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Quality problem-solving process:
Step 1- Obtaining data, whether by circle members, specialists, or management
Step 2- Establishing the theme for observation
Step 3- Determining reason for theme's selection.
Step 4- Determining current state of theme situation.
Step 5- Determining frequency of action in theme.
Step 6- Determining objective of observation.
Step 7- Determining target due.
Step 8- Completing cause analysis.
Step 9- Taking countermeasures
Step 10- Designing and testing new procedure-alone and against objective determined in step 6
Step 11- Setting target date for implementation
Step 12- Implementing new procedure.

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According to our textbook, in order for managers to increase personal power they should develop these attitudes:
1.) a sense of obligation toward the manager.
2.) a belief that the manager possess a significant level of expertise within the organization.
3.) a sense of identification with the manager.
4.) the perception that they are dependent on the manager.

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Abraham Maslow states that human beings possess the five basic needs described here and theorizes that these five basic needs can be arranged in a hierarchy of importance.

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I used this website frequently throughout the course. This specific page talks about coaching and gives tips on effective coaching styles.

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You've probably heard people talking about coaching in the workplace. You might have even received some coaching in the past, or you might have used coaching to improve a person's performance, even if you didn't actually describe it as "coaching" at the time.

But what actually is coaching, and how do you use it? And what skills do you need to be an effective coach?

In this article, we'll look at the basics of coaching in the workplace. We'll clarify what it involves, and review the key approaches that you can use to be a successful coach. We'll also review some situations where coaching can be useful, and look at some examples of coaching questions.

...

Learn More and Join Today

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What Is Coaching?: How to be an Effective Coach

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You've probably heard people talking about coaching in the workplace. You might have even received some coaching in the past, or you might have used coaching to improve a person's performance, even if you didn't actually describe it as "coaching" at the time. But what actually is coaching, and how do you use it?

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Chapter 13 talks about "moral courage" This website has tips for parents that are trying to teach their children how to earn their "lion whiskers"

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This is the fourth in the "Six Types of Courage" that we will explore in-depth. We hope you've already had the chance to read over our page called "The Six Types of Courage" for a brief overview of our definitions. The examples we give for each type of courage may apply to your children and/or to you - please keep in mind, when you are reading this post, that some of these examples may involve taking "baby steps" on your way to moral courage! Every step towards courage is worthwhile and important.

"Perfect courage means doing unwitnessed what we would be capable of with the world looking on." La Rochefoucauld

"The sad truth is that most evil is done by people who never make up their mind to be good or evil." Hannah Arendt

Moral courage means doing the right thing even at the risk of inconvenience, ridicule, punishment, loss of job or security or social status, etc. Moral courage requires that we rise above the apathy, complacency, hatred, cynicism, and fear-mongering in our political systems, socioeconomic divisions, and cultural/religious differences. For parents, it frequently requires us to put aside compelling but momentary pleasures or comforts in order to set a good example for our children and be the parents we aspire to be. Doing the right thing means listening to our conscience, that quiet voice within. Ignoring that voice can lead to feelings of inadequacy, guilt and diminished personal integrity. Moral courage requires us to make judgments about what actions or behaviors are supportive of our highest ideals, and which ones are destructive. It asks us to recognize our responsibilities and see the consequences of our own actions.

For inspiring true stories, ways to recognize and coach moral courage in ourselves and our children...READ ON!
History is full of shining examples of moral courage whom we rightly celebrate: Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Mahatma Gandhi, Mother Theresa, Aung San Suu Kyi and many others. When we see people put their safety, security or reputation on the line for a cause they believe in, or for an ideal that matters more than personal comfort, we see moral courage in action.

Here is a video from TED.com that gives great examples of moral courage and demonstrates the importance of overcoming the fear of failure. The speaker is author J.K. Rowling, and the speech is 21 minutes long. We were surprised and inspired by what she had to say.

