which vary in complexity (e.g., high-tech, low-tech) and expense. A common high-tech AAC device used by students is the Dynavox, which is a computerized touchscreen that allows users to select words and symbols indicating what they would like to communicate. The device, in turn, speaks out these choices digitally. Lower-tech supports might include teacher-created boards with letters, numbers, and/or pictures made with clip art to which students can point to communicate their needs and responses.

Students with ID and DD can often benefit from AAC in literacy learning. In deciding which AAC supports to use, a teacher must consider the particular needs of each student. Not all supports or devices will be appropriate for all students with disabilities. It would not be appropriate, for example, to require a student to use a particular support simply because it is less expensive or already on hand. In addition, some students with limited speech may already be making use of certain AAC devices in their daily lives. If this is the case for a particular student, finding a way to incorporate that device into the child's literacy learning will be of utmost importance. For students who have difficulty with reliable speech or producing speech that is readily understood by others, finding a way for the students to communicate their knowledge without the need to speak can be beneficial. The ways in which AAC can be used to supplement and enhance a student's literacy learning are innumerable. Several examples will be given throughout the next section on comprehensive literacy instruction for students with ID and DD.

Comprehensive Reading Instruction for Students with ID and DD

This section will provide ways to instruct students with ID and DD on particular skills that are important for growth in reading. The skills have been presented separately by area so that you can both understand the main processes of reading and learn ways to teach the skills effectively when working with students. However, it is important to recognize that reading should not be treated and taught as a set of unrelated sub-skills, nor do students need to master skills in one area to take part in instruction in another area. Students must have the opportunity to experience literacy in its cohesive sense in conjunction with opportunities to work on needed skills. Students of all needs and abilities need time to experience hearing and responding to good literature, to play with language, and to take risks with new ideas and conventions. They must also be given appropriate instruction and supports on their way to learning the conventions of literacy so that they too can interact with it meaningfully.

In 1997, Congress asked the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) to work in conjunction with the Department of Education to assemble a panel whose task would be to review all of the available research on teaching children to read and make recommendations for effective practices. This panel summarized the findings in what is known as the Report of the National Reading Panel ( NRP; National Institute of Child Health and Human Development [NICHD], 2000), which outlined the five areas as crucial for students to develop to become good readers: phonemic awareness, phonics, comprehension, vocabulary, and fluency. Although the NRP did not focus on students with ID and DD, other researchers have begun to investigate these areas in relation to students with ID and DD and have determined that these same areas should be addressed when teaching reading to students with more significant forms of disability as well (Allor, Mathes, Roberts, Cheatham, & Al Otaiba, 2014; Beecher & Childre, 2012). Sometimes it can be difficult to know how to teach these important aspects of reading, given a student's difference in memory, mobility, and/or speech. This section will give you some ideas for approaching these topics using research-supported strategies.

Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic awareness instruction for students with ID and DD

Recent research has shown that students with ID and DD can benefit from similar types of explicit (i.e., direct and structured) instruction in phonemic awareness used with other students who need extra support in developing this skill. However, to be beneficial, the instruction may need to be modified to be more concrete, such as using objects as a visual cue, or providing more than one mode of learning, such as incorporating sign language in addition to verbal instruction (Beecher & Childre, 2012). For example, when bringing students' attention to the initial sounds of words beginning with /p/, it might be helpful to set out a small toy pig or make the sign for pig to give the student a concrete visual reminder of the sound being learned. It has also been found that students with ID and DD may need a longer amount of time to acquire phonemic awareness skills (Allor, Mathes, Roberts, Jones, & Champlin, 2010).

In the case of a child who does not have reliable speech and/or bodily control, more creative ways are needed to help the student demonstrate his or her knowledge and understanding. Imagine for a moment working with a child who has limited reliable speech. The student can sometimes communicate a sound verbally; however, he often cannot produce the sound he is thinking of accurately enough for us to be certain that he understands. Instead of requiring the child to speak his responses aloud, one can create response boards to allow the child to point out his answers (Light & McNaughton, 2012).

Imagine that you would like your student to be able to blend three phonemes (individual sounds) together to blend a word. Since the student has difficulty producing speech, you will want to use pictures to which the student can point. It is easy to create your own set of picture words on card stock or you can find cards that are commercially available. Next, use the picture cards to model how phonemes can be blended into words. To begin, show the child a picture, for example, of a pig. Start by saying, "Here is a picture of a pig. Listen to me say the sounds in this word. /p/ /i/ /g/... pig. Do you hear the sounds I am saying? /p/ /i/ /g/... pig. I can break apart the sounds in the word pig, like this /p/ /i/ /g/. Then I can put them back together. /p/ /i/ /g/ is pig!" You would continue this using several, clear examples. You could also cut the picture of the pig into three pieces, moving each to present a sound.

Next, you would introduce an activity to determine if the child can identify a word given its phonemes. To do this, you can set out three picture cards in front of the child (see Figure 1). First make sure the child knows what each picture represents by pointing to each and naming it: "Here is a dog, cat, and pig." This is an important step so that the child knows that the picture of the cat, for example, is indeed a cat and not a kitten. You may need to repeat the words, depending on the student's memory needs. Next, you tell the student that you are going to give him three sounds that when put together will make a word. Ask him to point to the word you are making. You would then say, "/p/ /i/ /g/" and determine whether the child can select the appropriate response.

As the child progresses in the ability to blend phonemes, you can make the work more challenging by requiring attention to similar phonemes rather than the very different phonemes featured in the previous example (Light & McNaughton, 2012). For example, you may wish to have a student work on attending to differences in medial (middle) vowel sounds in words. In this case, you would use three words that have the same letter sounds except for the middle sound, such as bug, big, and bag. Notice how each of these words has /b/ as the initial phoneme and /g/ as the final phoneme. Your modeling in this situation would deliberately draw the child's attention to the change in vowel sound between such similar words. To assess the student's understanding, you would again give the student three pictures from which to choose that correspond with our words and follow the same process described above. If you say /b/ /a/ /g/, but the child points to the bug, it indicates that the student may have trouble attending to the middle sound in the words and would require further instruction and practice in this area.

Students with unique needs may need modifications to the above suggestions. For example, a student showing considerable difficulties with fine or gross motor skills or vision may need larger cards with which to work. If a child is having difficulty with the process, be sure that it is not the physical aspect of the task that is getting in the way. If there are barriers to the student's participation, think creatively about or consult with others regarding how the task could be modified so that the child could successfully (but still meaningfully) take part.

There are numerous other phonemic awareness lessons and activities that can be done to help students acquire this important literacy skill. Above is just one example of a way in which to teach and assess phoneme blending. See Table 1 for some other activities that are likely to be helpful when teaching phonemic awareness. Given the example above, consider how these activities, too, could be modified so that students with speech and/or motor differences could participate.

Sorting words by initial, medial, or final phoneme

Give students 10 picture cards in which the pictures end with the sound /g/ or /d/. Have students sort the words into two categories by ending sound.

Identifying words with a particular phoneme

Draw students' attention to the first sound of a word, e.g., "Fan starts with /f/." (Be sure to say the letter sound and not the letter name.) Ask students to come up with words that start with the same sound.

Segmenting words into individual phonemes

Say a word aloud to students (e.g., sit). Demonstrate how to break the word into its individual sounds (i.e., /s/ /i/ /t/). Now give students some words to break into individual sounds. Guide students as necessary.

Identifying a word after removing or adding a phoneme to it

Say to students, "Listen to this word: pit. What happens if we take away /p/?" (Be sure to say the letter sound and not the letter name.) Demonstrate how the word will now be: it. Now go through similar words with students one word at a time.

Creating a new word by replacing a phoneme in a given word

Say to students, "Listen to this word: cat. If I take away /c/ and put /b/ in its place, we get bat. Now let's change /b/ to /s/. What word do we get?" (Be sure to say the letter sounds and not the letter names.) Guide students as necessary.

Note. If a student does not seem to be able to attend to the phonemes in the words despite instruction, you may need to start with earlier skills. Provide the student with many opportunities to play and experiment with more general sounds in language, such as rhymes, syllables, and alliteration.

Phonics

Phonics is the study and instruction of how letters and combinations of letters represent the individual sounds (phonemes) in words and how these sounds are blended together to make words. In the English language, we have 26 letters that are used in various combinations to represent approximately 44 phonemes. Studies have shown that for students who have difficulty learning letter-sound correspondences, explicit and systematic phonics instruction is necessary (NRP, 2000). These studies have mostly been conducted with students who have learning disabilities; however, the same outcomes have been found in newer research including students with ID and DD as well (e.g., Riepl, Marchand-Martella, & Martella, 2008; Lemons, et al., 2012). Explicit and systematic instruction in phonics means that students are taught specifically about letter-sound correspondences through carefully planned instruction. The instruction also includes modeling, along with opportunities for teacher-guided practice, beginning with those letter-sound correspondences that are most common and useful in beginning words (e.g., a, s, ch) and proceeding to those that are more complex (e.g., ow, ur, ey, -tch). Students are not expected to figure out these patterns on their own. To become adept at using letter-sound correspondences to decode, students must have many opportunities to practice using letters and letter combinations to represent the sounds of language. There are many games and activities that can be used with students to help them practice these skills in an engaging fashion (see Chapter 3 of this textbook for more examples).

Phonics instruction for students with ID and DD

To decode an unknown word, a child must be able to identify the correct phonemes for each of its letters, hold the phonemes in memory in the correct order, and then blend the sounds together to make a word. This can be a challenging task for any beginner but can be particularly difficult for students with ID and DD because they may have difficulty with short-term memory and/or initiation of spoken language or movement. For students with short-term memory difficulties, decoding can be very challenging because the students may have difficulty holding on to the sounds in order while decoding. By the time the students reach the ends of the words they are trying to figure out, it is common for them to have forgotten the beginning sounds (WETA Washington, DC, 2007). Additionally, many new learners find it helpful to sound out words aloud while simultaneously pointing to each letter; however, if a student cannot produce sounds or point to the letters on a page, decoding can prove quite a challenge for these reasons as well. These are only some of the issues that may arise that complicate the decoding process for students with ID and DD, but with creative means, barriers to students' participation in phonics instruction can be reduced.

For a child who has significant short-term memory difficulties, it is necessary to reduce the memory load for certain tasks (Allor et al., 2010). For example, when teaching phonics, it is helpful to begin with simple two-phoneme words, such as at, up, and it. As the child becomes more adept at decoding these and has practice holding phonemes in his memory, the ability to decode longer words will likely increase. Further, as time goes on, many students will be able to "chunk" information that they have learned into retrievable pieces that will lessen the burden on their memories. For example, the blend st in words such as st op and pa st will become easily recognizable with practice over time so that a student will not have to deliberately think about each phoneme (/s/ and /t/) each time it is encountered in a word. That is, the student's recognition of the word part will become automatic, and thus allow more attention to be paid to decoding newer or more difficult letter combinations.

A method for helping students with short-term memory problems learn to decode is Additive Sound-by-Sound B lending (Moats & Hall, 2010). In this technique, instead of sounding out all of the letters in a word in sequential order from left to right, and then blending them together, which is a typical blending strategy (e.g., /c/ /a/ /t/ → /cat/), the letters are blended one by one as a student moves through the word. The teacher writes the first two letters of a given word for the student to see and models how to blend those first two sounds. The teacher then writes the third letter of the word and demonstrates how to blend the first two sounds with the third sound. This continues until the last sound is blended and the word is identified. For example, in the word stop, the teacher would demonstrate how to blend the word, sound-by-sound, as follows: /s/, /st/, /stŏ/, /stop/. Each time a new letter is added, the reader starts at the beginning so that he or she has the opportunity to rehearse the previously blended phonemes as a unit, increasing the likelihood that the phonemes will be retained in memory when the end of the word is reached. With time, students can be guided to use this strategy independently.

For students who have difficulty with speech or movement, it may be necessary to change instructional materials or the way we ask students to interact with the materials we use for decoding instruction. It is helpful to increase the font size of traditional print materials if the fine motor skills required to move from one letter to the next when finger pointing is a challenge. It may also be helpful to assist students in pointing to each subsequent letter in a word by gently guiding their hands; however, it is important to make sure that a student is comfortable with this approach before attempting it, as some students may be extremely uncomfortable with physical touch, and creating discomfort will defeat the purpose of the activity. If a student has trouble with speech while decoding, we can say the sounds for the student. As the student points (or you guide the pointing), say each sound as you move through each grapheme in the printed word. Even though the student is not doing the physical process independently, with practice, he or she can still learn the concepts necessary to decode words silently to themselves while reading.

Students who experience difficulty with short-term memory, speech, and movement may also benefit from working with various computer programs and tablet/smart phone applications to practice decoding skills. Numerous programs and applications exist that guide students in learning to segment and blend phonemes (e.g. L'Escapadou's Montessori Crosswords, an application for iPhone/iPad) or that will read unknown words in online stories for students, sometimes even breaking up words into their individual phonemes, to demonstrate how letters represent the sounds of language (e.g., Starfall Education's Starfall-Learn to Read). The extent to which students can use these programs independently will vary; however, again, students can interact with the programs with a teacher when guidance is needed. See Table 2 for a list of selected iPhone/iPad applications that specifically target decoding skills.

Overreliance on memorization

Because students with ID and DD have so often been taught to read by being asked to memorize words, you may encounter students who rely exclusively on this method of word identification. Although some students have been successful in learning to read to a degree with this approach, problems arise as students attempt to read more challenging texts. As text difficulty increases, complicated, unique, and multisyllabic words become more common, and one needs a reliable decoding strategy to know how to read unknown words (Copeland & Keefe, 2007). We cannot expect children to simply memorize every word that they may one day encounter, or we run the risk of relegating them to a minimum level of reading ability.

