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"If you want to make it, all you have to do is try."
Kamkwamba finishes a part of his life and begins to harvest the fruit  of his labor.

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According to dictionary.com Infrastructure is "the basic, underlying framework or features of a system or organization.:

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Accordin gto wikipedia.com"Venture capital (VC) is a type of private equity, a form of financing that is provided by firms or funds to small, early-stage, emerging firms that are deemed to have high growth potential, or which have demonstrated high growth (in terms of number of employees, annual revenue, or both)."

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Silicon Valley consists of 15 cities and 2.5 Million people. The Valley is constantly growing from Urbanization and innovation. It is located in California specifically San Francisco.

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"Africans bend what little they have to their will every day. Using creativity, they overcome Africa's challenges. Where the world sees trash, Africa recycles. Where the world sees junk, Africa sees rebirth."

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Tom Rielly is a man who meets Kamkwamba at the TED talk and he is in charge of organizing sponsors at TED. Tom is a kind man who gets thing for William including a computer and help in America. He helps William with the internet and shows it to William for the first time in his life. He is helpful, kind, and generous.

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Chapter 14
"We lose talent like this all the time as a result of poverty"
William is finally getting the recognition he deserves by his friends, family, and the world.

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TED stands for Technology, Entertainment and Design
According to TED.com "TED is a nonprofit devoted to spreading ideas, usually in the form of short, powerful talks"

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As quoted by Hacktivate "Mission

To inspire, encourage, and empower the individuals who will create the technology of the future.

To model & initiate supportive communities.

To encourage the development and adoption of distributed, open source solutions."

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Come and See why Windsor Chico Care Center has become the choice for skilled nursing and rehab services in the area. Our team of professionals understand the importance of creating a warm, comfortable environment for all residents. Let us show you how we help people recover from surgery, injury and serious illness.

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According to Google "the action of checking or proving the validity or accuracy of something." Wiliam shown validation to his famous quote “I try, and I made it!” Kamkwamba tried to make his life better for his family and his town and he proved that by trying it you can do anything.

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Dr. Mchazime is a person in TBWHTW who helps Kamkwamba to achieve his goals. Dr. Mchazime may seem like an ambitious selfish person with ulterior motives, but I see him as a kind man who is doing all he can to help a poor boy. He too was once a poor boy when he was younger and i believe that he feels for William and his situation. He helps William to get into school by talking to many people and working very hard to help him. I believe that Dr. Mchazime is a very kind man.

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Chapter 13
"“In science we invent and create,’ I said. ‘We make new things that can benefit our situation. If we can all invent something and put it to work, we can change Malawi.”

Williams Mother become very ill and close to death due to Malaria, but she manages to pull though.

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In TBWHTW William raises awareness about the HIV/Aids by supporting the education system. He donates a good deal of his money to the school in his town and to education. In Chapter 13 he states " it [HIV/AIDS] killed tens of thousands of our teachers and further deprived our students of a good education..." By donating to schools and spreading the word about HIV/AIDS there he was helping the HIV/Aids crisis.

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"This wave of superstition and fear soon came to Wimbe.”
People in Malawi are beginning to hear vampire attacks and a magical beast running wild. People start blaming William for these magical occurrences because they believe him to be using some kind of evil magic in his windmill.

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DAKAR (Thomson Reuters Foundation) - Two former students from Burkina Faso have designed a mosquito-repellent soap, which they hope could be a simple and affordable solution in the fight to end malaria, but more funds are needed to test the idea, according to the startup behind it.

Moctar Dembélé and Gérard Niyondiko, the brains behind Faso Soap, were awarded a $25,000 prize for their invention in 2013 when they became the first African winners of the Global Social Venture Competition at the University of California Berkeley.

Yet Faso Soap must be tested to ensure it is safe for human use and effective at preventing malaria before it can be mass produced by soap manufacturers in Africa, said Franck Langevin, campaigns director for the Ouagadougou-based startup.

The soap, created from natural oils and plants, could prove successful in preventing malaria as it would be cheap and rely on existing habits of African households, Langevin said.

"People in Africa are very reluctant to change their habits, but soap is present in most homes, and is used for bathing, cleaning the house and washing clothes," he said.

The soap is designed to repel mosquitoes up to six hours after being applied, and once soapy water is thrown away on the street, hinder the insects from breeding in stagnant water.

"It is a simple and affordable weapon in the fight against malaria," Langevin told the Thomson Reuters Foundation.

Last month, Faso Soap launched a crowd funding appeal for $113,000 to finalize the development of the soap with the aim of distributing it in six African countries hardest-hit by malaria by 2018, working with soap manufacturers and aid agencies.

Last year, there were 214 million cases of malaria worldwide with the mosquito-borne disease killing 438,000 people, most of them in sub-Saharan Africa.

Jo Lines, reader of malaria control and vector biology at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, praised the idea behind the soap, but said it would be dangerous to rely on an untested product to protect against malaria.

As a social startup, Langevin said Faso Soap has struggled to attract funding from donors, including the World Health Organisation (WHO) and United Nations children's agency (UNICEF), prompting the inventors to turn to crowd funding.

World leaders committed to ending malaria by 2030 when they adopted the Sustainable Development Goals last year.

Europe last month became the first region to be declared malaria-free after reporting no indigenous cases in 2015, and a former WHO official said the world can eliminate the disease soon, but only with more investment to end and keep it at bay.

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Mosquito-repellent soap invention seeks to wash away Africa malaria threat

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Two former students from Burkina Faso have designed a mosquito-repellent soap, which they hope could be a simple and affordable solution in the fight to end malaria, but more funds are needed to test the idea, according to the startup behind it.

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William attempts to make biogas out of a clay pot and "organic matter" which end up being a large mess all over his mother's kitchen. Much like Moto bricks each tried to create something from organic matter.

