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History of gender biases in nursing and nursing education 

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History of gender biases in nursing and nursing education 

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This helps my essay because its about inequality in nursing. She refutes claims that Florence nightingale opposed higher education for women.

McDonald, L. (2020, May). Defending Florence Nightingale's reputation: A leading international Florence Nightingale scholar rebuts Grant Brookes' and Kerri Nuku's viewpoint on the founder of modern nursing, published in the April issue of Kai Tiaki Nursing New Zealand. Kai Tiaki: Nursing New Zealand, 26(4), 36+. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A625054924/ITOF?u=mlin_s_curry&sid=bookmark-ITOF&xid=335f0b59

Lynn McDonald’s article, Defending Florence Nightingale’s Reputation, responds to criticisms made by Grant Brookes and Kerri Nuku in Kai Tiaki Nursing New Zealand. She argues that their portrayal of Nightingale as racist and anti-feminist is historically inaccurate and unfair. McDonald highlights Nightingale’s advocacy for racial equality, her concern for the health of indigenous populations, and her efforts to improve nursing education and working conditions. She refutes claims that Nightingale opposed higher education for women or that she promoted a rigid medical model of health. Instead, she emphasizes Nightingale’s belief in disease prevention and holistic care. McDonald also points out the historical context of Nightingale’s language and the evolving meanings of terms like “civilization” and “native.” She defends Nightingale’s stance on nurse registration, arguing that she opposed a flawed system rather than the concept itself. Ultimately, McDonald asserts that Brookes and Nuku misrepresented Nightingale’s contributions and ignored her progressive impact on nursing and public health.

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Gender pay gap in the nursing profession despite men and women doing the same job

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Gender pay gap in the nursing profession despite men and women doing the same job

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This will help my essay because it looks at how salary is affected by gender and how women are paid less for jobs that deserve to be paid more.

Nickitas, Donna M. "Equal Pay for Equal Work, Not in Nursing. Why?" Nursing Economics, vol. 36, no. 5, Sept.-Oct. 2018, pp. 205+. Gale General OneFile, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A559355990/ITOF?u=mlin_s_curry&sid=bookmark-ITOF&xid=719a2bd5. Accessed 25 Feb. 2025.

Donna M. Nickitas’ article, Equal Pay for Equal Work, Not in Nursing. Why?, examines the persistent gender pay gap in the nursing profession despite men and women performing the same job. A 2018 Nurse.com salary report revealed that male nurses earn significantly more than their female counterparts, with men averaging $79,688 per year compared to $73,090 for women—a difference of 8.2%. Another study by the National Council of State Boards of Nursing (NCSBN) found an even larger disparity, with male nurses earning an average of $80,000 versus $70,000 for female nurses.

The article explores potential reasons for this gap, including men’s greater likelihood of changing jobs and negotiating higher salaries. Data shows that 43% of male nurses negotiate their salaries frequently, compared to only 34% of female nurses. Nickitas argues that better salary negotiation training is necessary for all nurses to close this gap. She also highlights that specialty certifications help reduce the pay disparity, though even with certification, male nurses still earn slightly more.

Nickitas calls for healthcare organizations and policymakers to address this economic discrimination and ensure equal pay for equal work. She urges nurses to take action by negotiating salaries, advocating for change, and raising awareness about the issue. The article concludes by emphasizing the need to eliminate gender-based pay inequity in nursing and calls for systemic reforms to close the salary gap.

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Ethics in nursing and how gender plays a role in ethical decision making 

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Ethics in nursing and how gender plays a role in ethical decision making 

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Mathes, M. (2005). Ethical decision making and nursing. Dermatology Nursing, 17(6), 444+. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A140657159/ITOF?u=mlin_s_curry&sid=bookmark-ITOF&xid=c2d323cb

Michele Mathes’ article, Ethical Decision Making and Nursing, explores how nurses approach moral dilemmas and why their ethical reasoning may differ from traditional expectations. Drawing from Susan Zickmund’s study in The Journal of Clinical Ethics, Mathes examines how nurses and other healthcare professionals make ethical decisions, comparing two main ethical orientations: justice (rule-based, impartial decision-making) and care (contextual, relationship-based decision-making).

