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Morphology and staining

-Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium

-Motile due to peritrichous flagella ( flagella all over surface of cells, allows for cell to move straight and turn in multiple directions)

-Facultative anaerobe- can grow in presence or absence of oxygen

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Opportunistic Pathogen: Primarily affects hospitalized and immunocompromised patients.

• Common Infections:Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs),Respiratory Infections (e.g., ventilator- associated pneumonia), Bacteremia & Sepsis, Wound and Surgical Site Infections

• Virulence Factors-Capsule formation (protects against host immune response), Biofilm formation (enhances persistence on medical devices), and Efflux pumps (contribute to multi drug resistance)

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• Intrinsic & Acquired Resistance:naturally resistant as well as acquired resistant related to gene mutation.

• Produces AmpC β-lactamases, leading to resistance to penicillins and cephalosporins

• Some strains produce Extended-Spectrum β-Lactamases (ESBLs) and carbapenemases, making them resistant to carbapenems (Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacter or CRE)

• Mechanisms of Resistance:, Efflux pumps (expel antibiotics out of bacterial cells), Porin mutations (limit antibiotic entry), Horizontal gene transfer (acquires resistance genes via plasmids)

• Treatment Challenges:Requires antibiotic susceptibility testing, Alternative treatments include colistin, tigecycline, and fosfomycin

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Global Presence: Found in healthcare settings, soil, water, and human microbiota, Common HAI ( healthcare associated infection

Risk Factors:Prolonged hospitalization, Indwelling medical devices (catheters, ventilators), Immunosuppression (chemotherapy, organ transplants)

5. Prevention & Control

• Strict hand hygiene (use of alcohol-based sanitizers),Proper sterilization of medical equipment, Isolation precautions for patients infected with multidrug-resistant strains. Reduce unnecessary antibiotic use, Monitor resistance patterns in healthcare settingsTracking hospital outbreaks to prevent transmission. No current vaccine, but research is ongoing to develop alternative treatments