Moral courage looks like:

helping someone push a car out of a snowbank, even if it means being late

standing up to a bully on the playground

picking up litter

doing homework or chores without being reminded

refusing to listen to or repeat gossip

practicing what you preach, even when no-one is looking or knows

turning in a toy or a wallet to the Lost and Found

a teen who calls home for a ride from a party where alcohol is being served

a teacher who gives all students an equal voice regardless of race, socioeconomic status, religion, gender or sexual orientation

a company whistle blower risking job loss, financial cost, and or legal repercussion

reporting a crime

participating in a peaceful protest

Lack of moral courage looks like:

walking away from someone in need

taking more than your fair share

laughing at someone's misfortune or accident

grabbing the spotlight from someone who has earned it

placing too much reliance on the letter rather than the spirit of the law

remaining silent in the face of wrong-doing or injustice

rationalizations or justifications for action/lack of action

being inconsistent or capricious with rules and standards for our children

choosing sides after seeing which way the wind is blowing

breaking a promise

lying or cheating

Moral courage sounds like:

"I believe strongly in _________."

"That joke was offensive to women/Muslims/the disabled/etc."

"Let's volunteer."

"Dad, I'm in trouble."

"I am going to campaign for __________."

"It's not fair that ____________."

"I broke this, Mom. I'm sorry."

"I'll march with you."

"No, thanks, I don't want to hear a secret!"

"You shouldn't talk behind her/his back."

"Will you sign this petition?"

"You can depend on me."

Lack of moral courage sounds like:

"It's none of my business."

"She got what she deserved."

"That's got nothing to do with me."

"How could you do this to me?"

"It's not for me to judge." *

"I only did it once."

"This is all your fault!"

"Just let it slide."

"There's no use trying to change the system, it's just too strong."

"Nobody else is doing anything about it, why should I?"

"I might get into trouble."

"Don't make waves."

"Nobody ever gives me a break."

* as a way to shirk personal responsibility.

Grab Some Lion's Whiskers!
Here are some tips for developing moral courage for you and your kids:

role-play losing a toy, ask your child to imagine what it would feel like if nobody returned the lost item

show good sportsmanship and request your children to do the same

be a good loser and a good winner

offer ethical dilemmas to discuss at the dinner table; here are some conversation starters: is it ever okay to steal? lie? cheat? If you're driving home at three in the morning and there's no traffic for miles around, is it okay to go through a red light? Is tattling on someone good or bad?

choose a charitable cause to support as a family

beware self-righteousness! we all stumble and fall sometimes

be a good listener to your kids; if you have their trust they are more likely to come to you when there's trouble

let your kids, especially your teens, know that you'd rather hear it from them

tell a story about a mistake that you made and what you learned from it

tell a story about your biggest flop; be sure that enough time has elapsed that you can find some laughter in it!

share stories that show people making difficult choices

What are your ideas about moral courage, your parenting tips to promote it with kids, or your favorite moral courage story (fiction or non-fiction)? We'd love to hear from you!
Here are other blog posts related to moral courage: Helper & Guide, David & Goliath, Getting to the Heart of Courage , Healthy Attachment Between Parent and Child , Fenrir: Big, Bad Wolf,
The Path to Courage: Irena Gutowa's Story ,
Beowulf: A Hero's Tale Retold, Hard-Wired to Care: You Matter in the Moral Life of Your Children, Raising a Good Citizen of the World, Using Moral Courage to Navigate Facebook and other Social Jungles

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This is the fourth in the "Six Types of Courage" that we will explore in-depth. We hope you've already had the chance to read over our page called "The Six Types of Courage" for a brief overview of our definitions.

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This website offers different types of projects that can be used to help promote teamwork.

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Teamwork Projects | Project Management Software for Professionals

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Teamwork Projects is an online project management software that does Tasks, Subtasks, Task Templates, Gantt charts, Apps and loads more.

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Tips on communicating with eye contact.
-North Americans usually look, not stare, into the other person's eyes for about 5-7 seconds.
-When speaking to a group,  try to make eye contact with everyone in the group.
-Think of a friendly conversation to help relax your expression to seem pleasant.
-Be sure to realize when eye contact comes across as confident or aggressive.