When students are used to reading solely or almost solely through the recognition of sight words, it can be difficult to teach them to rely on letter-sound correspondences to decode words. This author once worked with a student who had memorized so many words, she could read nearly fluently at the fourth-grade level. However, the student had no strategy for identifying unknown words beyond looking at the first letter of a word and guessing. Despite this student's ability to recognize certain lengthy words by sight, she could not decode unknown words with more than two letters. Interestingly, she could not practice newly learned letter patterns with simple words such as bat or hug, as she had memorized all of them, and therefore did not have to use her new decoding skills to read them. To encourage the student to use phonics knowledge to decode words, the student had to be instructed with non-words (or nonsense words) such as lig or rup. These words had not been memorized so she had to make use of her knowledge of phonics to figure them out. With this information, the student could eventually be taught to use the decoding strategies to figure out longer, unknown real words such as ex/pect or mis/trust.

Comprehension and Vocabulary

The main purpose of reading is to comprehend a text's message or meaning. It is not enough to be able to decode the words on a page if those words do not mean anything to the reader. Decoding is an important aspect of learning to read because to independently read text, we must first be able to identify the words on a page before we can understand them; however, there is much more to reading than word identification.

When strong readers read, they think about what they are reading (Harvey & Goudvis, 2000; Snow, 2002). They pay attention to the message of the text. When reading fiction, strong readers consider the actions of the characters, they relate those actions to their experiences, they weigh those actions against their own values, and they make predictions about what might happen next. Strong readers do not do this consciously; it just seems to happen, and is a part of the enjoyment of the reading process. However, interacting with the text in such a way is also an imperative part of making sense of the story. When weighing a character's choices, we develop understandings of that character, including understandings that may not be specifically outlined in the text. For example, from attending to a character's choices, we can determine whether the character is good or evil, or careful or impulsive. So much of what we understand from the text comes from thinking deeply about the reading (Pressley & Afflerbach, 1995). Strong readers also pay attention to whether or not what they are reading makes sense. When strong readers come across a sentence they do not understand, they may track back, wondering if something was misread. They may take note of vocabulary they do not know and make a decision about how to proceed (e.g., look up the word, use context to define the word, skip the word having gotten the gist of the idea).

It is sometimes thought that readers will automatically comprehend a text's meaning once they have learned to decode words, but this is not always the case for students with or without disabilities (Donin, 2004). Many students need instruction in learning how to think about what they read and how to monitor their own thinking. That is, they must learn how to become metacognitive about their reading and reading processes. Much research has been conducted and many activities created to address this learning need with students (see Chapter 4 for more discussion on this topic).

Comprehension and vocabulary instruction for students with ID and DD

Students with ID and DD bring some extra challenges when learning to comprehend text. For example, students who have difficulty with working memory, which is the ability to mentally hold and manipulate information, will often have trouble remembering what they have read, so giving them strategies to maintain information in memory is important. Students with language delays and language processing difficulties might have trouble understanding certain vocabulary. In addition, a number of students, particularly those with ASD, may have trouble making inferences if they interpret language at a literal level (Kluth & Chandler-Olcott, 2008). In addressing these skills, students should have the opportunity to read, listen to, and work with quality literature and other texts that are age-appropriate, though it may be necessary to modify some aspects of the texts based on student need (Browder, Trela, & Jiminez, 2007). It is also important to note that students with ID and DD might have trouble expressing or demonstrating their understanding, which can be misinterpreted as lack of comprehension (Kluth & Chandler-Olcott, 2008).

Recent research suggests that teaching students with ID and DD strategies to monitor their own comprehension (i.e., to become metacognitive) can be helpful (Hudson & Test, 2011; Whalon & Hanline, 2008). One way to achieve this is to conduct frequent think-alouds when reading aloud to your students (Harvey & Goudvis, 2000; Doğanay Bilgi & Özmen, 2014). During think-alouds, teachers stop reading at certain points to explain their own thinking and how they are figuring out what is going on or how they are responding to the story. For example, during a fiction read-aloud, teachers might stop to make a prediction about what might happen next. They would be explicit in talking about what was noticed in the story that has caused them to make the prediction. Similarly, for students who have difficulty with making inferences, teachers can stop at predetermined points in the text, draw students' attention to certain clues (e.g., a character's described expression or behavior), and specifically explain how such clues can help tell us about the characters. Students can be asked to actively participate during think-alouds as well. For example, you might ask the students, "What kind of face might someone make if he or she is up to something sneaky?" The students could then be encouraged to make a "sneaky" face, and then you could bring their attention to where the text refers to a "sly smile" or "shifty eyes."

Think-alouds are also helpful ways to guide students in understanding new vocabulary. You can stop after reading a sentence containing a challenging word and describe to the students how you use context to figure out the word's meaning. You can also just stop and discuss an interesting word and encourage students to use it throughout the day. Notice how think-alouds do not require any reading to be done by the students. This is a perfect example of how to get students who are currently non-readers to interact meaningfully in literacy and work on higher-level skills.

Another way to work with students on comprehension is to get students actively involved in conversations around text that they have read. One way to do this is through Reciprocal Teaching (Palincsar & Brown, 1984). In Reciprocal Teaching, students read and then in groups take part in discussion by predict ing what will happen next, generat ing questions about the text, clarif ying difficult parts, and summariz ing what they have read. Students in such groups take one of these strategies and become the groups' "clarifier," "summarizer," or other role. For example, the clarifier might explain the meaning of a challenging vocabulary word identified by the questioner and share strategies for figuring it out. Students with ID and DD may benefit from a modified form of Reciprocal Teaching (Lundberg & Reichenberg, 2013) where texts are broken into smaller portions and where students work together on one strategy at a time. Teachers can scaffold the students' strategy usage by teaching them to begin questions with question words (e.g., who, what, where) or begin summarizing sentences with a simple set of sequencing words (e.g., first, then, last). When providing instruction in inclusive groups, such modifications can be provided as well for any students who need them.

Students with ID and DD may also need explicit instruction around concepts and vocabulary terms to increase their comprehension (Knight, Spooner, Browder, Smith, & Wood, 2013). To teach concepts and vocabulary explicitly, Knight et al. suggest beginning with a topic (e.g., photosynthesis, civil rights, deforestation) and then choosing a set of words needed for comprehension of the given topic. Each of these words would then be taught individually, making definitions concrete by offering pictures or other visuals in the explanation and providing the students with both examples and non-examples of the terms. For instance, in teaching the term precipitation, Knight et al. incorporated pictures of clouds with rain and clouds alone. They specifically explained how only the clouds with the rain "counted" as precipitation. These authors also used graphic organizers to show the relationships between the set of words being taught, for example, placing the words precipitation, condensation, and evaporation on simple drawings of scenes with clouds and rain or snow, and using arrows to describe how one term led to the next. Students were then guided in their own completion of the graphic organizers.

Fluency

Another important aspect in improving comprehension is to attain fluency in reading. When a person reads with fluency, he or she can recognize words automatically, read at an appropriate pace, attend to punctuation so that reading sounds like speech, known as prosody (Rasinski, 2012), and maintain these skills throughout the length of a text, known as endurance (Deeney, 2010). Being able to read fluently allows for greater comprehension because less effort is needed in decoding the text, and therefore, more attention can be directed toward making sense of the text (Griffith & Rasinski, 2004; NRP, 2000). A common way to assess students' fluency is to measure their oral reading fluency (ORF), which involves counting the number of words a student can correctly read in a minute. There are general guidelines for expected oral reading rates of student by instructional grade level. For example, the average fluency score for students in the middle of first grade is reading 23 words correct per minute (WCPM). This increases to about 53 for average readers by the end of first grade (Hasbrouck & Tindal, 2006).

Fluency instruction for students with ID and DD

Measures of ORF have been used to assess the fluency rate and fluency growth of students with ID and ASD, and such measures are appropriate when students' disabilities do not interfere with fluent speech. For students who do not have reliable speech or for whom the physical act of speaking creates difficulty, ORF is not likely to be the best measure of these students' reading fluency. Remember, the purpose of achieving fluency in reading is not to be a great oral reader, per se, but to read easily enough that there is thorough comprehension of the text. A student may not be able to read fluently aloud, but this does not mean that he or she cannot process text fluently in her mind. How do we know if students are reading fluently during silent reading if we cannot hear them read? Certainly determining this can be tricky, but it can be done. The Qualitative Reading Inventory-5 (Leslie & Caldwell, 2011) provides passages for which both ORF and silent reading fluency (SRF) can be determined. In giving an SRF assessment, a student's reading is timed, and the evaluator asks the student to indicate when he or she is finished, and the number of words per minute can be calculated. To be sure that the student has actually processed the text, you can ask the student to respond (through AAC or other means) to a quick literal comprehension question or two.

The downside to using SRF measures is that you will not get the same information about the types of struggles the student is having in decoding words or in phrasing that an oral reading fluency measure would provide, since you cannot hear the student read. Therefore, deciding which measures to use will be a matter of thinking critically about the students' needs and what precisely it is you are trying to assess. For example, for a student with some reliable speech, it might make sense to have the student do a short read aloud for which you can do an analysis of her mistakes, and then provide the silent reading task to assess silent reading fluency.

There is, of course, more to fluency than assessment. Once we have determined students' reading rates, we will need to provide appropriate instruction. If a student's rate is low, he or she may need more instruction in identifying words accurately and automatically. Therefore, interventions in decoding and recognition of irregularly spelled words will likely be beneficial. However, as discussed, fluency encompasses more than accurate decoding. For any student, with or without disabilities, providing a model of fluent reading is important (Griffith & Rasinski, 2004). Students must be given the opportunity to hear books and other texts read aloud by expert readers to begin to understand how fluent reading should sound.

Another way to provide instruction in fluency to students with ID and DD is to have students reread texts after providing corrective feedback on areas in need of growth (Hua et al., 2012). Begin by having students read a text at their highest instructional reading levels (i.e., the highest reading level at which they can read without frustration and where errors do not have a strong negative impact on the students' comprehension), taking note of word errors and timing them. Next, correct the word errors making sure they can correctly identify the words. Discuss with them what you noticed about their reading. Do they read word by word or in few-word phrases? Do they attend to punctuation and read with expression? Choose an area to bring to their attention and explain the adjustment you would like made. Model the adjustment if necessary. Next, have them reread the same text with the new skill in mind twice, again making note of word errors and timing them. This method will allow you to keep track of their WCPM over readings and provide direct instruction related to any particular areas of need.

For students who have substantial issues in developing reading fluency or who need to access texts above their individual reading levels, AAC can be used to provide accommodations. For example, if a student needs to read a text for a science class that is too difficult for him or her to read fluently and independently, text-to-speech software can be used to help that student gain access to the text.

Summary

Until quite recently, students with ID and DD have been taught literacy skills through a functional skills curriculum, and have often not been offered access to instruction to help them learn to decode words, read with fluency, and comprehend texts. However, recent research has shown that students with ID and DD can benefit from similar types of research-based reading instruction that is recommended for students without ID and DD.

Planning beneficial, appropriately balanced literacy instruction for students with ID and DD is not easy, but is possible. Educators must be sure not to reduce student learning to only a basic skills approach, but instead, find a way to incorporate skills into comprehensive literacy learning that includes, among other important aspects, access to quality literature, student discussion, and active participation. In addition, educators must be able to think about all of the needs and abilities their students bring to the table and orchestrate the learning of each individual child through careful planning and creativity. Educators must also find ways to break down barriers to students' participation in literacy learning through modifications to materials and teaching approaches and through the use of AAC as appropriate.

Questions and Activities

A student with autism is going to join your second grade class. You find out that he does not speak and when he is given books, he often tears the pages. Explain why it is important to presume competence in his literacy learning abilities, and describe some ways to remove barriers from this student's participation in literacy learning.

Create a lesson on early phonemic awareness for a student with short-term memory deficits and low vision. Be sure to structure your lesson so that she will get the most out of the instruction.

You have a student in your class who reads fluently at grade level; however, when you ask her a question about the reading, she seems unable to answer. What are some reasons that might explain the student's difficulty in answering? What might you do to determine whether her difficulty is due to an issue with reading comprehension, other reasons, or a combination of both?

Given the situation in question 3, let's say that you determine that the student is having trouble comprehending what she has read. Discuss some ways you can help improve her reading comprehension.

Web Resources

References

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Allor, J. H., Mathes, P. G., Roberts, J. K., Jones, F. G., & Champlin, T. M. (2010). Teaching students with moderate intellectual disabilities to read: An experimental examination of a comprehensive reading intervention. Education & Training in Autism & Developmental Disabilities, 45, 3-22.

American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD). (2013). Frequently asked questions on intellectual disability. In Definition of Intellectual Disability. Retrieved from http://aaidd.org/intellectual-disability/definition/faqs-on-intellectual-disability

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.

Beecher, L., & Childre, A. (2012). Increasing literacy skills for students with intellectual and developmental disabilities: Effects of integrating comprehensive reading instruction with sign language. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 47, 487-501.

Biklen, D., & Burke, J. (2006). Presuming competence. Equity & Excellence in Education. 39(2), 166-175. doi: 10.1080/10665680500540376

Broderick, A., & Kasa-Hendrickson, C. (2001). "Say just one word at first'': The emergence of reliable speech in a student labeled with autism. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 26(1), 13-24. doi: 10.2511/rpsd.26.1.13

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Conners, F. A., Rosenquist, C. J., Sligh, A. C., Atwell, J. A., & Kiser, T. (2006). Phonological reading skills acquisition by children with mental retardation. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 27, 121-137. doi: 10.1016/j.ridd.2004.11.015

Copeland, S., & Keefe, E. (2007). Effective literacy instruction for students with moderate or severe disabilities. Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing.