Historically, Carol Gilligan’s research suggested that women tend to favor the care orientation, focusing on relationships and personal obligations, while men, following Lawrence Kohlberg’s model, lean toward justice, applying universal moral principles. However, Zickmund’s study found that nurses—despite their profession being closely tied to care—more often relied on justice-based ethical reasoning, while lawyers, surprisingly, demonstrated more care-based decision-making.

In an ethical dilemma scenario, nurses were more likely to reject theft outright, citing duty and professional codes, while lawyers emphasized human relationships and the complexities of moral choices. Mathes offers three potential reasons why nurses prioritize justice over care:

1. Lack of Professional Autonomy – Historically, nurses have been expected to follow physician orders and institutional policies rather than make independent moral judgments, leading them to rely on rules and authority in ethical decisions.

2. Shift Toward Technical Expertise – As nursing professionalized, there was a greater emphasis on scientific knowledge and technical skills, devaluing the traditional caregiving role and reinforcing rule-based decision-making.

3. Moral Distress and Resource Constraints – Limited time, staffing, and resources make it difficult for nurses to engage in deep, relational care. Following established ethical rules provides a structured way to handle difficult situations while mitigating emotional distress.

Mathes concludes that as nursing evolves, there is a need to balance the profession’s historical emphasis on care with the modern demand for efficiency and adherence to institutional rules. Understanding how nurses make ethical decisions can help shape education and policy to ensure ethical dilemmas are approached thoughtfully in clinical practice.

This will help my essay because it shows the difference between men and women and how their ethical decision making is different.

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A male nurse complaining about getting paid more for the same job women do 

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A male nurse complaining about getting paid more for the same job women do 

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O'Connor, T. (2015). Men choosing nursing: negotiating a masculine identity in a feminine world. The Journal of Men's Studies, 23(2), 194+. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1060826515582519

Tom O’Connor’s article, Men Choosing Nursing: Negotiating a Masculine Identity in a Feminine World, examines the challenges men face when entering and working in a profession traditionally dominated by women. Using qualitative interviews with 18 male nurses in Ireland, O’Connor explores how these men reconcile their gender identity with a career strongly associated with femininity.

Key Findings:

1. Gendered Barriers in Nursing

• Men make up only a small percentage of nurses worldwide, and societal perceptions of nursing as “women’s work” discourage male participation.

• Male nurses receive little encouragement to enter the field and often lack male role models.

• Career advisors in schools rarely suggest nursing to boys, and male students fear negative reactions from peers.

2. Masculine Identity and Career Choice

• Many men enter nursing through indirect or “accidental” routes rather than through a lifelong aspiration.

• They downplay traditional nursing motivations like caring and altruism, instead emphasizing job security, career progression, and technical skills.

• Despite distancing themselves from the caring narrative, many ultimately acknowledge that compassion and patient interaction are integral to their work.

3. Stigma and Stereotypes

• Male nurses frequently encounter stereotypes that associate nursing with femininity and assumptions about their sexual orientation.

• Some participants found these stereotypes frustrating, while others dismissed them as outdated misconceptions.

• Men in nursing often emphasize their masculinity by avoiding traditionally feminine tasks or seeking leadership and technical roles.

4. Challenges in Representation and Recruitment

• The lack of male nurse role models contributes to low male enrollment in nursing programs.

• Media portrayals of male nurses are often negative or comedic, reinforcing stereotypes.

• Some efforts to recruit men into nursing focus on making the profession appear more masculine, which O’Connor argues is unnecessary, as men can embrace caregiving without compromising their masculinity.

Conclusion:

O’Connor highlights the complexities of being a man in nursing and the tension between maintaining a masculine identity while working in a female-dominated field. He argues that recruiting more men into nursing requires addressing gendered assumptions about the profession rather than simply making nursing appear more “masculine.” Ultimately, the study suggests that nursing as a whole needs to reframe its relationship with gender, moving beyond rigid associations of care with femininity.

This will add to my essay because it is from the male perspective on how they feel gender affects nursing.