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High Performance Organizational Culture

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The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission website.

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Home | U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission

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This webpage helps explain the Management Responsibility Guide that was talked about in our textbook.

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7 Responsibility Relationships among Managers, as used in the Management Responsibility Guide:

1. General Responsibility: The individual who guides and directs the execution of the function through the person accepting operating responsibility.

2. Operating Responsibility: The individual who is directly responsible for the execution of the Function.

3. Specific Responsibility: The individual who is responsible for executing a specific or limited portion of the function.

4. Must be Consulted: The individual whose area is affected by a decision who must be called on to render advice or relate information before any decision is made or approval is granted. This individual does not, however, make the decision or grant approval.

5. May Be Consulted: The individual who may be called on to related information, render advice, or make recommendations before the action is taken.

6. Must be Notified: The individual who must be notified of any action that has been taken.

7. Must Approve: The individual,other than persons holding general and operating responsibility who must approve or disapprove the decision.

RESPONSIBLE MANAGERS:

Managers can be described as responsible if they perform the activities they are obligated to perform.

Since managers have more impact on an organization than non managers, responsible managers are a requisite for system success.

The degree of responsibility that a manager possesses can be determined by appraising the manager on the following 4 dimensions:

1. Attitude toward and conduct with subordinates.

2. Behaviour with Upper Management

3. Behaviour with Other Groups

4. Personal Attitudes and Values

4 Key Dimensions of Responsible Management Behaviour

Attitude toward and conduct with subordinates.

Responsible Managers take complete charge of their work groups.

They Pass Praise and credit along to subordinates.

They stay close to problems and activities.

They take actions to maintain productivity and are willing to terminate poor performers if necessary.

Behaviour with Upper Management:

Responsible Managers accept criticism for mistakes and buffer their groups from excessive criticism.

Responsible managers ensure that their groups meet management expectations and objectives.

Behaviour with Other Groups :

Responsible Managers make sure that any gaps between their areas and those of other managers are securely filled.

Personal Attitudes & Values:

Responsible managers identify with the group.

Put goals ahead of personal desires or .

corporate resources as if the resources were their own.

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7 Responsibility Relationships among Managers, as used in the Management Responsibility Guide: General Responsibility: The individual who guides and directs the execution of the function through the person accepting operating responsibility. Operating Responsibility: The individual who is directly responsible for the execution of the Function.

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According to our textbook, organizing skill is the ability to create throughout the organization a network of people who can help solve implementation problems as they occur.

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This image is similar to the chart in our textbook that describes the levels of an organization's environment.

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This web page has several different tools that help explain the decision making process. It was notes to read and videos to watch and listen too. This helped me get a better understanding of the textbook.

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Communicate your decision, and take action.

Let's look at each of these steps in detail. Each step features a list of related Mind Tools resources to help you further.

Step 1: Investigate the Situation in Detail

Decisions often fail because key factors are missed or ignored from the outset. So, before you can begin to make a decision, you need to fully understand your situation.

Start by considering the decision in the context of the problem it is intended to address. You need to determine whether the stated problem is the real issue, or just a symptom of something deeper.

Look beyond the obvious. It may be that your objective can be approached in isolation, but it's more likely that there are a number of interrelated factors to consider. Changes made in one department, for example, could have knock-on effects elsewhere, making the change counterproductive.

Step 2: Create a Constructive Environment for Your Decision

Can you give your decision the attention it needs? Spend some time preparing yourself before diving in to the facts and figures.

Remember that most decisions will affect other people too, so it helps to create a constructive environment in which to explore the situation together and gain support.

This is especially true when you have to rely on other people to implement a decision that you're responsible for. You'll need to identify who to include in the process and who will be part of any final decision-making group, which will ideally comprise just five to seven people.

Enable people to contribute to the discussions without any fear of the other participants rejecting them and their ideas. Make sure that everyone recognizes that the objective is to make the best decision possible in the circumstances, without blame.