Couser, G. T. (2002). Signifying bodies: Life writing and disability studies. In S. L. Snyder, B. J. Brueggemann, & R. Garland-Thomson (Eds.), Disability studies: Enabling the humanities (pp. 109-117). New York, NY: The Modern Language Association of America.

Deeney, T. (2010). One-minute fluency measures: Mixed messages in assessment andinstruction. The Reading Teacher, 63, 440-450. doi: 10.1598/RT.63.6.1

Donin, J. (2004). Text processing within classroom contexts. In A. Peacock & A. Cleghorn (Eds.), Missing the meaning: T he development and use of print and non-print learning materials (pp. 33-46). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.

Griffith, L.W., & Rasinski, T. (2004). A focus on fluency: How one teacher incorporated fluency with her reading curriculum. The Reading Teacher, 58, 126-137. doi: 10.1598/rt.58.2.1

Harvey, S., & Goudvis, A. (2000). Strategies that work: Teaching comprehension to enhance understanding. Portland, ME: Stenhouse.

Hasbrouck, J., & Tindal, G. A. (2006). Oral reading fluency norms: A valuable assessment tool for reading teachers. The Reading Teacher 59,636-644. doi: 10.1598/RT.59.7.3

Hua, Y., Hendrickson, J. M., Therrien, W. J., Woods-Groves, S., Ries, P., & Shaw, J. W. (2012). Effects of combined reading and question generation on reading fluency and comprehension of three young adults with autism and intellectual disability. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 27, 135-146. doi: 10.1177/1088357612448421

Hudson, M. E., & Test, D. W. (2011). Evaluating the evidence base of shared story reading to promote literacy for students with extensive support needs. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 36, 34-45. doi: 10.2511/rpsd.36.1-2.34

Katims, D. S. (2000). Literacy instruction for people with mental retardation: Historical highlights and contemporary analysis. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 35(1), 3-15.

Kliewer, C., & Biklen, D. (2001). "School's not really a place for reading": A research synthesis of the literate lives of students with severe disabilities. The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 26(1), 1-12. doi: 10.2511/rpsd.26.1.1

Kluth, P., & Chandler-Olcott, K. (2008). A land we can share: Teaching literacy to students with autism. Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing.

Lemons, C. J., Mrachko, A. A., Kostewicz, D. E., & Paterra, M. F. (2012). Effectiveness of decoding and phonological awareness interventions for children with Down syndrome. Exceptional Children, 79(1), 67-90. doi:10.1177/001440291207900104

Leslie, L., & Caldwell, J. (2011). Qualitative Reading Inventory-5. New York, NY: Longman.

Light, J., & McNaughton, D. (2012, August 31). Literacy instruction for individuals with autism, cerebral palsy, Down s yndrome, a nd other disabilities. Retrieved from http://aacliteracy.psu.edu/

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Moats, L. C., & Hall, S. (2010). Language essentials for teachers of reading and spelling (LETRS®) Module 7-Teaching phonics, word study, and the alphabetic principle (2nd ed.). Longmont, CO: Sopris West Educational Services.

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National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching children to read: A n evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction: Reports of the subgroups (NIH Publication No. 00-4754). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/nrp/documents/report.pdf

Palincsar, A. S., & Brown, A. (1984). Reciprocal teaching of comprehension-fostering and comprehension monitoring activities. Cognition and Instruction, 1(2), 117-175. doi: 10.1207/s1532690xci0102_1

Pennington, R., Stenhoff, D. M., Gibson, J., & Ballou, K. (2012). Using simultaneous prompting to teach computer-based story writing to a student with autism. Education & Treatment o f Children (West Virginia University Press), 35, 389-406. doi: 10.1353/etc.2012.0022

Pressley, M., & Afflerbach, P. (1995). Verbal protocols of reading: The nature of constructively responsive reading. Hillsdale NJ: Erlbaum.

Riepl, J. H., Marchand-Martella, N., & Martella, R. C. (2008). The effects of "reading mastery plus" on the beginning reading skills of students with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Journal of Direct Instruction, 8(1), 29-39.

Snow, C. (Chair). (2002). Reading for understanding: Towards a R&D program in reading comprehension. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Reading Study Group. Retrieved from http://www.prgs.edu/content/dam/rand/pubs/monograph_reports/2005/MR1465.pdf

Thomas, C. (2002). Disability theory: Key ideas, issues, and thinkers. In C. Barnes, M. Oliver, & L. Barton (Eds.), Disability studies today (pp. 38-57). Cambridge, United Kingdom: Polity Press.

WETA Washington, DC (Producer). (2007). Episode 9: A Chance to read [ video file]. In Launching Young Readers. Retrieved from http://www.readingrockets.org/shows/launching/chance

Whalon, K., & Hanline, M. F. (2008). Effects of a reciprocal questioning intervention on the question generation and responding of children with autism spectrum disorder. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 43, 367-387.

Photo Credit

Endnotes

1: For more information about the formation of the panel, please visit Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (2013). Return

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This chapter addresses research-based literacy instruction for students with intellectual and developmental disabilities. It begins with a discussion of these disabilities, highlighting some common impairments that exist across such disability labels which can make literacy learning a challenge. Examples are provided that outline ways to address literacy skills, specifically in the area of reading.

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Edmark Reading Program Level 1 Second Edition Complete Kit

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"The Edmark Reading Program is systematic and explicit." - Florida Center for Reading Research Widely regarded as the "one that works," the Edmark Reading Program has long helped students who need an alternative to phonics. The key to this success is the program's use of a carefully sequenced, highly repetitive word recognition method combined with errorless learning.

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DLM online assessments are for students with significant cognitive disabilities for whom general state assessments are not appropriate, even with accommodations

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Leading Special Education Curriculum Software - TeachTown

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Schedule a special education curriculum software demo with TeachTown today to see how students with moderate to severe disabilities thrive while learning!

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Expand horizons and
inclusivity through current events

When students can engage in meaningful conversation with their peers and families about world events, the immediate result is a positive sense of belonging. But the issue-based learning in each weekly edition of News2you also comes with many long-term benefits: the standards‑aligned articles and activities help students build life skills, become more motivated learners and even discover career options.

Access to a world beyond the classroom

As they experience new ideas through the content in News2you, students not only build comprehension and context relative to their community and world, they also develop new critical‑thinking and communication skills‑forming and expressing opinions about what they're learning. They're preparing to become productive citizens in life beyond the classroom.

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Improved language and literacy skills

Research confirms that students who have access to newspapers in the classroom perform better on standardized reading tests. And for students with unique learning needs, the benefits of interacting with the informational text in each weekly edition are especially far reaching- expanding skills in reading, vocabulary, writing, digital literacy and more!

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Enriching, relevant instruction and activities

Many classrooms across the country begin each day with "morning meeting," and there's no better way to spark conversation than with the day's news and weather. Our solution helps you build engaging class routines with easy access to Today's Weather and Breaking News-plus a full range of engaging newspaper features and activities to supplement and enrich instruction all day long.

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A flexible platform that grows with your technology

The platform is both simple and powerful-easily working with the technology and n2y solutions you have now and seamlessly adaptable to the systems you'll have in the future.

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Unlimited access for one service provider to the weekly online newspaper throughout the school year (monthly during the summer)

New current events articles in each issue plus dozens of standards-aligned activities and recurring features

Differentiation to four levels, with text supported by symbols from SymbolStix PRIME, plus one text-only version and the option for text to speech

Access to regular updates and additions

Easy delivery online or in print, and integration with other n2y solutions

I love News2you! I've been using it for nearly 20 years and have seen tremendous growth in my students. One of my favorite stories is about a little guy we had a while back, who had some significant disabilities, and after reading News2you, he returned to school and said, "˜Miss, I saw this on the news with my dad, and we talked about it.' I thought, how wonderful, what a great communication opportunity for their family.

Mickie Korab

Teacher

Lubbock Independent School District, TX

Building Routines Around Today's Weather

Practical strategies for creating classroom morning routines.
Read Article

4 Reasons Why I Recommend News‑2‑You

Accessible, relevant support for students with communication challenges
Read Article

Help Students With Disabilities Meet High Expectations

Maintain high but achievable expectations with your students with disabilities.
Download White Paper

I love News2you! I've been using it for nearly 20 years and have seen tremendous growth in my students. One of my favorite stories is about a little guy we had a while back, who had some significant disabilities, and after reading News2you, he returned to school and said, "˜Miss, I saw this on the news with my dad, and we talked about it.' I thought, how wonderful, what a great communication opportunity for their family.

Mickie Korab

Teacher

Lubbock Independent School District, TX

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Introducing students to News2you helps them meet ELA standards and creates connections to the world.

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The store will not work correctly in the case when cookies are disabled.

JavaScript seems to be disabled in your browser. For the best experience on our site, be sure to turn on Javascript in your browser.

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Founded in 1979, Attainment Company is an independent, family-owned business based in Verona, Wisconsin. We are dedicated to helping people with disabilities succeed at school, work, and life.

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The UDL Guidelines are a tool used in the implementation of Universal Design for Learning, a framework to improve and optimize teaching and learning for all people based on scientific insights into how humans learn. Learn more about the Universal Design for Learning framework from CAST. The UDL Guidelines can be used by educators, curriculum developers, researchers, parents, and anyone else who wants to implement the UDL framework in a learning environment. These guidelines offer a set of concrete suggestions that can be applied to any discipline or domain to ensure that all learners can access and participate in meaningful, challenging learning opportunities.

Reenvisioning the UDL Guidelines

Because the UDL Guidelines are meant to be informed by feedback from the field as well as new research, they have been updated several times in the past. We are in the process of updating the Guidelines once again in our UDL Rising to Equity initiative.

This update will focus specifically on addressing systemic barriers that result in inequitable learning opportunities and outcomes. CAST aims to develop a transparent, inclusive, and community-driven process. If you are interested in collaborating and staying updated on our progress, we invite you to complete a brief survey.

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The UDL Guidelines are a tool used in the implementation of Universal Design for Learning, a framework to improve and optimize teaching and learning for all people based on scientific insights into how humans learn. Learn more about the Universal Design for Learning framework from CAST. The UDL Guidelines can be used by educators, curriculum developers, researchers, parents, and anyone else who wants to implement the UDL framework in a learning environment. These guidelines offer a set of concrete suggestions that can be applied to any discipline or domain to ensure that all learners can access and participate in meaningful, challenging learning opportunities.

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Let's Work California Networking Activity Guide

Designed to increase access to information for Californians with intellectual and developmental disabilities (I/DD), their families and supporters to obtain competitive integrated employment (CIE), Let's Work! is a unique video-based initiative of the California Transition Alliance.

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Designed to increase access to information for Californians with intellectual and developmental disabilities (I/DD), their families and supporters to obtain competitive integrated employment (CIE), Let's Work! is a unique video-based initiative of the California Transition Alliance.

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SEEDS Handout Alternative Pathway to a Diploma Presentation

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SEEDS Handout Alternative Pathway to a Diploma Presentation

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SEEDS Handout Alternative Pathway to a Diploma Presentation

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VIDEO: Alternate Pathway to Diploma - State SELPA Training, 9/15/23

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VIDEO: Alternate Pathway to Diploma - State SELPA Training, 9/15/23

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Alternate Pathway to Diploma - State SELPA Training, 9/15/23

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New pathway to a diploma opens doors for students with disabilities

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For the first time, students with significant cognitive disabilities would be able to earn a high school diploma - a gateway to better jobs.

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Q. During the stay-at-home order due to the coronavirus and the shift to distance learning, must local educational agencies (LEAs) continue to implement their Mathematics Placement Policy pursuant to Education Code (EC) Section 51224.7?

A. The Mathematics Placement Act of 2015 , set forth in EC Section 51224.7, requires that governing boards or bodies of LEAs that serve pupils entering grade nine have a mathematics placement policy in place, with specified elements, for pupils entering grade nine.

The decision of how a LEA is to implement its Mathematics Placement Policy is a local one. During this time of distance learning, each governing board or body of a LEA will need to determine what action(s), if any, to take regarding its Mathematics Placement Policy for mathematics course placement for the 2020-21 school year. As equity is at the heart of the Mathematics Placement Act, it is pertinent to note that each policy is required to have a checkpoint within the first month of the school year.

Q. When does the Algebra I requirement actually go into effect?
A. "Commencing with the 2003-04 school year" refers to the beginning of the school year. The requirement applies to the graduating class of the 2003-04 school year, which includes any students who graduate during the school year.

Q. Do special education students have to meet this requirement?
A. Special education students have to meet the Algebra I/Mathematics I graduation requirement. In order to earn a high school diploma, students in special education are required to pass a course or combination of courses based on all Algebra I or Mathematics I content standards. The Algebra I or Mathematics I content standards are the same for all students; however, some students in special education may require accommodations or modifications to instruction. The individualized education program (IEP) team determines the type of instruction appropriate for each student. For students whose IEP team has determined they are pursuing an alternative diploma pathway as described in 51225.31, they are required to pass coursework for Algebra I or Mathematics 1 coursework aligned to the state standards.

Q. Can a waiver be filed for special education students with regards to the Algebra I/Mathematics I graduation requirement?
A. Under California Education Code ( EC) Section 56101, the governing board of a district or county office of education or a Special Education Local Plan Area may request the State Board of Education (SBE) to grant a waiver for individual students from all or part of the Algebra I/Mathematics I graduation requirement . However, the review and approval of these waivers will be stringent. For additional information, including the online waiver process, see the Specific Waiver Request web page and Waiver Process for the State Board of Education.

Q. Do students who graduate through an adult school program have to meet this requirement?
A. Students who graduate through an adult school program within a K-12 local educational agency must meet the same graduation requirements as any other graduate in the district as stated in EC Section 52504.