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Mindfulness and empathy between male and female nursing students

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Mindfulness and empathy between male and female nursing students

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Ardenghi, S., Russo, S., Luciani, M., Salvarani, V., Rampoldi, G., Bani, M., Ausili, D., Di Mauro, S., & Strepparava, M. G. (2023). The association between dispositional mindfulness and empathy among undergraduate nursing students: A multicenter cross-sectional study. Current Psychology, 42(18), 15132+. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-02829-1

The study The Association Between Dispositional Mindfulness and Empathy Among Undergraduate Nursing Students by Stefano Ardenghi et al. (2023) explores the relationship between dispositional mindfulness (DM) and empathy in nursing students, considering gender, age, and academic year. Using a cross-sectional design, researchers surveyed 622 Italian nursing students with validated mindfulness and empathy scales. Results showed that female students scored higher in acting with awareness but lower in non-reactivity compared to males, while older students exhibited greater observational and non-reactive mindfulness. Although no significant differences were found across academic years, DM was positively linked to perspective-taking and empathic concern and negatively associated with personal distress. The study highlights the potential of mindfulness-based interventions to enhance empathy and reduce emotional distress in nursing students, suggesting their integration into nursing curricula to improve patient care and emotional resilience.

This will add to my gender and nursing research because its about a study that showed female nursing students scored higher in acting with awareness but lower in non-reactivity compared to makes.

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Nurses are undervalued in pay in comparison to male dominated careers that require less training and work

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Nurses are undervalued in pay in comparison to male dominated careers that require less training and work

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Waters, A. (2008). Mind your differentials: why does nurses' pay fail to reflect their public popularity and the skills needed to do the job? Simple sexism, argues Adele Waters. Nursing Standard, 22(18), 18+. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A174059883/ITOF?u=mlin_s_curry&sid=bookmark-ITOF&xid=e9088a69

Adele Waters’ article, Mind Your Differentials, explores the persistent pay gap between nurses and other professions, arguing that sexism is a key factor in undervaluing nursing as a career. Despite nurses being highly respected by the public and possessing specialized skills, their salaries remain significantly lower than many male-dominated professions with comparable or fewer technical demands.

Key Points:

1. Nurses Earn Far Less Than Comparable Professions

• The average nurse’s salary is £27,234, ranking 138th in a survey of more than 300 occupations.

• Train drivers, who require less formal education, earn an average of £37,234—about £10,000 more than nurses.

• Other professions, such as scaffolders, warehouse managers, and town planning technicians, earn close to or above the UK’s £29,999 average salary, while nurses fall short.

2. The Gender Pay Disparity in Nursing

• Nursing is predominantly female (90% women), whereas train drivers are overwhelmingly male (90% men).

• Unions argue that this gender imbalance contributes to lower wages for nurses, reinforcing broader societal undervaluation of women’s labor.

• Other female-dominated professions, such as teaching and healthcare assistants, also face similar pay disparities.

3. Nursing’s Skills and Workload Are Undervalued

• The profession requires a three-year degree and specialized training, yet is often perceived as merely an extension of women’s natural caregiving roles.

• Surveys indicate that 80% of NHS staff report increasing workloads, and 55% of nurses say they are too busy to provide quality care.

• Despite this, nurses struggle to receive meaningful pay raises, with only a 1.9% annual increase in England at the time.

4. Comparing Working Conditions and Benefits

• Train drivers, with just one year of training, receive higher salaries, more benefits, and shorter working hours.

• Police officers, firefighters, and junior doctors—all male-dominated fields—earn more while benefiting from better overtime pay and pensions.

• Nurses work longer hours (37.5 per week), face high levels of workplace violence (19% report physical attacks), and have limited career progression opportunities.

5. Calls for Change

• Unions and gender equality groups argue that wage disparities are rooted in systemic sexism and outdated perceptions of nursing.

• Advocates urge better pay negotiations, greater recognition of nursing skills, and reforms to ensure salaries reflect the responsibilities of the job.

Conclusion:

Despite their critical role in healthcare, nurses remain significantly underpaid compared to male-dominated professions with similar or lower training requirements. Waters argues that this wage gap is not due to a lack of skill or importance but rather a gendered bias that undervalues traditionally “feminine” work. The article calls for fairer pay scales, increased public awareness, and systemic changes to ensure nurses receive salaries that reflect their expertise and contributions.

This will add to my essay because its about how female nurses are underpaid compared to male dominated professions with lower training requerimientos. It discusses how the wage gap isn’t due to lack of skill but because “feminine” work is undervalued.