Step 3: Generate Good Alternatives to Decide Between

The wider the options you explore, the better your final decision is likely to be. Generating a number of different options may seem to make your decision more complicated at first, but the act of coming up with alternatives forces you to dig deeper and to look at the problem from different angles.

This is when it can be helpful to employ a variety of creative thinking techniques. These can help you to step outside your normal patterns of thinking and come up with some truly innovative solutions.

Brainstorming is probably the most popular method of generating ideas, but for more tips on how to examine your situation from new perspectives, and how to organize ideas into manageable themes and groups, see the Mind Tools resources in the box, below.

Step 4: Explore Your Options

When you're satisfied that you have a good selection of realistic alternatives, it's time to evaluate the feasibility, risks and implications of each one.

Almost every decision involves some degree of risk. You'll need a structured approach for assessing threats and evaluating the probability of adverse events occurring - and what they might cost to manage. You'll also want to examine the ethical impact of each option, and how that might sit with your personal and organizational values.

The resources highlighted below offer tried-and-true models to help you.

Step 5: Select the Best Solution

Once you've evaluated the alternatives, the next step is to make your decision!

If you have various criteria to consider, use Decision Matrix Analysis to compare them reliably and rigorously. Or, if you want to determine which ones should carry most weight in your decision, conduct a Paired Comparison Analysis.

If your decision is being made within a group, techniques such as multi-voting and the Modified Borda Count can help your team reach an agreement.

When anonymity is important, decision-makers dislike one another, or there is a tendency for certain individuals to dominate the process, use the Delphi Technique to reach a fair and impartial decision. This uses cycles of anonymous, written discussion and argument, managed by a facilitator. Participants do not meet, and sometimes they don't even know who else is involved.

If you're working with an established team, Hartnett's Consensus-Oriented Decision-Making Model is useful for encouraging everyone to participate in making the decision. Or, if you're working with several different teams, or a particularly large group, assign responsibility for each stage of the decision-making process with Bain's RAPID Framework, so that everyone understands their responsibilities and any potential in-fighting can be avoided.

Step 6: Evaluate Your Plan

After all the effort and hard work you've invested in evaluating and selecting alternatives, it can be tempting to forge ahead at this stage. But now, more than ever, is the time to "sense check" your decision. After all, hindsight is great for identifying why things have gone wrong, but it's far better to prevent mistakes from happening in the first place!

Before you start to implement your decision, take a long, dispassionate look at it to be sure that you have been thorough, and that common errors haven't crept into the process.

Your final decision is only as good as the facts and research you used to make it. Make sure that your information is trustworthy, and that you've done your best not to "cherry pick" data. This will help you avoid confirmation bias, a common psychological bias in decision making.

Discuss your preliminary conclusions with important stakeholders to enable them to spot flaws, make recommendations, and support your conclusions. Listen to your own intuition, too, and quietly and methodically test assumptions and decisions against your own experience. BRAIN BRAN BRAND is a useful tool for this. If you have any doubts, examine them thoroughly to work out what's troubling you.

Use Blindspot Analysis to review whether you've fallen prey to problems like over-confidence, escalating commitment, or groupthink. And consider checking the logical structure of your process with the Ladder of Inference, to make sure that a well-founded and consistent decision emerges at the end.

Step 7: Communicate Your Decision, and Take Action

Once you've made your decision, you need to communicate it to everyone affected by it in an engaging, informative and inspiring way.

Get them involved in implementing the solution by discussing how and why you arrived at your decision. The more information you provide about risks and projected benefits, the more likely people will be to support it.

If people point out a flaw in your process as a result, have the humility to welcome their input and review your plans appropriately - it's much better to do this now, cheaply, than having to do it expensively (and embarrassingly) if your plans have failed.

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How to Make Decisions - A Model for Making the Best Possible Choices

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Communicate your decision, and take action. Let's look at each of these steps in detail. Each step features a list of related Mind Tools resources to help you further. Decisions often fail because key factors are missed or ignored from the outset. So, before you can begin to make a decision, you need to fully understand your situation.