Q. Does "complete the course," mean "pass the course?"

A. Completing the course is the same as passing the course.

If a student passes Algebra I or Mathematics I prior to grade nine, is the Algebra I/Mathematics I graduation requirement met?
A. EC Section 51224.5(c) provides that the Algebra I/Mathematics I graduation requirement is met if a student, prior to enrollment in grade nine, completes a course in Algebra I or Mathematics I, or mathematics courses of equal or greater rigor, that is aligned to the content standards adopted by the SBE.

Q. Must students take two mathematics courses in grades nine through twelve?

A. Under EC Section 51225.3(a)(1)(B), students in grades 9 through 12 must take two unique mathematics courses regardless of whether they took Algebra I/Mathematics I prior to grade nine. A local board of education can establish specific mathematics courses, e.g., Mathematics I and Mathematics II, or Algebra I and Geometry, as graduation requirements.

If the time to complete a course is extended, such that only a portion of the standards are covered within a school year and the rest are completed during a second year, the student has only completed ONE course.

Q. Can "course" be interpreted to mean one semester of Mathematics I or Algebra I?
A. The requirement is that the course "meets or exceeds the rigor of Algebra I or Mathematics I that is aligned to the content standards adopted by the state board pursuant to Sections 60605.8 and 60605.11." The intent of the law is for students to complete a full course of Algebra I, Mathematics I, or a mathematics course of equal or greater rigor, as modeled in the Mathematics Framework for California Schools: Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve.

Q. If a student passes the first semester of a one-year Algebra I course and then changes to a two-year Algebra I course, will this meet the Algebra I/Mathematics I graduation requirement?
A. The Algebra I/Mathematics I graduation requirement is only met if a student has completed a full course in Algebra I or Mathematics I, or mathematics course of equal rigor, that is aligned to the content standards adopted by the state board pursuant to EC Sections 60605.8 and 60605.11. All standards of Algebra I or Mathematics I must be addressed in the course(s).

Q. If a student is in an integrated pathway (Mathematics I, Mathematics II, and Mathematics III), what course(s) fulfills the Algebra I graduation requirement?
A. The requirement is that the course "meets or exceeds the rigor of Algebra I or Mathematics I that is aligned to the content standards adopted by the state board pursuant to Sections 60605.8 and 60605.11".

Q. Can a Computer Science course count as a mathematics course for the graduation requirement?

A. UnderEC Section 51225.35, if the governing board of a school district requires more than two courses in mathematics for graduation, the governing board of the school district may award a pupil up to one mathematics course credit for successful completion of a "category C" approved computer science course. As used here, "category C" refers to the "A-G" admission requirements for the California State University and the University of California.

Questions: Professional Learning Support & Monitoring Office | plsmo@cde.ca.gov | 916-323-5847

Last Reviewed: Tuesday, July 11, 2023

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Algebra I/Mathematics I Graduation Requirements

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Frequently asked questions for Algebra I graduation requirements.

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Questions and Answers on Report Cards and Transcripts

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Questions and Answers on Report Cards and Transcripts

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October 2008

Section 504 and Title II - Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (Section 504) prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability in programs or activities receiving Federal financial assistance. Title II of the Americans With Disabilities Act of 1990 (Title II) prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability by public entities, including public elementary and secondary school systems, regardless of receipt of Federal financial assistance. The Office for Civil Rights (OCR) in the United States Department of Education (Department) has enforcement responsibilities under both of these laws. As part of their disability nondiscrimination mandates, Section 504 and Title II require local education agencies (LEAs) to provide a free appropriate public education (FAPE) to qualified individuals with disabilities in their jurisdiction. See 34 C.F.R. § 104.33 and 28 C.F.R. § 35.103(a).

Section 504 and Title II do not have specific provisions addressing report cards or transcripts. The regulations implementing Section 504 and Title II make clear that in general, Section 504 and Title II prohibit recipients and public entities from treating persons differently on the basis of disability in the provision of aid, benefits, or services. However, recipients and public entities may provide a different aid, benefit, or service to persons with disabilities where necessary to provide an aid, benefit, or service that is as effective as that provided to others. See 34 C.F.R. § 104.4(b)(1)(i)-(iv) and 28 C.F.R. § 35.130(b)(1)(i)-(iv). Among the aid, benefits, and services provided to students and parents are report cards and transcripts. Section 504 and Title II do not contain specific confidentiality requirements, but do prohibit different treatment on the basis of disability. This generally would prohibit unnecessary disclosures of disability status to third parties.

Other federal laws are also relevant.

- Through the Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (OSERS), the Department of Education administers the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act ( IDEA), which provides funds to states to assist in making a free appropriate public education (FAPE) available to eligible children with disabilities. IDEA requirements apply to state education agencies (SEAs), school districts, and other public agencies that serve IDEA-eligible children.

IDEA does not have specific provisions on student report cards or transcripts, but does require that the individualized education program (IEP) for a child with a disability include a description of how the child's progress toward meeting the annual goals set forth in his or her IEP will be measured and when periodic reports on the child's progress toward meeting the annual goals will be provided (such as through the use of quarterly or other periodic reports, concurrent with the issuance of report cards). 20 U.S.C. § 1414(d)(1)(A)(i)(III); 34 C.F.R. § 300.320(a)(3). These periodic progress reports may be separate from, or included as part of, the regular report cards of students with disabilities with an IEP. In general, the nondiscrimination principles of Section 504 and Title II would apply to report cards with or without such progress reports.

- The Department's Family Policy Compliance Office implements and enforces the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act ( FERPA). FERPA protects the privacy interests of parents and students with regard to education records, and generally prohibits a policy or practice of disclosing personally identifiable information from education records without consent unless it is subject to a specific exception.

Disclosures of personally identifiable student information, including disability status, are subject to the protections of FERPA and IDEA. Generally, these statutes require consent prior to disclosures of personally identifiable information contained in education records unless a specific exception applies. See 34 C.F.R. §§ 99.30 - 99.31 of the FERPA regulations and 34 C.F.R. § 300.622 of the IDEA regulations. Both student report cards and student transcripts are considered "education records" under FERPA and IDEA.

While the primary focus of the following questions and answers are the requirements under Section 504 and Title II of the ADA, to the extent that IDEA applies, this law is briefly discussed as well.

Yes. Report cards are provided to parents to indicate their child's progress or level of achievement in specific classes, course content, or curriculum. Consistent with this purpose, it would be permissible under Section 504 and Title II for a report card to indicate that a student is receiving special education or related services, as long as the report card informs parents about their child's progress or level of achievement in specific classes, course content, or curriculum. For instance, a report card for a student with a disability may refer to an IEP or a plan for providing services under Section 504 in order to report on the student's progress on the specific goals in the IEP or plan developed under Section 504.

However, the mere designation that a student has an IEP or is receiving a related service, without any meaningful explanation of the student's progress, such as a grade or other evaluative standard established by an LEA and/or SEA, would be inconsistent with IDEA's periodic reporting requirements, as well as with Section 504 and Title II. Under Section 504 and Title II, in general, the LEA must provide students with disabilities report cards that are as informative and effective as the report cards provided for students without disabilities. See 34 C.F.R. § 104.4(b)(1)(i)-(iv) and 28 C.F.R. § 35.130(b)(1)(i)-(iv). Without more meaningful information, a report card that indicates only special education status provides the student with a disability with a benefit or service that is different from and not as informative and effective as the benefit or service that is provided through the report card for students without disabilities.

In general, yes. LEAs frequently distinguish between general education curriculum classes and other types of programs and classes, such as advanced placement, honors, or remedial classes. Making similar distinctions on report cards would be consistent with the general requirements of Section 504 and Title II that individuals with disabilities may not unnecessarily be treated differently than individuals without disabilities.

See 34 C.F.R. § 104.4(b)(1)(i)-(iv) and 28 C.F.R. § 35.130(b)(1)(i)-(iv). Under Section 504 and Title II, in order to properly reflect the progress of a student with a disability in a modified or alternate education curriculum, an LEA may distinguish between special education programs and
services provided under a modified or alternate education curriculum and regular education classes under the general education curriculum on the student's report card. For instance, where a student's IEP calls for a modified tenth grade literature curriculum to be provided through the special education program, it would be appropriate for the report card to indicate that the student's progress was measured based on the modified education curriculum. This distinction also may be achieved by using an asterisk or other symbol meant to reference the modified or alternate education curriculum as long as the statements on the report card, including the asterisks, symbols or other coding, provide an explanation of the student's progress that is as informative and effective as the explanation provided for students without disabilities.

Yes. Accommodations are generally understood to include aids or adjustments that are part of an IEP or plan developed under Section 504 and that enable the student with a disability to learn and demonstrate what the student knows. In general, accommodations do not affect course content or curriculum. Examples may include sign language interpreters in the classroom, the provision of materials in alternate formats, or extra time on tests. Accordingly, to the extent that the use of notations, asterisks, symbols, or other coding on a report card to indicate that a student with a disability received accommodations is part of the information given to parents about their child's progress or level of achievement in specific classes, course content, curriculum, the IEP, or the plan under Section 504, it is permissible under Section 504 and Title II.

Yes. Nothing in Section 504 or Title II requires that LEAs use any particular format or method to provide information to parents about their child's progress or level of achievement in specific classes, course content, curriculum, IEP, or plan under Section 504. As explained above, under Section 504 and Title II, the LEA must provide students with disabilities report cards that are as informative and effective as the report cards provided to students without disabilities. As noted above, there are also IDEA-specific provisions that require periodic reporting.

Yes. Assigning grades (i.e., achievement or "letter" grades) for a child with a disability based on the student's grade level (i.e., year-in-school) standards would not be inconsistent with Section 504 or Title II. Generally, Section 504 and Title II would require that students with and without disabilities in the same regular education classes in the general education curriculum be graded using the same standards. That is, if an LEA assigns grades to nondisabled students participating in regulareducation classes using grade level standards to reflect progress in the general education curriculum, then theLEAwould also use those standards to assign grades to students with disabilities in those same classes. See 34 C.F.R. § 104.4(b)(1)(i)-(iv) and 28 C.F.R. § 35.130(b)(1)(i)-(iv). Nothing in Section 504 or Title II prohibits SEAs and LEAs from deciding how to establish standards to reflect the progress or level of achievement of students with disabilities who are taught using different course content or a modified or alternate education curriculum. To the extent that a student with a disability is not participating in regular education classes, but is receiving modified course content or is being taught under a modified or alternate curriculum, it would be up to the SEA and/or the LEA to determine the standards to be used to measure the student's progress or level of achievement.

No. A student's transcript generally is intended to inform postsecondary institutions or prospective employers of a student's academic credentials and achievements. Information that a student has a disability, or has received special education or related services due to having a disability, does not constitute information about the student's academic credentials and achievements. Under Section 504 and Title II, recipients and public entities may not provide different or separate aid, benefits, or services to individuals with disabilities, or to any class of individuals with disabilities, unless such action is necessary to provide those individuals with aid, benefits, or services that are as effective as those provided to others. See 34 C.F.R. § 104.4(b)(1)(i)-(iv) and 28 C.F.R. § 35.130(b)(1)(i)-(iv). Notations that are used exclusively to identify a student as having a disability or identify education programs for students with disabilities unnecessarily provide these students with different educational benefits or services. Identifying programs as being only for students with disabilities also would be viewed as disclosure of disability status of enrollees and constitutes different treatment on the basis of disability. Therefore, it would be a violation of Section 504 and Title II for a student's transcript to indicate that a student has received special education or a related service or that the student has a disability.

In addition, prohibiting such preadmission and preemployment disclosures is consistent with the Section 504 regulatory requirements that, in general, postsecondary institutions may not make preadmission inquiries as to whether an applicant for admission has a disability prior to admission, 34 C.F.R. § 104.42(b)(4), nor may employers conduct preemployment medical examinations or make preemployment inquiries as to whether an applicant for employment has a disability prior to an offer of employment, 34 C.F.R. § 104.14.

In general, yes. While a transcript may not disclose that a student has a disability or has received special education or related services due to having a disability, a transcript may indicate that a student took classes with a modified or alternate education curriculum. This is consistent with the transcript's purpose of informing postsecondary institutions and prospective employers of a student's academic credentials and achievements. Transcript notations concerning enrollment in different classes, course content, or curriculum by students with disabilities would be consistent with similar transcript designations for classes such as advanced placement, honors, and basic and remedial instruction, which are provided for both students with and without disabilities, and thus would not violate Section 504 or Title II. This distinction may also be achieved by using an asterisk or other symbol meant to reference the modified or alternate education curriculum. These notations, asterisks, or other symbols indicating a modified or alternate education curriculum are permissible when they do not specifically disclose that a student has a disability, are not used for the purpose of identifying programs for students with disabilities, and are consistent with the purpose of a student transcript.

In general, no. Because the use of accommodations generally does not reflect a student's academic credentials and achievement, but does identify the student as having a disability, it would be a violation of Section 504 and Title II for a student's transcript to indicate that the student received accommodations in any classes. For example, a notation indicating the use of Braille materials is not related to whether that student mastered all the tenth grade objectives for her literature class. The only purpose of such a notation is to identify that student as having a visual impairment. Because accommodations are generally understood to include aids and adjustments to enable a student with a disability to learn and demonstrate knowledge, this notation could identify the student as having a disability and therefore constitute different treatment on the basis of disability.

A transcript for a student with a disability may indicate receipt of a certificate of attendance or a similar document, rather than a regular diploma, under certain circumstances. These circumstances are where this does not disclose that a student has received special education or related services, does not otherwise specifically disclose that a student has a disability (for example, because certificates of attendance are available to both students with disabilities and students without disabilities), is not used for the purpose of identifying programs for students with disabilities, and is consistent with the purpose of a student transcript -- to inform postsecondary institutions and prospective employers of a student's academic credentials and achievements.