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Female dominated careers get paid less than male dominated careers

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Female dominated careers get paid less than male dominated careers

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Snow, Tamsin. "Will next year's pay award help nurse's to catch up with other workers? The government needs to ensure that nursing salaries match those of male-dominated professions." Nursing Standard, vol. 22, no. 9, 7 Nov. 2007, pp. 12+. Gale General OneFile, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A173748468/ITOF?u=mlin_s_curry&sid=bookmark-ITOF&xid=d5f8b477. Accessed 20 Feb. 2025.

Tamsin Snow’s article, Will Next Year’s Pay Award Help Nurses Catch Up with Other Workers?, examines the significant pay gap between nurses and male-dominated professions, highlighting concerns about wage discrimination and gender inequality in the workforce.

Unions presented evidence to the NHS pay review body (RB) showing that nurses earn considerably less than train drivers, electrical engineers, police officers, and secondary school teachers. The gender wage gap persists, with women in full-time employment earning 17% less than men on average. Public sector pay restrictions, such as the government’s proposal to limit pay raises to 2%, are expected to widen this gap further, disproportionately affecting the female-dominated nursing workforce.

While policies like Agenda for Change were introduced to ensure equal pay for equal work within the NHS, these do not address pay disparities across different professions. Current equal pay laws only allow comparisons within the same employer, making it difficult for nurses to challenge systemic undervaluation of their profession. The Fawcett Society advocates for legal reforms to enable broader comparisons, arguing that outdated laws hinder progress in closing the pay gap.

Public opinion largely supports pay equity between nurses and police officers, with 65% of surveyed individuals believing they should earn the same or that nurses should earn more. Unions are pushing for an above-inflation pay increase, citing rising living costs, declining morale, and staffing shortages. Additionally, evidence suggests that allied health professionals (AHPs), who also work in healthcare, earn more than nurses despite working under the same pay system, raising further concerns about pay discrepancies.

The article underscores the urgent need for government action to address wage disparities in nursing and ensure that salaries in female-dominated professions are brought in line with male-dominated fields.

This will add to my essay because its about how female dominated professions are underpaid and how men in the nursing profession still earn more than women despite them doing the exact same job.

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Pay inequality, career advancement inequality, family responsibilities, and sexism in healthcare between men and women 

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Pay inequality, career advancement inequality, family responsibilities, and sexism in healthcare between men and women 

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Raz, P., Jensen, G. M., Walter, J., & Drake, L. M. (1991). Perspectives on gender and professional issues among female physical therapists. Physical Therapy, 71(7), 530+. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A11120526/ITOF?u=mlin_s_curry&sid=bookmark-ITOF&xid=fa612c2c

Summary: Perspectives on Gender and Professional Issues Among Female Physical Therapists

Authors: Pearl Raz, Gail M. Jensen, Jane Walter, L. Margaret Drake

Published in: Physical Therapy, July 1991

Overview

This study explores the experiences of female physical therapists regarding gender-related issues in their professional and personal lives. The researchers conducted in-depth interviews with ten experienced female physical therapists to examine three key themes:

1. Values – How caring, relationships, empowerment, and social context influence their work.

2. Family Roles – The impact of family responsibilities on career development.

3. Sexism – How leadership, salary disparities, and professional respect are influenced by gender.

Key Findings

1. Values in Physical Therapy

• Caring & Relationships: The therapists strongly valued interpersonal relationships with patients and colleagues. Many saw their role as providing both physical rehabilitation and emotional support, emphasizing a holistic approach to patient care.

• Contextual Care: They viewed patients within their family and community contexts, rather than as isolated individuals. This approach shaped their treatment strategies and patient interactions.

• Empowerment: Many therapists saw themselves as “enablers” or “assisters”, helping patients regain independence. This aligns with traditional nurturing female roles, though they noted it could limit perceptions of their professional authority.

2. Family Responsibilities and Career Limitations

• Balancing Work and Family: The dual role of being a mother and a professional created challenges. Many women reduced work hours, chose part-time roles, or adjusted career ambitions to accommodate family life.

• Career Advancement Barriers: Family responsibilities limited participation in continuing education, professional organizations, and leadership roles. Women found it difficult to advance into management while balancing caregiving duties.

• Coping Strategies: Some women used job-sharing, private practice, or flexible schedules to maintain career growth while managing home responsibilities. Many expressed guilt and pressure from both work and family expectations.

3. Sexism in the Workplace

• Leadership Disparities: Despite being a female-dominated field (75% female), leadership roles within physical therapy and healthcare were disproportionately held by men. Male physical therapists were often promoted faster, and hospital administrators were more likely to favor men for management positions.