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Steps in the Planning Process:
1.) State organizational objectives.
2.) List alternative ways of reaching objectives.
3.) Develop premises upon which each alternative is based.
4.) Choose best alternative for reaching objective.
5.) Develop plans to pursue chosen alternative.
6.) Put the plans into action.

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In Module 3, I learned the 6 stages of multi-nationalization.
1- Exports its products to foreign countries.
2- Est. sales organizations abroad
3- Licenses use of its patents and know-how to foreign firms that make and sell its products
4- Est. foreign manufacturing facilities
5- Multi-nationalizes management from top to bottom
6- Multi-nationalizes ownership of corporate stock

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While working in this module, I read an interesting article about making managerial decision.

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Concept of Decision-Making

Decision-making is a cognitive process that results in the selection of a course of action among several alternative scenarios.

Decision-making is a daily activity for any human being. There is no exception about that. When it comes to business organizations, decision-making is a habit and a process as well.

Effective and successful decisions result in profits, while unsuccessful ones cause losses. Therefore, corporate decision-making is the most critical process in any organization.

In a decision-making process, we choose one course of action from a few possible alternatives. In the process of decision-making, we may use many tools, techniques, and perceptions.

In addition, we may make our own private decisions or may prefer a collective decision.

Usually, decision-making is hard. Majority of corporate decisions involve some level of dissatisfaction or conflict with another party.

Let's have a look at the decision-making process in detail.

Decision-Making Process

Following are the important steps of the decision-making process. Each step may be supported by different tools and techniques.

Step 1: Identification of the Purpose of the Decision

In this step, the problem is thoroughly analyzed. There are a couple of questions one should ask when it comes to identifying the purpose of the decision.

What exactly is the problem?

Why the problem should be solved?

Who are the affected parties of the problem?

Does the problem have a deadline or a specific time-line?

Step 2: Information Gathering

A problem of an organization will have many stakeholders. In addition, there can be dozens of factors involved and affected by the problem.

In the process of solving the problem, you will have to gather as much as information related to the factors and stakeholders involved in the problem. For the process of information gathering, tools such as 'Check Sheets' can be effectively used.

Step 3: Principles for Judging the Alternatives

In this step, the baseline criteria for judging the alternatives should be set up. When it comes to defining the criteria, organizational goals as well as the corporate culture should be taken into consideration.

As an example, profit is one of the main concerns in every decision making process. Companies usually do not make decisions that reduce profits, unless it is an exceptional case. Likewise, baseline principles should be identified related to the problem in hand.

Step 4: Brainstorm and Analyze the Choices

For this step, brainstorming to list down all the ideas is the best option. Before the idea generation step, it is vital to understand the causes of the problem and prioritization of causes.

For this, you can make use of Cause-and-Effect diagrams and Pareto Chart tool. Cause-and-Effect diagram helps you to identify all possible causes of the problem and Pareto chart helps you to prioritize and identify the causes with the highest effect.

Then, you can move on generating all possible solutions (alternatives) for the problem in hand.

Step 5: Evaluation of Alternatives

Use your judgment principles and decision-making criteria to evaluate each alternative. In this step, experience and effectiveness of the judgment principles come into play. You need to compare each alternative for their positives and negatives.

Step 6: Select the Best Alternative

Once you go through from Step 1 to Step 5, this step is easy. In addition, the selection of the best alternative is an informed decision since you have already followed a methodology to derive and select the best alternative.

Step 7: Execute the decision:

Convert your decision into a plan or a sequence of activities. Execute your plan by yourself or with the help of subordinates.

Step 8: Evaluate the Results:

Evaluate the outcome of your decision. See whether there is anything you should learn and then correct in future decision making. This is one of the best practices that will improve your decision-making skills.

Process and Modeling in Decision-Making

There are two basic models in decision-making:

The rational models are based on cognitive judgments and help in selecting the most logical and sensible alternative. Examples of such models include: decision matrix analysis, Pugh matrix, SWOT analysis, Pareto analysis and decision trees, selection matrix, etc.

A rational decision making model takes the following steps:

Identifying the problem,

Identifying the important criteria for the process and the result,

Considering all possible solutions,

Calculating the consequences of all solutions and comparing the probability of satisfying the criteria,

Selecting the best option.