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civil rights; disabilities; special education; elementary secondary education; high schools; disabled student services; family educational rights and privacy (ferpa); americans with disabilities act; academic adjustments

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Questions and Answers on Report Cards and Transcripts For Students with Disabilities Attending Public Elementary and Secondary Schools

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This letter provides State education agencies and local education agencies with information regarding disclosure of disability on report cards and transcripts for students with disabilities attending public elementary and secondary schools. Dated October 17, 2008.

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Students with Significant Cognitive Disabilities

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Poway Alt Pathway Eligibility and Checklist

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Poway Alt Pathway Eligibility and Checklist

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LACOE Course of Study Exit Criteria.docx

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2022-2023 SDUHSD Alternate Pathways and Curriculum Presentation 11-14-22 (1).pdf

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Alternate Assessments and CCSS

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Strong alternative assessment for students with significant needs, or moderate/nonverbal

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Searching for a better way to assess Special Education students' progress and align their learning with state standards and assessments? Meet SANDI.

The Student Annual Needs Determination Inventory (SANDI) is an assessment tool designed by educators from RCOE's Special Education Unit specifically for students with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities. SANDI is used to improve instruction for all students in RCOE's Special Education programs and is now available through Lakeshore Learning.

Screen capture showing SANDI Online and FAST Online. SANDI Menu: Checklist, Appendices, Results, Student Profile, Standards Reports, Create Report, Download Item-Level Data, Teacher Usage Report, Blank SANDI Checklist, Resources. SANDI Reports: Standards Reports, Demographic Report, Class Report, Teacher Usage Report. FAST Menu: Checklist, Materials, Resources.

The SANDI is a user-friendly, comprehensive summative and formative assessment that provides useful and immediate feedback to both teachers and administrators on each student's strengths and weaknesses. Teachers can use the targeted data provided to write effective IEP goals and lesson plans, to provide access to grade level standards, and to inform instruction for students on the Alternate Assessment. SANDI mirrors the best practices timeline in general education by layering summative assessments with formative assessment and captures student progress electronically across time giving administrators a districtwide data-based system for monitoring and supporting student progress.

We are proud of the RCOE team that developed SANDI and still support districts implementing the assessment. We know SANDI benefits our students by helping provide them with an individualized roadmap for building competence, mastery and independence.

Learn how SANDI can support your students, teachers and schools by contacting RCOE's Special Education Unit or by exploring Lakeshore Learning.

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Student Annual Needs Determination Inventory (SANDI) | Riverside County Office of Education

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Searching for a better way to assess Special Education students' progress and align their learning with state standards and assessments? Meet SANDI. The Student Annual Needs Determination Inventory (SANDI) is an assessment tool designed by educators from RCOE's Special Education Unit specifically for students with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities.

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CAA Blueprints
http://www.cde.ca.gov/ta/tg/ca/altassessment.asp

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National Collaborative on Workforce and Disability

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National Collaborative on Workforce and Disability

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http://www.ncwd-youth.info/guideposts

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California Alternate Assessments for ELA and Math

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California Alternate Assessments for ELA and Math

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Program Overview

The California Alternate Assessments (CAAs) for ELA and mathematics are part of the California Assessment of Student Performance and Progress (CAASPP) System. The purpose of the CAAs is to measure what students know and can do. These measures help identify and address gaps in knowledge or skills early so students can receive the support they need.

The CAAs are aligned with alternate achievement standards-called the Core Content Connectors-and linked to the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) for ELA and mathematics.

The following links provide additional information about the program:

CAASPP - CalEdFacts web page provides a more detailed overview of the tests.

Assessment System Chart webpage lists the tests of the California Assessment System by subject, content, test name, test type, student participant groups, grade levels, and testing window timeframe.

California Assessment Timeline (PDF) California Assessment Timeline shows the test windows for each assessment throughout the year.

Resources and Communication Material
Talking to Parents About the CAA (PPTX; 15MB) Resources for Communicating with Parents CAA for ELA/Math Fact Sheet (PDF) Guidance for individualized education program (IEP) teams Alternate Assessment Decision Confirmation Worksheet (PDF) Accessibility Resources Prioritized ELA Connectors and Essential Understandings: Reading (DOC) Prioritized ELA Connectors and Essential Understandings: Writing (DOC) Prioritized Mathematics Connectors and Essential Understandings (DOC)
Test Administration
Test Administration Coordination Site Student Accessibility Resources Talking to Educators About the CAA (PPTX; 35MB)
Scores and Results Reporting
CAASPP Student Score Report Options
Test Results for California's Assessments Website - For directions on how to view results, go to Quick Reference Guides.

Laws, Regulations, and Requirements
California Education Code Section 60640 Federal Listening/Speaking Waiver (PDF) CAASPP Regulations The 1.0 Percent Threshold on Alternate Assessments
Technical Documents
CAA Blueprint for ELA (DOC) CAA Blueprint for Mathematics, revised November 2016 (DOC)
Questions: California Assessment of Student Performance and Progress Office | CalAlt@cde.ca.gov | 916-445-8765

Last Reviewed: Tuesday, October 10, 2023

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California Alternate Assessments for ELA and Math

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California's statewide alternate assessments for English language arts/literacy (ELA) and mathematics for students with the most significant cognitive disabilities.

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Top 10 Tips for Youth Engagement - from YOUTH! - NTACT:C

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From the mouths of youth with disabilities....their Top 10 Tips to engage youth!

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Engaging with Families Training Module - NTACT:C

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Think of the learning map model as a common road map. The learning map model illustrates the connections among the knowledge, skills, and understandings necessary to meet academic content standards. Although students may share a common destination, they often begin their journeys from different points on the map. The learning map model helps parents and educators guide students to success by showing them where a student is now, where the student has been, and where the student is going.

The basis of all DLM assessments, the learning map model was developed by teams of researchers through extensive review and synthesis of research literature. It undergoes continual review and refinement by experts in academic content, special education, and cognition.

Points on a Map

The learning map model shows individual concepts and skills in points called nodes. Good instruction, however, requires more than simply teaching individual facts or skills. Effective teachers need to understand how knowledge and skills are connected. That is why the learning map model also includes many connections among its nodes -- to show different ways students reach the same goals.

As of April 2016, the English language arts portion of the learning map model has 2,089 nodes, with 5,045 connections. The mathematics portion of the learning map model contains 2,399 nodes and 5,200 connections. There are 150 foundational nodes associated with both subject areas. The DLM consortium is developing a new portion of the learning map model for science.

Students who take DLM assessments are instructed and assessed on Essential Elements. Essential Elements are grade-specific expectations about what students with the most significant cognitive disabilities should know and be able to do. The Essential Elements relate to college and career readiness standards for students in the general population.

Every Essential Element has linkage levels, which are small collections of nodes. Unlike traditional assessments, DLM testlets measure achievement with the help of linkage levels.

Each Target linkage level aligns most closely with the knowledge, skills, and understandings described by the corresponding Essential Element. The Target level is the standard linkage level for assessment. In English language arts and mathematics, students who have not yet reached the Target may instead be assessed at a linkage level that precedes the Target. These additional linkage levels are, in order of least to most complex, Initial Precursor, Distal Precursor, and Proximal Precursor. Students who master the Target may test at a Successor linkage level.

Science Essential Elements currently have three linkage levels. From least to most complex they are Initial, Precursor, and Target.

The graphic below is a mini-map. Mini-maps have been developed from the learning map model for each assessed Essential Element. They include the linkage levels used to assess the Essential Element and show pathways between the linkage levels.
Using Mini-Maps to Plan Instruction (pdf)
PDF containing information on how to use-mini maps to plan instruction
Keywords for search: mini map minimap

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Discover basis of all DLM assessments, the learning map model and see a sample DLM mini-map.

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Accommodations and modifications are individualized supports used to help a student access the curriculum, by providing support in an area of unique need resulting from a disability. Accommodations and modifications are usually documented on a 504 plan or IEP; however, teachers may provide accommodations informally in their classroom.

Additionally, educators should understand how provision of modifications affect a student's grades, ability to earn a diploma, etc. Educators who implement accommodations and modifications should be knowledgeable about their district policy, and contact their administrators for clarification or with questions, as procedures change from district to district.

The information included on the PENT website is intended to be informational only.

Difference Between Accommodations and Modifications

Type

Definition

Examples

Accommodation
An accommodation is a change in the course, standard, test preparation, location, timing, scheduling, expectation, student response, or other attributes that provides access for a student with a disability to participate in a course, standard or test, and it does not fundamentally alter or lower the standard or expectation of the course, standard or test.

Longer time for tests

Use of audio book

Use of technology to type (e.g., computer, tablet, etc.)

Modification

A modification is a change in the course, standard, test preparation, location, timing, scheduling, expectation, student response, or other attribute that provides access for a student with a disability to participate in a course, standard or test, and it does fundamentally alter or lower the standard or expectation of the course, standard or test

Reading a shorter or alternate text

Completing a different homework assignment

Test covers different standards.

Examples

Type of Curriculum Adaptations

Examples

Accommodation or Modification?

Quantity: Adapt the number of items that the student is expected to accomplish.

Reduce the number of social studies terms a learner must learn at any one time

Add more practice activities or worksheets

Accommodation

Time: Adapt the time allotted and allowed for learning, task completion, or testing.

Individualize a timeline for completing a task

Pace learning differently (increase or decrease)

Allow extra time on test

Accommodation

Level of Support: Increase the amount of personal assistance to keep the student on task or to reinforce or prompt use of specific skills.

Utilize peer buddies, teaching assistants, peer tutors, or cross-age tutors

Specify how to interact with the student

Accommodation

Input: Adapt the way instruction is delivered to the student.

Visual aids

Enlarge text

Use concrete examples

Hands-on activities

Cooperative groups

Pre-teach key concepts or terms before the lesson

Accommodation

Setting: Adapt where the learner completes work or tasks.

Complete classwork in a quiet room

Test in a small group setting

Accommodation

Organization: Inclusion of additional supports to help student manage workload, etc.

Use a timer to monitor length of work period

Planner to schedule upcoming assignments

Accommodation

Difficulty: Adapt the skill level, problem type, or the rules on how the learner may approach the work.

Use of a calculator to figure math problems

Simplify task directions

Change rules to accommodate learner needs

Accommodation or Modification - depends on how used and/or what expected learning outcome is.

Output: Adapt how the student can respond to instruction.

Verbal response instead of writing

Use of a communication book to point to answers

Create and present a power point with content, instead of writing an essay

Use of a spell checker

Accommodation or Modification - depends on how used and/or what expected learning outcome is.

Alternate Goals: Adapt the goals or outcome expectations while using the same materials. When consistently utilized, this is only for students with moderate to severe disabilities.

In a social studies lesson, student locates colors of the states on the map while other students learn to locate each state and name the capital

Modification

Functional Curriculum: Provide different instruction and materials to meet a learner's individual goals. When consistently utilized, this is only for students with moderate to severe disabilities.

During a language lesson a student is learning toileting skills with an aide

Student learns how to use money in the community

Modification

Substantially altered by Diana Browning Wright with permission from Jeff Sprague, Ph.D. from an original by DeSchenes, C., Ebeling, D., & Sprague, J. (1994). Adapting Curriculum & Instruction in Inclusive Classrooms: A Teachers Desk Reference. Publication. Adapted here for accessability.

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Accommodations and modifications are individualized supports used to help a student access the curriculum, by providing support in an area of unique need resulting from a disability. Accommodations and modifications are usually documented on a 504 plan or IEP; however, teachers may provide accommodations informally in their classroom.

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Transition PlanningTransition planning is used to describe the very intentional, organized and coordinated process of guiding young people with disabilities with education, experiences, supports and services to help them have successful and meaningful lives beyond high school. It is planning that begins with the end in mind. Although transition planning and services are mandated for both education agencies (through IDEA)…

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The Mission: of the California Community of Practice: To improve transition services for youth and their families in the state of California through strategic planning and advocacy conducted to identify and address community, district and state level issues and services regarding transition education and services for youth with disabilities

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CIE Toolkit - California Health and Human Services

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CIE Toolkit Department of Rehabilitation logo California Department of Education logo Department of Developmental Services logo About The CIE Toolkit is designed to provide tools and resources on CIE services and supports available to individuals with intellectual disabilities and developmental disabilities (ID/DD) and their families.

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Designed to increase access to information for Californians with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (I/DDs), their families and supporters to obtain competitive integrated employment (CIE), Let’s Work! is an initiative of the California Transition Alliance. Funded by the California State Co…

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START HERE-ALTERNATE ASSESSMENT DECISION MAKING TOOL FOR IEP TEAMS

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START HERE-ALTERNATE ASSESSMENT DECISION MAKING TOOL FOR IEP TEAMS

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Sample 51225.31 Eligibility Notification Letter

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Sample 51225.31 Eligibility Notification Letter

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Supporting Inclusive Practices provides statewide technical assistance to educational communities in pursuit of inclusive & equitable systems.

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This tool has been developed as part of the Inclusive School Communities Project, funded by the National Disability Insurance Agency. The project is led by JFA Purple Orange.

Introduction

"Inclusive education involves valuing and facilitating the full participation and belonging of everyone in all aspects of our education communities and systems." 1 Schools want guidance on how to establish and maintain an inclusive school culture that reflects inclusive values and is upheld by inclusive policies and practices. This tool is designed to assist school leaders and staff to reflect on the meaning of school culture. It presents ways in which schools can establish and sustain an inclusive school culture through building community and establishing inclusive values.