• Salary Inequality:

• The historical perception of physical therapy as “women’s work” contributed to low salaries.

• The entry of more men into the profession helped increase wages, yet male therapists still earned more, often due to their presence in higher-paying specialties.

• Women were less likely to demand higher pay, which some attributed to societal norms and gender expectations.

• Lack of Professional Respect:

• **Physicians

Physical therapy is similar to nursing, both in healthcare so I added this one because physical therapy is also female dominated but they are undervalued and the men physical therapist experienced more benefits for the same work.

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Gender norms, how education reinforces gendered occupations and directs women to lower-paying careers. 

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Gender norms, how education reinforces gendered occupations and directs women to lower-paying careers. 

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Sayman, Donna M. "The elimination of sexism and stereotyping in occupational education." The Journal of Men's Studies, vol. 15, no. 1, winter 2007, pp. 19+. Gale General OneFile, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A161599485/ITOF?u=mlin_s_curry&sid=bookmark-ITOF&xid=6c3da3b7. Accessed 20 Feb. 2025.

Donna M. Sayman’s article, The Elimination of Sexism and Stereotyping in Occupational Education, examines how vocational education reinforces gendered occupations and calls for systemic changes to address these issues. She argues that while vocational education has evolved, it continues to direct women into lower-paying, traditionally feminine careers while men are steered toward higher-paying, male-dominated fields.

The article highlights the role of socialization, teacher expectations, and systemic biases in shaping students’ career choices. It discusses how gender norms are ingrained in education, affecting opportunities for both men and women. While progress has been made since the Civil Rights Act, women remain marginalized in the workforce, and men who pursue nontraditional careers face social stigma. Sayman critiques the progressive education movement for failing to challenge power dynamics and social inequalities effectively.

She explores how class, race, and hegemonic masculinity influence career choices, showing that minority and working-class students face additional barriers. For example, vocational programs often reinforce traditional gender roles, with women being funneled into cosmetology or childcare while men dominate engineering and technical fields. The article also addresses the stigma men face in female-dominated professions like nursing and teaching.

Sayman advocates for a critical theory approach to education, which would empower students to recognize and challenge oppressive social structures. She calls for changes in teacher education, emphasizing the need to promote nontraditional career choices and deconstruct gender stereotypes. Without intentional reform, she argues, occupational education will continue to perpetuate systemic inequalities.

This article will add to my essay because it talks about gender norms and how women are steered into “feminine” careers and men are steered into higher paying male dominated fields.

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Male nurses get special treatment over female nurses because of gender

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Male nurses get special treatment over female nurses because of gender

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This is about the male perspective of gender in nursing and how male nurses got special treatment and how female nurses were taken for granted. Probably the most relevant article i found

Annals, G. (2003, May). Discrimination brings advantages: a nurse reflects on the personal and professional advantages he has gained, simply by being male in a predominantly female environment. Kai Tiaki: Nursing New Zealand, 9(4), 23. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A114701880/ITOF?u=mlin_s_curry&sid=bookmark-ITOF&xid=28b92c7e

Geoff Annals reflects on his experience as a male nurse in a predominantly female profession, acknowledging the advantages he gained due to gender discrimination. Initially unaware of gender disparities in nursing, he soon realized that being male made him a novelty and granted him preferential treatment. He received more mentorship, learning opportunities, and career advancement prospects than his female colleagues, despite considering himself an average student.

Throughout his career at Waikato Hospital, Annals was frequently offered leadership roles, special assignments, and managerial tasks, while his female peers often remained unnoticed despite their equal or greater competence. He observed that male nurses were judged by different standards, with their sensitivity and care praised as exceptional, while women’s similar actions were taken for granted. Additionally, male nurses were often assigned technical or leadership duties, while female nurses were expected to handle personal care and housekeeping tasks.

Annals acknowledges that this discrimination accelerated his career but also led him away from his original goal of rural nursing. He recognizes that for every advantage he received, a female colleague was likely disadvantaged. He calls on men in nursing to become aware of gender biases in the field and take responsibility for addressing them. His reflection highlights the unconscious nature of gender discrimination and its impact on both individual careers and the profession as a whole.

This is about the male perspective of gender in nursing and how male nurses got special treatment and how female nurses were taken for granted. Probably the most relevant article i found