The normative model of decision-making considers constraints that may arise in making decisions, such as time, complexity, uncertainty, and inadequacy of resources.

According to this model, decision-making is characterized by:

Limited information processing - A person can manage only a limited amount of information.

Judgmental heuristics - A person may use shortcuts to simplify the decision making process.

Satisficing - A person may choose a solution that is just "good enough".

Dynamic Decision-Making

Dynamic decision-making (DDM) is synergetic decision-making involving interdependent systems, in an environment that changes over time either due to the previous actions of the decision-maker or due to events that are outside of the control of the decision-maker.

These decision-makings are more complex and real-time.

Dynamic decision-making involves observing how people used their experience to control the system's dynamics and noting down the best decisions taken thereon.

Sensitivity Analysis

Sensitivity analysis is a technique used for distributing the uncertainty in the output of a mathematical model or a system to different sources of uncertainty in its inputs.

From business decision perspective, the sensitivity analysis helps an analyst to identify cost drivers as well as other quantities to make an informed decision. If a particular quantity has no bearing on a decision or prediction, then the conditions relating to quantity could be eliminated, thus simplifying the decision making process.

Sensitivity analysis also helps in some other situations, like:

Resource optimization

Future data collections

Identifying critical assumptions

To optimize the tolerance of manufactured parts

Static and Dynamic Models

Static models:

Show the value of various attributes in a balanced system.

Work best in static systems.

Do not take into consideration the time-based variances.

Do not work well in real-time systems however, it may work in a dynamic system being in equilibrium

Involve less data.

Are easy to analyze.

Produce faster results.

Dynamic models:

Consider the change in data values over time.

Consider effect of system behavior over time.

Re-calculate equations as time changes.

Can be applied only in dynamic systems.

Simulation Techniques

Simulation is a technique that imitates the operation of a real-world process or system over time. Simulation techniques can be used to assist management decision making, where analytical methods are either not available or cannot be applied.

Some of the typical business problem areas where simulation techniques are used are:

Inventory control

Queuing problem

Production planning

Operations Research Techniques

Operational Research (OR) includes a wide range of problem-solving techniques involving various advanced analytical models and methods applied. It helps in efficient and improved decision-making.

It encompasses techniques such as simulation, mathematical optimization, queuing theory, stochastic-process models, econometric methods, data envelopment analysis, neural networks, expert systems, decision analysis, and the analytic hierarchy process.

OR techniques describe a system by constructing its mathematical models.

Heuristic Programming

Heuristic programming refers to a branch of artificial intelligence. It consists of programs that are self-learning in nature.

However, these programs are not optimal in nature, as they are experience-based techniques for problem solving.

Most basic heuristic programs would be based on pure 'trial-error' methods.

Heuristics take a 'guess' approach to problem solving, yielding a 'good enough' answer, rather than finding a 'best possible' solution.

Group Decision-Making

In group decision-making, various individuals in a group take part in collaborative decision-making.

Group Decision Support System (GDSS) is a decision support system that provides support in decision making by a group of people. It facilitates the free flow and exchange of ideas and information among the group members. Decisions are made with a higher degree of consensus and agreement resulting in a dramatically higher likelihood of implementation.

Following are the available types of computer based GDSSs:

Decision Network: This type helps the participants to communicate with each other through a network or through a central database. Application software may use commonly shared models to provide support.

Decision Room: Participants are located at one place, i.e. the decision room. The purpose of this is to enhance participant's interactions and decision-making within a fixed period of time using a facilitator.

Teleconferencing: Groups are composed of members or sub groups that are geographically dispersed; teleconferencing provides interactive connection between two or more decision rooms. This interaction will involve transmission of computerized and audio visual information.

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MIS Managerial Decision-Making - Learn Management Information System (MIS) in simple and easy steps starting from Overview, Information Concepts, Enterprise Applications, Management Information System, Business Objectives of MIS, System Development Life Cycle(SDLC), MIS Development Process, Managerial Decision Making, Decision Support System, Security and Ethical Issues and its over all summary.