This tool considers inclusive culture at the whole of school level (rather than in individual classrooms) and looks at how school leaders can 'set the tone' for inclusive education.

Supporting inclusion school-wide and beyond into the school community means that students, families, friends, neighbourhoods, businesses and services all contribute to the inclusive culture and wellbeing of the school.

Ideas

The idea we are exploring here is that it takes intentional effort and measures to create an inclusive school culture and an environment embedded in inclusive education. It may require an overall shift in thinking around every aspect of the school. Setting up an inclusive school culture requires commitment and robust leadership from school leaders who play a key role in setting inclusive values and practices. The message needs to be strong, consistent and upheld by everyone.

What is School Culture?

Nicole Eredics, inclusion classroom teacher and author of 'Inclusion in action: Practical strategies to modify your curriculum', defines school culture as "the collective norms, attitudes, ideals and behaviours that characterize a school and are demonstrated by school leadership, teachers, students and the larger community." 2 In an inclusive school, every student regardless of ability and background is included in every aspect of school life - in general education classes and in school events, activities, and excursions.

Indicators for Creating Inclusive Cultures

The Index for Inclusion (schools' version) has been translated and/or adapted for use in many countries around the world and is a set of materials for inclusive school development. According to the Index for Inclusion, inclusive school culture involves building community and establishing inclusive values 3. The indicators of building community are:
* Everyone is made to feel welcome.
* Students help each other.
* Staff collaborate with each other.
* Staff and students treat one another with respect.
* There is a partnership between staff and parents/carers.
* Staff and governors work well together.
* All local communities are involved in the school 4.

The indicators of establishing inclusive values are:
* There are high expectations for all students.
* Staff, governors, students and parents/carers share a philosophy of inclusion.
* Students are equally valued.
* Staff and students treat one another as human beings as well as occupants of a 'role'.
* Staff seek to remove barriers to learning and participation in all aspects of the school.
* The school strives to minimise discriminatory practice. 5

Inclusive Schools Start with 'Yes'

'Gatekeeping' is when a limitation is placed on students' access to general educational environments, or participation in the broader activities within the school; it can take many forms including when mainstream educational institutions steer students living with disability to a segregated setting (such as a special school or special education unit) 6. Clearly, inclusive schools do not engage in gatekeeping and have policies and staff training in place to avoid gatekeeping, which is illegal under the Disability Discrimination Act (1992). Inclusive schools welcome all school-age children regardless of ability or diversity and provide a rich and meaningful education for all children in general education classrooms with appropriate modifications and supports. According to Eredics, inclusive schools start by saying 'yes' and the premise is:
* 'Yes, we will educate every child together as peers.'
* 'Yes, every child is welcome and a valued member of our school.'
* 'Yes, we will adapt and modify our approach so that every child has a chance to learn.' 7

Action

According to All Means All, the nationwide multi-stakeholder alliance for inclusive education,
Schools that have inclusive school cultures and adopt structures, systems and methodologies that are aimed at responding to the diverse needs of ALL its students - like "universal design for learning" and differentiated teaching - generally don't need to make as many adjustments to accommodate students with disability or diverse learning needs because they have already done the work to establish a school climate, premises and processes that assume their participation. 8

Schools want guidance on how to establish and maintain an inclusive school culture that reflects inclusive values and is upheld by inclusive policies and practices.

Eredics proposes several ways to cultivate an inclusive school culture:
* the school's mission statements
* the language used in the school building and documents
* creating thoughtful school schedules and
* accessible events, activities, excursions and celebrations of achievements. 9

The following is a summary of Eredics' ideas for setting up inclusive school cultures, however further information can be found in her book 'Inclusion in action: Practical strategies to modify your curriculum'.
School staff are encouraged to assess whether these practices are in operation at their site and whether they reflect inclusive values.

School's Mission Statements

A clearly written and well-worded mission statement is a useful tool for reinforcing an inclusive school culture. 10 These statements usually set out the values, goals and purpose of the school. It is best practice for staff, students, families and governors to be involved in co-designing the mission statement ensuring all school community members feel a sense of ownership for the mission. The mission statement should also be well-known and visible being at the forefront of people's minds and guiding actions across the school. Schools need to induct and train all educators and administrative staff about their mission, so all staff are familiar with it and understand its relevance to their work. School staff, students and families should be able to explain the school vision and how it informs the way the school operates.

Language

A commitment to inclusive language is an important attribute of a modern, diverse and inclusive school.
Inclusive language is language that is free from words, phrases or tones that reflect prejudiced, stereotyped or discriminatory views of particular people or groups. It is also language that doesn't deliberately or inadvertently exclude people from being seen as part of a group. (p. 3) 11

Inclusive language is understood, accepted, and used consistently across the school and broader community.
In their 'Inclusive language guidelines', the Tasmanian Department of Education states,

There is no place in written or spoken communication for uninformed, prejudiced, stereotypical or insensitive references to people based on their actual or perceived characteristics or membership of particular groups. (p. 3) 12

Inclusive schools ensure their staff, students and families understand their responsibility to use inclusive language, that shows courtesy and respect for diversity, in all forms of communication.

It is useful for staff and students to discuss what is and isn't inclusive language; this includes translating complex concepts and ideas to plain English.

An approach used by a government primary school in the Inclusive School Communities Project was getting students and staff to define and describe 'inclusion' so the whole school community had a shared understanding of inclusion. The idea is that the expressions used by students and staff to explain inclusion are displayed broadly around the school in classrooms and on building walls.

Thoughtful School Schedules

The Office for Standards in Education, Children's Services and Skills in the UK reported that development towards effective inclusion was frustrated by rigid timetabling, inflexible staffing and lack of inventiveness in some schools. 13
Inclusive schools have flexible timetabling ensuring it suits all students at the school.

The paper 'Timetabling and other practical ideas: Some possibilities arising from the Review of the syllabuses for the senior phase of learning', commissioned by the Queensland Studies Authority, discusses the importance of flexible timetabling:
The positive view is that the flexibility not only provides opportunities for students, it also has the potential to better cater for teachers' needs. It is important to take a positive view when developing timetabling models, and to take the working patterns of teachers strongly into account. (p. 28) 14

The 'Good teaching: Inclusive teaching for students with disability' guide, published by the Tasmanian Department of Education, recommends 'Use a whole class visual timetable to represent schedules and programmes' and 'Use individual visual timetables for students who need them' (p. 19). 15 The guide also suggests that timetables in both words and pictures caters for all students. 16

Accessible Events, Activities, Excursions and Celebrations of Achievements

Inclusive culture is supported through schoolwide opportunities, events and activities for students. 17 "In an inclusive school, events and activities appeal to a diverse group of students and are made accessible to everyone." 18 These events and activities provide students with opportunities to assume leadership roles and demonstrate skills and talents that may not be apparent in classroom settings.
Events and activities also provide opportunities for staff, students and families to come together building connection and community.
The most inclusive school communities are ones that encourage parents, students, and teachers to come together and give back to the community. From participating in events to supporting local causes, these activities will bring everyone closer together, and build a sense of belonging. 19

School leaders are encouraged to run the 'inclusion radar' over every school event and activity to ensure all participants are genuinely included and their access and engagement needs are met. Questions to prompt this thinking:
* Can everyone attend, participate and contribute?
* Are there any individuals or groups who we are excluding or who may find it harder to participate?
* Do we have an accessible venue and equipment and appropriate supports for all participants?

"Nurturing an inclusive school community is about promoting a shared vision of student success - where every child receives the best chance to grow and achieve their goals." 20

There are other ways for educators, leaders, teachers, and parents, to encourage an inclusive and supportive school community. Some of the ideas suggested by SkoolBag, Australia's leading school communication app, are introduced below:

Effective Communication and Opportunities for Dialogue

"One of the most important ways to build a strong and supportive school network is to communicate: communicate effectively, communicate promptly, and communicate often." 21 Clear, open, honest and timely communication among school leaders and staff, staff and students, staff and families, and between students is vital to a positive school climate. Students should feel safe to speak up to school leaders and staff when something isn't going well at school or they would like something to be different.

School leadership will need to put effort into communication channels and norms, including the use of digital platforms and apps for communication between parents and teachers. Schools will also need to address any considerations, concerns, and conflicts in a fair and timely manner. A school that welcomes input and dialogue ensures everyone feels safe, included, and able to have their voice heard. 22 Inclusive schools provide their staff, students and families with formal opportunities to provide their feedback and suggestions, ensuring this is listened to and acted upon.

Share and Celebrate Successes

Acknowledging the efforts and achievements (academic and non-academic) of students, as well as staff, contributes to creating a positive school culture that is based on strengths and growth mindset. "Celebrate the good times, whether big or small, and encourage everyone in the community to share in these moments together." 23 This can be done through school newsletters, assemblies, merit awards, class parties, special lunches, and family events that bring staff, students and families together to connect and share. Inclusive schools support and celebrate students' progress and success including when they engage in actions that enact school values.

Student voice and leadership is another key practice of inclusive and supportive school culture. Ideas to engage and empower students to contribute to their school communities are explored in the tool titled 'Students Leading Inclusive Schools'.

More Information

Many of the ideas discussed in this tool are drawn from 'Inclusion in Action: Practical Strategies to Modify your Curriculum' by inclusion classroom teacher, Nicole Eredics. https://products.brookespublishing.com/Inclusion-in-Action-P1050.aspx
Fact Sheet 4 - Transformation to inclusive education: the next steps published by Children and Young People with Disability Australia. https://www.cyda.org.au/inclusion-in-education
'Good Teaching: Inclusive Teaching for Students with Disability', published September 2015, by the Tasmanian Department of Education, as part of a Good Teaching suite of resources. This publication has been developed for teachers who have not worked with students with disability. It is a practical support resource to give them more confidence in this area. https://publicdocumentcentre.education.tas.gov.au/Documents/Good-Teaching-Inclusive-Teaching-for-Students-with-Disability.pdf
'Inclusive Language Guidelines', published December 2019, by the Tasmanian Department of Education. https://publicdocumentcentre.education.tas.gov.au/Documents/Guidelines-for-Inclusive-Language.pdf

Acknowledgement

This tool was written and edited by JFA Purple Orange.

References

1 Cologon, K. (2019). Towards inclusive education: A necessary process of transformation. Children and Young People with Disability Australia (CYDA). https://www.cyda.org.au/inclusion-in-education
2 Eredics, N. (2018). Inclusion in action: Practical Strategies to modify your curriculum (5th edition). Brookes Publishing Company.
3 Booth, T., & Ainscow, M. (2000). Index for Inclusion: developing learning and participation in schools. Centre for Studies on Inclusive Education. http://www.csie.org.uk/resources/inclusion-index-explained.shtml
4 Ibid
5 Ibid
6 Education and Employment References Committee (2016). Access to real learning: The impact of policy, funding and culture on students with disability. Commonwealth of Australia. https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Education_and_Employment/students_with_disability/Report
7 Eredics, N. (2018). Inclusion in action: Practical Strategies to modify your curriculum (5th edition). Brookes Publishing Company.
8 All Means All (no date). Inclusion Toolkit for Educators. http://allmeansall.org.au/for-educators/
9 Eredics, N. (2018). Inclusion in action: Practical Strategies to modify your curriculum (5th edition). Brookes Publishing Company.
10 Ibid
11 Tasmanian Government (2019). Inclusive language guidelines. Department for Education. https://publicdocumentcentre.education.tas.gov.au/Documents/Guidelines-for-Inclusive-Language.pdf
12 Ibid
13 Office for Standards in Education, Children's Services and Skills (OFSTED) (2006). Inclusion: does it matter where pupils are taught? https://dera.ioe.ac.uk/6001/1/Inclusion%20does%20it%20matter%20where%20pupils%20are%20taught%20(pdf%20format)%20.pdf
14 Middleton, M. (2007). Timetabling and other practical ideas: Some possibilities arising from the Review of the syllabuses for the senior phase of learning. Queensland Studies Authority.
15 Department of Education, Tasmania (2015). Good teaching: Inclusive teaching for students with disability. Learnings First. https://publicdocumentcentre.education.tas.gov.au/Documents/Good-Teaching-Inclusive-Teaching-for-Students-with-Disability.pdf
16 Ibid
17 Eredics, N. (2018). Inclusion in action: Practical Strategies to modify your curriculum (5th edition). Brookes Publishing Company.
18 Ibid
19 Thomas, M. (2018). 5 ways you can encourage an inclusive school community. SkoolBag. https://www.moqproducts.com.au/skoolbag/blog/how-to-foster-a-sense-of-community/
20 Thomas, M. (2018). 5 ways you can encourage an inclusive school community. SkoolBag. https://www.moqproducts.com.au/skoolbag/blog/how-to-foster-a-sense-of-community/
21 Ibid
22 Ibid
23 Ibid

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Inclusive School Communities - Inclusive School Culture

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This tool is designed to assist school leaders and staff to reflect on the meaning of school culture. It presents ways in which schools can establish and sustain an inclusive school culture through building community and establishing inclusive values.

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Promoting General Education Teachers as IEP Team Members PADLET

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Promoting General Education Teachers as IEP Team Members PADLET

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Creating Effective and Sustainable School Culture Padlet

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Creating Effective and Sustainable School Culture Padlet

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Reproduction and ordering information
U.S. Department of Education
Arne Duncan
Secretary

Office for Civil Rights
Russlynn Ali
Assistant Secretary

First published March 2007. Reprinted March 2011.

U.S. Department of Education
Office for Civil Rights
Washington, D.C. 20202

March 2011
Contents Introduction Frequently Asked Questions Introduction Do you know what is in store for students with disabilities who graduate from your school and head off to postsecondary education? Do you have the information you need to advise them on what to expect in postsecondary education?
For students with disabilities, a big factor in their successful transition from high school to postsecondary education is accurate knowledge about their civil rights. The purpose of this guide is to provide high school educators with answers to questions students with disabilities may have as they get ready to move to the postsecondary education environment.

This guide was developed by the U.S. Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights (OCR). OCR has enforcement responsibilities under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (Section 504), as amended, and Title II of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, as amended, (Title II), which prohibit discrimination on the basis of disability. Every school district and nearly every college and university in the United States is subject to one or both of these laws, which have similar requirements. Private postsecondary institutions that do not receive federal financial assistance are not subject to Section 504 or Title II. They are, however, subject to Title III of the Americans with Disabilities Act, which is enforced by the U.S. Department of Justice and which prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability by private entities that are not private clubs or religious entities.

This guide also makes reference to Part B of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), which provides funds to states to assist in making a free appropriate public education (FAPE) available to eligible children with disabilities. IDEA requirements apply to state education agencies, school districts and other public agencies that serve IDEA-eligible children. Institutions of postsecondary education have no legal obligations under the IDEA.

Similarly, this guide references the state Vocational Rehabilitation (VR) Services Program, authorized by the Rehabilitation Act, which provides funds to state VR agencies to assist eligible individuals with disabilities in obtaining employment. State VR agencies provide a wide range of employment-related services, including services designed to facilitate the transition of eligible students with disabilities from school to post-school activities.

In preparing this guide, we have highlighted the significant differences between the rights and responsibilities of students with disabilities in the high school setting and the rights and responsibilities these students will have once they are in the postsecondary education setting. Following a set of frequently asked questions, we have provided some practical suggestions that high school educators can share with students to facilitate their successful transition to postsecondary education.
Frequently Asked Questions The Admissions Process 1. Are students with disabilities entitled to changes in standardized testing conditions on entrance exams for institutions of postsecondary education?
It depends. In general, tests may not be selected or administered in a way that tests the disability rather than the achievement or aptitude of the individual. In addition, federal law requires changes to the testing conditions that are necessary to allow a student with a disability to participate as long as the changes do not fundamentally alter the examination or create undue financial or administrative burdens. Although some institutions of postsecondary education may have their own entrance exams, many use a student's score on commercially available tests. In general, in order to request one or more changes in standardized testing conditions, which test administrators may also refer to as "testing accommodations", the student will need to contact the institution of postsecondary education or the entity that administers the exam and provide documentation of a disability and the need for a change in testing conditions. The issue of documentation is discussed below. Examples of changes in testing conditions that may be available include, but are not limited to:

Braille;

Large print;

Fewer items on each page;

Tape recorded responses;

Responses on the test booklet;

Frequent breaks;

Extended testing time;

Testing over several sessions;

Small group setting;

Private room;

Preferential seating; and

The use of a sign language interpreter for spoken directions.

2. Are institutions of postsecondary education permitted to ask an applicant if he or she has a disability before an admission decision is made?

Generally, institutions of postsecondary education are not permitted to make what is known as a "preadmission inquiry" about an applicant's disability status. Preadmission inquiries are permitted only if the institution of postsecondary education is taking remedial action to correct the effects of past discrimination or taking voluntary action to overcome the effects of conditions that limited the participation of individuals with disabilities.

Examples of impermissible preadmission inquiries include: Are you in good health? Have you been hospitalized for a medical condition in the past five years? Institutions of postsecondary education may inquire about an applicant's ability to meet essential program requirements provided that such inquiries are not designed to reveal disability status. For example, if physical lifting is an essential requirement for a degree program in physical therapy, an acceptable question that could be asked is, With or without reasonable accommodation, can you lift 25 pounds? After admission, in response to a student's request for "academic adjustments," reasonable modifications or auxiliary aids and services, institutions of postsecondary education may ask for documentation regarding disability status.

3. May institutions of postsecondary education deny an applicant admission because he or she has a disability?

No. If an applicant meets the essential requirements for admission, an institution may not deny that applicant admission simply because he or she has a disability, nor may an institution categorically exclude an applicant with a particular disability as not being qualified for its program. For instance, an institution may not automatically assume that all applicants with hearing or visual impairments would be unable to meet the essential eligibility requirements of its music program. An institution may, however, require an applicant to meet any essential technical or academic standards for admission to, or participation in, the institution and its program. An institution may deny admission to any student, disabled or not, who does not meet essential requirements for admission or participation.

4. Are institutions obligated to identify students with disabilities?

No. Institutions do not have a duty to identify students with disabilities. Students in institutions of postsecondary education are responsible for notifying institution staff of their disability should they need academic adjustments. High schools, in contrast, have an obligation to identify students within their jurisdiction who have a disability and who may be entitled to services.

5. Are students obligated to inform institutions that they have a disability?

No. A student has no obligation to inform an institution of postsecondary education that he or she has a disability; however, if the student wants an institution to provide an academic adjustment or assign the student to accessible housing or other facilities, or if a student wants other disability-related services, the student must identify himself or herself as having a disability. The disclosure of a disability is always voluntary. For example, a student who has a disability that does not require services may choose not to disclose his or her disability
Post-Admission: Documentation of a Disability 6. What are academic adjustments and auxiliary aids and services?
Academic adjustments are defined in the Section 504 regulations at 34 C.F.R. § 104.44(a) as:

[S]uch modifications to [the] academic requirements as are necessary to ensure that such requirements do not discriminate or have the effect of discriminating, on the basis of [disability] against a qualified ... applicant or student [with a disability]. Academic requirements that the recipient can demonstrate are essential to the instruction being pursued by such student or to any directly related licensing requirement will not be regarded as discriminatory within the meaning of this section. Modifications may include changes in the length of time permitted for the completion of degree requirements, substitution of specific courses required for the completion of degree requirements, and adaptation of the manner in which specific courses are conducted.

Academic adjustments also may include a reduced course load, extended time on tests and the provision of auxiliary aids and services. Auxiliary aids and services are defined in the Section 504 regulations at 34 C.F.R. § 104.44(d), and in the Title II regulations at 28 C.F.R. § 35.104. They include note-takers, readers, recording devices, sign language interpreters, screen-readers, voice recognition and other adaptive software or hardware for computers, and other devices designed to ensure the participation of students with impaired sensory, manual or speaking skills in an institution's programs and activities. Institutions are not required to provide personal devices and services such as attendants, individually prescribed devices, such as eyeglasses, readers for personal use or study, or other services of a personal nature, such as tutoring. If institutions offer tutoring to the general student population, however, they must ensure that tutoring services also are available to students with disabilities. In some instances, a state VR agency may provide auxiliary aids and services to support an individual's postsecondary education and training once that individual has been determined eligible to receive services under the VR program.

7. In general, what kind of documentation is necessary for students with disabilities to receive academic adjustments from institutions of postsecondary education?

Institutions may set their own requirements for documentation so long as they are reasonable and comply with Section 504 and Title II. It is not uncommon for documentation standards to vary from institution to institution; thus, students with disabilities should research documentation standards at those institutions that interest them. A student must provide documentation, upon request, that he or she has a disability, that is, an impairment that substantially limits a major life activity and that supports the need for an academic adjustment. The documentation should identify how a student's ability to function is limited as a result of her or his disability. The primary purpose of the documentation is to establish a disability in order to help the institution work interactively with the student to identify appropriate services. The focus should be on whether the information adequately documents the existence of a current disability and need for an academic adjustment.
8. Who is responsible for obtaining necessary testing to document the existence of a disability?
The student. Institutions of postsecondary education are not required to conduct or pay for an evaluation to document a student's disability and need for an academic adjustment, although some institutions do so. If a student with a disability is eligible for services through the state VR Services program, he or she may qualify for an evaluation at no cost. High school educators can assist students with disabilities in locating their state VR agency at http://rsa.ed.gov (click on "Info about RSA," then "Resources," then "State and Local Government Employment Resources," then "Vocational Rehabilitation Offices"). If students with disabilities are unable to find other funding sources to pay for necessary evaluation or testing for postsecondary education, they are responsible for paying for it themselves.

At the elementary and secondary school levels, a school district's duty to provide a free appropriate public education (FAPE) encompasses the responsibility to provide, at no cost to the parents, an evaluation of suspected areas of disability for any of the district's students who is believed to be in need of special education or related aids and services. School districts are not required under Section 504 or Title II to conduct evaluations that are for the purpose of obtaining academic adjustments once a student graduates and goes on to postsecondary education.

9. Is a student's most recent individualized education program (IEP) or Section 504 plan sufficient documentation to support the existence of a disability and the need for an academic adjustment in a postsecondary setting?

Generally, no. Although an IEP or Section 504 plan may help identify services that have been used by the student in the past, they generally are not sufficient documentation to support the existence of a current disability and need for an academic adjustment from an institution of postsecondary education. Assessment information and other material used to develop an IEP or Section 504 plan may be helpful to document a current disability or the need for an academic adjustment or auxiliary aids and services. In addition, a student receiving services under Part B of the IDEA must be provided with a summary of his or her academic achievements and functional performance that includes recommendations on how to assist in meeting the student's postsecondary goals. This information may provide helpful information about disability and the need for an academic adjustment.

10. What can high school personnel, such as school psychologists and counselors, transition specialists, special education staff and others, do to assist students with disabilities with documentation requirements?

By the time most students with disabilities are accepted into a postsecondary institution, they are likely to have a transition plan and-or to be receiving transition services, which may include evaluations and services provided by the state VR agency. High school personnel can help a student with disabilities to identify and address the specific documentation requirements of the postsecondary institution that the student will be attending. This may include assisting the student to identify existing documentation in her or his education records that would satisfy the institution's criteria, such as evaluation reports and the summary of the student's academic achievement and functional performance. School personnel should be aware that institutions of postsecondary education typically do not accept brief conclusory statements for which no supporting evidence is offered as sufficient documentation of a disability and the need for an academic adjustment. School personnel should also be aware that some colleges may delay or deny services if the diagnosis or the documentation is unclear.
11. Will a medical diagnosis from a treating physician help to document disability?
A diagnosis of impairment alone does not establish that an individual has a disability within the meaning of Section 504 or Title II. Rather, the impairment must substantially limit a major life activity, or the individual must have a record of such an impairment or be regarded as having such an impairment. A diagnosis from a treating physician, along with information about how the disability affects the student, may suffice. As noted above, institutions of postsecondary education may set their own requirements for documentation so long as they are reasonable and comply with Section 504 and Title II.

12. If it is clear that a student has a disability, why does an institution need documentation?

Students who have the same disability may not necessarily require the same academic adjustment. Section 504 and Title II require that institutions of postsecondary education make individualized determinations regarding appropriate academic adjustments for each individual student. If the student's disability and need for an academic adjustment are obvious, less documentation may be necessary.

13. If an institution thinks that the documentation is insufficient, how will the student know?

If the documentation a student submitted for the institution's consideration does not meet the institution's requirements, an official should notify the student in a timely manner of what additional documentation the student needs to provide. As noted above, a student may need a new evaluation in order to provide documentation of a current disability.

Post-Admission: Obtaining Services

14. Must institutions provide every academic adjustment a student with a disability wants?

It depends. Institutions are not required to provide an academic adjustment that would alter or waive essential academic requirements. They also do not have to provide an academic adjustment that would fundamentally alter the nature of a service, program or activity or result in undue financial or administrative burdens considering the institution's resources as a whole. For example, an appropriate academic adjustment may be to extend the time a student with a disability is allotted to take tests, but an institution is not required to change the substantive content of the tests. In addition, an institution is not required to make modifications that would result in undue financial or administrative burdens. Public institutions are required to give primary consideration to the auxiliary aid or service that the student requests, but can opt to provide alternative aids or services if they are effective. They can also opt to provide an effective alternative if the requested auxiliary aid or service would fundamentally alter the nature of a service, program or activity or result in undue financial or administrative burdens. For example, if it would be a fundamental alteration or undue burden to provide a student with a disability with a note-taker for oral classroom presentations and discussions and a tape recorder would be an effective alternative, a postsecondary institution may provide the student with a tape recorder instead of a note-taker.
15. If students want to request academic adjustments, what must they do?
Institutions may establish reasonable procedures for requesting academic adjustments; students are responsible for knowing these procedures and following them. Institutions usually include information on the procedures and contacts for requesting an academic adjustment in their general information publications and Web sites. If students are unable to locate the procedures, they should contact an institution official, such as an admissions officer or counselor.

16. What should students expect in working with a disability coordinator at an institution of postsecondary education?

A high school counselor, a special education teacher or a VR counselor may meet with high school students with disabilities to provide services or monitor their progress under their education plans on a periodic basis. The role of the disability coordinator at an institution of postsecondary education is very different. At many institutions, there may be only one or two staff members to address the needs of all students with disabilities attending the institution. The disability coordinator evaluates documentation, works with students to determine appropriate services, assists students in arranging services or testing modifications, and deals with problems as they arise. A disability coordinator may have contact with a student with a disability only two or three times a semester. Disability coordinators usually will not directly provide educational services, tutoring or counseling, or help students plan or manage their time or schedules. Students with disabilities are, in general, expected to be responsible for their own academic programs and progress in the same ways that nondisabled students are responsible for them.

17. When should students notify the institution of their intention to request an academic adjustment?

As soon as possible. Although students may request academic adjustments at any time, students needing services should be advised to notify the institution as early as possible to ensure that the institution has enough time to review their request and provide an appropriate academic adjustment. Some academic adjustments, such as interpreters, may take time to arrange. In addition, students should not wait until after completing a course or activity or receiving a poor grade to request services and then expect the grade to be changed or to be able to retake the course.