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Hamburger University training for all McDonald's Managers.

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Hamburger University - McDonald's :: McDonald's

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Hamburger University was founded in 1961 in the basement of a McDonald's restaurant in Elk Grove Village, Illinois.

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(2) Artifact from Module 2 Organizational Ethics:

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(2) Artifact from Module 2 Organizational Ethics:

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The principles and standards by which businesses operate, according to Reference for Business. They are best demonstrated through acts of fairness, compassion, integrity, honor and responsibility.

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I did my corporate governance project on Kohls, Wal-Mart and Target

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This was a really good read about how there are different leadership styles out there and some people just find what works.

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Applied Science

Image

Whereas dominant leaders want to be in control of everything, "prestige is about leading in the domains in which you have expertise," said Prof. Jon K. Maner of the Kellogg School of Management at Northwestern University. Credit Credit Michael Waraksa

Which is more important to your boss: to dominate people or to be liked by them?

Most leaders can be divided into these main two camps, says a management professor, and there is a time and a place for both styles.

"Dominant leaders mandate a vision," said Prof. Jon K. Maner of the Kellogg School of Management at Northwestern University. Leaders whose main motivation is to be liked and admired - he calls these prestige leaders - "facilitate their group's vision."

Professor Maner is interested in how evolutionary biology shapes human behavior and creates social hierarchies. The dominant style of leadership evolved much earlier than the prestige style and is not restricted to humans, he noted.

"You see dominance across many species, including many other primates," he said. "In those species, the biggest and the strongest usually wins and ends up on top of the hierarchy." That isn't always the case with people. Sometimes being liked and admired helps propel a person to the top.

Professor Maner has analyzed leadership styles by administering questionnaires and by watching people interact in lab settings. He has found that dominant people exhibit behavior like speaking more often and more loudly, while prestige types spend more time listening and synthesizing other people's contributions.

"Dominant leaders hoard information and ostracize talented group members. They closely monitor talented group members to make sure they don't get out of line, and they prevent their subordinates from forming close social bonds with one another," he said, drawing on research he has done with Charleen R. Case and with Nicole L. Mead.

Whereas dominant leaders want to be in control of everything, "prestige is about leading in the domains in which you have expertise," Professor Maner said.

The presidential election offers up an example of the two styles: Donald J. Trump is a dominant leader, while Hillary Clinton has more prestige-leaning qualities, Professor Maner said. Steve Jobs of Apple, who was known for his brash, uncompromising style, was a classic example of a dominant leader. Warren Buffett, who has a less forceful demeanor, falls into the prestige category, according to the professor's classifications.

The dominant style has a negative cast and can lead to damaging behavior like bullying. Over all, the prestige style tends to work better in our culture, he said.

But dominance is not always bad for an organization, he added. "If you're running a company and you have a very strong vision for the direction the company needs to move, and your job as a leader is to get everybody aligned and moving toward that vision, then dominance actually works quite well."

Dominance can also be effective in times of organizational crisis, he said. "You want somebody to come in and lead the charge - there isn't time for a big brainstorming session."

The prestige leadership style is most effective when a leader does not have a strong vision and instead wants employees to come up with innovative and creative strategies, he said.

In a working paper that Professor Maner has written with Ms. Case, he details the way that the prestige style can get leaders into trouble. Because they gain their prestige by building relationships, they will sometimes make a popular decision over a wise one, he said, and "they also have trouble giving negative feedback to employees."

While most leaders tend to lean toward dominance or prestige, the best ones know how to use both styles - and to deploy the right one at the right time for the good of their organization, Professor Maner said.

A version of this article appears in print on , on Page BU6 of the New York edition with the headline: Bossy vs. Buddy: Each Has Its Place at Work. Order Reprints | Today's Paper | Subscribe

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Bossy vs. Buddy: Two Leadership Styles, Each With Its Place

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Applied Science Which is more important to your boss: to dominate people or to be liked by them? Most leaders can be divided into these main two camps, says a management professor, and there is a time and a place for both styles. "Dominant leaders mandate a vision," said Prof.