18. How do institutions determine what academic adjustments are appropriate?

Once a student has identified him- or herself as an individual with a disability, requested an academic adjustment and provided appropriate documentation upon request, institution staff should discuss with the student what academic adjustments are appropriate in light of the student's individual needs and the nature of the institution's program. Students with disabilities possess unique knowledge of their individual disabilities and should be prepared to discuss the functional challenges they face and, if applicable, what has or has not worked for them in the past. Institution staff should be prepared to describe the barriers students may face in individual classes that may affect their full participation, as well as to discuss academic adjustments that might enable students to overcome those barriers.
19. Who pays for auxiliary aids and services?
Once the needed auxiliary aids and services have been identified, institutions may not require students with disabilities to pay part or all of the costs of such aids and services, nor may institutions charge students with disabilities more for participating in programs or activities than they charge students who do not have disabilities. Institutions generally may not condition their provision of academic adjustments on the availability of funds, refuse to spend more than a certain amount to provide academic adjustments, or refuse to provide academic adjustments because they believe other providers of such services exist. In many cases, institutions may meet their obligation to provide auxiliary aids and services by assisting students in either obtaining them or obtaining reimbursement for their cost from an outside agency or organization, such as a state VR agency. Such assistance notwithstanding, institutions retain ultimate responsibility for providing necessary auxiliary aids and services and for any costs associated with providing such aids and services or utilizing outside sources. However, as noted above, if the institution can demonstrate that providing a specific auxiliary aid or service would result in undue financial or administrative burdens, considering the institution's resources as a whole, it can opt to provide another effective one.

20. What if the academic adjustments the institution provides are not working?

If the academic adjustments provided are not meeting the student's needs, it is the student's responsibility to notify the institution as soon as possible. It may be too late to correct the problem if the student waits until the course or activity is completed. The student and the institution should work together to resolve the problem.
Keys to Success: Attitude, Self-Advocacy
And Preparation
The attitude and self-advocacy skills of students with disabilities may be two of the most important factors in determining their success or failure in postsecondary education. Students with disabilities need to be prepared to work collaboratively with the institution's disability coordinator to enable them to have an equal opportunity to participate in an institution's programs and activities. To ensure that students with disabilities possess the desired levels of self-advocacy to succeed in postsecondary education, high school educators may want to encourage the students to:

Understand their disabilities. Students with disabilities need to know the functional limitations that result from their disabilities and understand their strengths and weaknesses. They should be able to explain their disabilities to an institution's disability coordinators or other appropriate staff. As part of this process, students should be able to explain where they have had difficulty in the past, as well as what has helped them overcome such problems and what specific adjustments might work in specific situations. To assist students in this area, high school educators can encourage high school students to be active participants in their IEP or Section 504 meetings. High school personnel also can suggest that students practice explaining their disabilities, as well as why they need certain services, to appropriate secondary staff or through role-playing exercises to prepare them to engage in such conversations with confidence in a postsecondary setting.

Accept responsibility for their own success. All students, including those with disabilities, must take primary responsibility for their success or failure in postsecondary education. Students with disabilities, in particular, are moving from a system where parents and school staff usually advocated on their behalf to a system where they will be expected to advocate for themselves. An institution's staff will likely communicate directly with students when issues arise and are generally not required to interact with students' parents. In general, students with disabilities should expect to complete all course requirements, such as assignments and examinations. Students with disabilities need to identify the essential academic and technical standards that they will be required to meet for admission and continued participation in an institution's program. Students also need to identify any academic adjustments they may need as a result of their disabilities to meet those standards and how to request those adjustments. Students with disabilities need to understand that, while federal disability laws guarantee them an equal opportunity to participate these laws do not guarantee that students will achieve a particular outcome, for example, good grades.

Take an appropriate preparatory curriculum. Because all students will be expected to meet an institution's essential standards, students with disabilities need to take a high school curriculum that will prepare them to meet those standards. If students with disabilities plan to attend a rigorous postsecondary institution, they, like their peers without disabilities, need to make high school curriculum choices that support that goal. High school guidance counselors and state VR agency counselors, in particular, can play an important role in students' curriculum planning.

For all students, good study skills and the ability to write well are critical factors of success in postsecondary education. High school educators can help students in these areas by offering or identifying opportunities, such as workshops, courses or tutoring programs, that emphasize the importance of reading, writing and good study skills. In addition, staff should encourage students to enroll in classes that will focus on writing and study skills in their freshman year of postsecondary education.

Learn time management skills. Although a primary role of high school educators is to provide monitoring, direction and guidance to students as they approach the end of their high school career, staff also need to prepare students to act independently and to manage their own time with little to no supervision. High school educators can assist students by identifying resources that will help them learn time management and scheduling skills.

Acquire computer skills. Because postsecondary students use computers to complete a multitude of tasks, from registering for classes to accessing course material and obtaining grades, it is essential that students learn to use computers if they are to be prepared for postsecondary education. Ideally, students with disabilities need to start using computers as early as possible in school to increase their familiarity with, and their comfort level in using, computers. Students with visual impairments, hearing impairments, learning disabilities or mobility impairments may have problems with inputting data or reading a computer monitor. Assistive technology can help certain students with disabilities use computers and access information.

Consider supplemental postsecondary education preparatory programs. A variety of institutions of postsecondary education have summer programs in which students can participate while they are still in high school, or after graduation, to ease their transition to postsecondary education. These programs often expose students to experiences that they are likely to encounter in postsecondary education, such as living in dorms, relating to other students and eating in dining halls. The programs may also focus on instruction in certain subject areas, such as math or English, or in certain skills, such as computer, writing or study skills, that can prepare a student to be successful in postsecondary education. High school educators can assist students with disabilities by identifying such program opportunities in their area of residence.

Research postsecondary education programs. Students with disabilities may select any program for which they are qualified but should be advised to review carefully documentation standards and program requirements for their program or institution of interest. For example, students should pay close attention to an institution's program requirements, such as language or math, to avoid making a large financial and time commitment only to realize several years into a program that they cannot, even with academic adjustments, meet an essential requirement for program completion. Campus visits, which include visits to the disability services office, can be helpful in locating an environment that best meets a student's interests and needs. In addition, while all institutions have a legal obligation to provide appropriate services, certain colleges may be able to provide better services than others due to their size or location.

Get involved on campus. To help students avoid the isolation that can occur away from home during the first year of postsecondary education, high school educators should encourage students to live on campus and to become involved in campus activities. Attendance at orientation programs for freshmen is a good first step in discovering ways to get involved in the postsecondary education environment.

If you would like more information about the responsibilities of postsecondary schools to students with disabilities, read the OCR brochures Auxiliary Aids and Services for Postsecondary Students with Disabilities: Higher Education's Obligations Under Section 504 and Title II of the ADA and Students with Disabilities Preparing for Postsecondary Education: Know Your Rights and Responsibilities. You may obtain copies of these brochures by contacting us at the address and phone numbers below or on the Department's website at: http://www.ed.gov/ocr/publications.html#Section504. To receive more information about the civil rights of students with disabilities in education institutions, please contact OCR at:

Customer Service Team
Office for Civil Rights
U.S. Department of Education
Washington, DC 20202-1100

Web address: http://www.ed.gov/ocr

This publication is in the public domain. Authorization to reproduce it in whole or in part is granted. The publication's citation should be: U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights, Transition of Students With Disabilities to Postsecondary Education: A Guide for High School Educators, Washington, D.C., 2011.

To order copies of this publication:

Write to: ED Pubs Education Publications Center, U.S. Department of Education,
P.O. Box 22207, Alexandria, VA 22304.

Or fax your order to: 703-605-6794.

Or e-mail your request to: edpubs@inet.ed.gov.

Or call in your request toll-free: 1-877-433-7827 (1-877-4-ED-PUBS). Those who use a telecommunications device for the deaf (TDD) or a teletypewriter (TTY), should call 1-877-576-7734. If 877 service is not yet available in your area, call 1-800-872-5327 (1-800-USA-LEARN).

Or order online at http://edpubs.gov.

This publication is also available on the Department's website at http://www.ed.gov/ocr/transitionguide.html. Any updates to this publication will be available on this website.

On request, this publication can be made available in alternate formats, such as Braille, large print or computer diskette. For more information, contact the Department's Alternate Format Center at 202-260-0852 or 202-260-0818. If you use a TDD, call 1-800-877-8339.
Endnotes
The Americans with Disabilities Act Amendments Act (Amendments Act), P.L. 110-325, amended the ADA and Section 7 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, which contains the disability definition for Section 504. The Amendments Act became effective on January 1, 2009. The Amendments Act affected the meaning of the term "disability" in the ADA and Section 504, most notably by requiring that "disability" under these statutes be interpreted broadly. More information about the Amendments Act is available from OCR's website at http://www.ed.gov/policy/rights/guid/ocr/disability.html and http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/504faq.html.

The U.S. Department of Education's Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) administers the IDEA. You can find additional information about the IDEA at http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/osers/osep, or by contacting OSEP at:

Office of Special Education Programs
Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services
U.S. Department of Education
400 Maryland Ave. S.W.
Washington, DC 20202-7100
Telephone: 202-245-7459

OSERS' Rehabilitation Services Administration (RSA) administers a formula grant program that funds state VR agencies to provide eligible individuals with disabilities with employment-related services, including services to facilitate transition. Additional information about this grant program is available at http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/osers/rsa/index.html or by contacting RSA at:

Rehabilitation Services Administration
U.S. Department of Education
400 Maryland Ave. S.W.
Washington, DC 20202-2800
Telephone: 202-245-7488

The term "accommodations" is also referenced under the IDEA and used by the major publishers of college entrance exams. The term generally refers to changes in the standardized testing conditions provided to a student with disabilities that will not impact the validity of the student's test scores.

Regulations implementing Section 504 and Title II of the ADA contain non-exhaustive lists of major life activities. See 34 C.F.R. § 104.3(j)(2)(ii) (2010) and 28 C.F.R. § 35.104 (2009). The Amendments Act included additional examples of general activities and "major bodily functions" that are major life activities. See 42 U.S.C. § 12102(2).

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disabilities; postsecondary education; college preparation; special education; universities; civil rights; disabled student services; transition; americans with disabilities act; academic adjustments

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Transition of Students With Disabilities To Postsecondary Education: A Guide for High School Educators

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This document provides high school educators with answers to questions students with disabilities may have as they prepare to move to the postsecondary eduction environment.

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Beginning in the 1986-87 school year, California Education Code (EC) Section 51225.3 has specified a minimum set of courses to meet state requirements to graduate from high school and receive a diploma. The governing boards of local education agencies (LEAs) have the authority to supplement the state minimum requirements at the local level.

EC Section 51225.3 states that all pupils receiving a diploma of graduation from a California high school must have completed all of the following courses, while in grades nine to twelve, inclusive:

Unless otherwise specified, each course shall have a duration of one school year:

Three courses in English

Two courses in mathematics, including one year of Algebra I (EC Section 51224.5)

Two courses in science, including biological and physical sciences

Three courses in social studies, including United States history and geography; world history, culture, and geography; a one-semester course in American government and civics, and a one-semester course in economics

One course in visual or performing arts, world language, or commencing with the 2012-13 school year, career technical education. For the purpose of satisfying the minimum course requirement, a course in American Sign Language shall be deemed a course in foreign language

Two courses in physical education, unless the pupil has been exempted pursuant to the provisions of EC Section 51241

One semester of Ethnic Studies, commencing with pupils graduating in the 2029-30 school year (a course based on the model curriculum developed pursuant to Section 51226.7; an existing ethnic studies course; an ethnic studies course taught as part of a course that has been approved as meeting the A-G requirements; or a locally developed ethnic studies course approved by the governing board of the school district or charter school). Other coursework adopted by the local governing board of the LEA.

The local governing board of the LEA with the active involvement of parents, administrators, teachers, and pupils, shall adopt alternative means for pupils to complete the prescribed course of study, which may include:

Practical demonstration of skills and competencies

Supervised work experience or other outside school experience

Career technical education classes offered in high schools

Courses offered by regional occupational centers or programs

Interdisciplinary study

Independent study

Credit earned at a postsecondary institution

Requirements for graduation and specified alternative modes for completing the prescribed course of study shall be made available to pupils, parents, and the public.

Beginning January 1, 2010, students in foster care who transfer to a new school while in grades eleven or twelve may be able to graduate from high school without meeting the local graduation requirements that exceed the state minimum course requirements. In these cases, the district would need to conclude that the student would not reasonably be able to complete the additional local graduation requirements during the student's remaining time in high school. See the California Department of Education Foster Youth Resources webpage for additional information.

High School Graduation Frequently Asked Questions
Frequently asked questions regarding high school graduation requirements.

Courses Required for California Public University
The University of California and the California State University systems have established a uniform minimum set of courses required for admission as a freshman.

The entire California Education Code may be found in the California Law library.

Questions: High School Innovations and Initiatives Office | HSIIO@cde.ca.gov | 916-319-0893

Last Reviewed: Monday, October 30, 2023

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State Minimum High School Graduation Requirements

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Minimum set of courses required for high school graduation.

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View Regulation 6146.4: Differential Graduation And Competency Standards For Students With Disabilities

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Differential Standards in Classroom Grading

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51225.31 Alternative Pathway Ed Code Language

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51225.31 Alternative Pathway Ed Code Language

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Read Section 51225.31 - Exemption of individuals with exceptional needs for graduation, Cal. Ed. Code § 51225.31, see flags on bad law, and search Casetext's comprehensive legal database

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CDE Aug 2023 Alt Pathway Laws, Regs and Policies 

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CDE Aug 2023 Alt Pathway Laws, Regs and Policies 

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A New Pathway to a High School Diploma - Laws, Regulations, & Policies (CA Dept of Education)

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A New Pathway to a High School Diploma for Students with Disabilities.