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(3) Artifact from Module 1                Steve Jobs

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(3) Artifact from Module 1                Steve Jobs

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Creator, Founder and previous
CEO of Apple INC

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I think this image depicts what management is all about. All the employees in a department are like a big puzzle. In order for everything to operate and run smoothly, they must fit together.

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I really enjoyed reading about Fayol's 14 principles of management. I think that anyone who is pursuing a career in any type of management, they should read the original 14 principles, even though they aren't all used in today's management positions.

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Early Management Theory

Today's managers have access to an amazing array of resources which they can use to improve their skills. But what about those managers who were leading the way forward 100 years ago?

Managers in the early 1900s had very few external resources to draw upon to guide and develop their management practice. But thanks to early theorists like Henri Fayol (1841-1925), managers began to get the tools they needed to lead and manage more effectively. Fayol, and others like him, are responsible for building the foundations of modern management theory.

Background

Henri Fayol was born in Istanbul in 1841. When he was 19, he began working as an engineer at a large mining company in France. He eventually became the director, at a time when the mining company employed more than 1,000 people.

Through the years, Fayol began to develop what he considered to be the 14 most important principles of management. Essentially, these explained how managers should organize and interact with staff.

In 1916, two years before he stepped down as director, he published his "14 Principles of Management" in the book "Administration Industrielle et Générale." Fayol also created a list of the six primary functions of management, which go hand in hand with the Principles.

Fayol's "14 Principles" was one of the earliest theories of management to be created, and remains one of the most comprehensive. He's considered to be among the most influential contributors to the modern concept of management, even though people don't refer to "The 14 Principles" often today.

The theory falls under the Administrative Management school of thought (as opposed to the Scientific Management school, led by Fredrick Taylor).

Fayol's 14 Principles of Management

Fayol's principles are listed below:

1. Division of Work - When employees are specialized, output can increase because they become increasingly skilled and efficient.

2. Authority - Managers must have the authority to give orders, but they must also keep in mind that with authority comes responsibility.

3. Discipline - Discipline must be upheld in organizations, but methods for doing so can vary.

4. Unity of Command - Employees should have only one direct supervisor.

5. Unity of Direction - Teams with the same objective should be working under the direction of one manager, using one plan. This will ensure that action is properly coordinated.

6. Subordination of Individual Interests to the General Interest - The interests of one employee should not be allowed to become more important than those of the group. This includes managers.

7. Remuneration - Employee satisfaction depends on fair remuneration for everyone. This includes financial and non-financial compensation.

8. Centralization - This principle refers to how close employees are to the decision-making process. It is important to aim for an appropriate balance.

9. Scalar Chain - Employees should be aware of where they stand in the organization's hierarchy, or chain of command.

10. Order - The workplace facilities must be clean, tidy and safe for employees. Everything should have its place.

11. Equity - Managers should be fair to staff at all times, both maintaining discipline as necessary and acting with kindness where appropriate.

12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel - Managers should strive to minimize employee turnover. Personnel planning should be a priority.

13. Initiative - Employees should be given the necessary level of freedom to create and carry out plans.

14. Esprit de Corps - Organizations should strive to promote team spirit and unity.

Fayol's Six Functions of Management

Fayol's six primary functions of management, which go hand in hand with the Principles, are as follows:

Key Points

Henri Fayol's "14 Principles of Management" have been a significant influence on modern management theory. His practical list of principles helped early 20th century managers learn how to organize and interact with their employees in a productive way.

Although the 14 Principles aren't widely used today, they can still offer guidance for today's managers. Many of the principles are now considered to be common sense, but at the time they were revolutionary concepts for organizational management.

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Henri Fayol's Principles of Management: Early Management Theory

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Early Management Theory Today's managers have access to an amazing array of resources which they can use to improve their skills. But what about those managers who were leading the way forward 100 years ago? Managers in the early 1900s had very few external resources to draw upon to guide and develop their management practice.