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Now that William has made his windmill he starts thinking of whats next. He tries many different experiments including a water pump and biogas, which were ultimately failures.

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As quoted by TBWHTW "In Malawi, we say these people are "grooving" through life, just living off small ganyu and having no real plan."

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Chapter 12
"Most of the time people still pretending to be skeptical that i could do this"
People still were skeptical of Williams creations but he still continued.

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Now with a windmill William is famous in his village for not a mad man but a genius. In the beginning when he asked his local welder, Mister Godsten, to weld something for him, Mr. Godsten thought him crazy but later began to accept it as a normality.

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Williams windmill is a great thing but of course in the conditions there would be difficulties.
"Worse , the blue gum poles that supported the thatching had long been infested by termites" but he finds a way to fix it "Soon my floor and bed were filled with chickens, squawking and flapping their wings with excitement as they pecked at the helpless termites."
Again problems came up with Kamkwambas system "I looked closely at the broken beam that hung from the ceiling and saw that my wires had crossed during the collapse."
He later uses his book Explaining Physics to fix it.

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A circuit breaker protects your house from electricity related damage

According to selfhelpandmore.com "A circuit breaker acts a bit like a fuse but can be used more than once"

Damage to a circuit breaker is often caused by to much current

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Key Facts About How Circuit Breakers Protect You and Your Home - Self Help and More

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A ground fault occurs when electrical current is leaking and an unintentional electrical path is formed between a source of current and a grounded surface. If a human body provides the electricity with a path to the ground, it can lead to electrocution. A GFCI monitors the flow of electricity within the household circuit.

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According to dictionary.com "Electricity.. Also called breaker. a device for interrupting an electric circuit to prevent excessive current, as that caused by a short circuit,from damaging the apparatus in the circuit or from causing a fire."

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Circuit breaker definition, Electricity.. Also called breaker. a device for interrupting an electric circuit to prevent excessive current, as that caused by a short circuit, from damaging the apparatus in the circuit or from causing a fire. See more.

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All quoted by Sciencekids.co

“Nothing is too wonderful to be true, if it be consistent with the laws of nature”

“There is no more open door by which you can enter into the study of natural philosophy than by considering the physical phenomena of a candle”

His work on electrochemistry and electromagnetism laid the foundation for many areas of science.

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His work on electrochemistry and electromagnetism laid the foundation for many areas of science. He formed the basis of the electromagnetic field concept in physics, discovered the laws of electrolysis, invented electromagnetic rotary devices that were vital in the creation of electric motors and played a key role in the development of electricity for use in technology.

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According to Wikipedia "A varying current in one coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic field" This then creates voltage in a second coil. Also According to wikipeia "Power can be transferred between the two coils through the magnetic field, without a metallic connection between the two circuits. "

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A transformer is a passive component that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit to another circuit, or multiple circuits. A varying current in any coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, which induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) across any other coils wound around the same core. Electrical energy can be transferred between separate coils without a metallic (conductive) connection between the two circuits. Faraday's law of induction, discovered in 1831, describes the induced voltage effect in any coil due to a changing magnetic flux encircled by the coil.

Transformers are used to change AC voltage levels, such transformers being termed step-up or step-down type to increase or decrease voltage level, respectively. Transformers can also be used to provide galvanic isolation between circuits as well as to couple stages of signal-processing circuits. Since the invention of the first constant-potential transformer in 1885, transformers have become essential for the transmission, distribution, and utilization of alternating current electric power. A wide range of transformer designs is encountered in electronic and electric power applications. Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than a cubic centimeter in volume, to units weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect the power grid.

Ideal transformer equations

By Faraday's law of induction:

where is the instantaneous voltage, is the number of turns in a winding, dΦ/dt is the derivative of the magnetic flux Φ through one turn of the winding over time (t), and subscripts P and S denotes primary and secondary.

Combining the ratio of eq. 1 & eq. 2:

By the law of conservation of energy, apparent, real and reactive power are each conserved in the input and output:

where is apparent power and is current.

Combining Eq. 3 & Eq. 4 with this endnote gives the ideal transformer identity:

where is winding self-inductance.

By Ohm's law and ideal transformer identity:

where is the load impedance of the secondary circuit & is the apparent load or driving point impedance of the primary circuit, the superscript denoting referred to the primary.

Ideal transformer connected with source V P on primary and load impedance Z L on secondary, where 0 < Z L < ∞.

Ideal transformer and induction law[d]

A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer core, which is also encircled by the secondary winding. This varying flux at the secondary winding induces a varying electromotive force or voltage in the secondary winding. This electromagnetic induction phenomenon is the basis of transformer action and, in accordance with Lenz's law, the secondary current so produced creates a flux equal and opposite to that produced by the primary winding.

The windings are wound around a core of infinitely high magnetic permeability so that all of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary windings. With a voltage source connected to the primary winding and a load connected to the secondary winding, the transformer currents flow in the indicated directions and the core magnetomotive force cancels to zero.

According to Faraday's law, since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary windings in an ideal transformer, a voltage is induced in each winding proportional to its number of turns. The transformer winding voltage ratio is equal to the winding turns ratio.

An ideal transformer is a reasonable approximation for a typical commercial transformer, with voltage ratio and winding turns ratio both being inversely proportional to the corresponding current ratio.

The load impedance referred to the primary circuit is equal to the turns ratio squared times the secondary circuit load impedance.

The ideal transformer model neglects many basic linear aspects of real transformers, including unavoidable losses and inefficiencies.

(a) Core losses, collectively called magnetizing current losses, consisting of

Hysteresis losses due to nonlinear magnetic effects in the transformer core, and

Eddy current losses due to joule heating in the core that are proportional to the square of the transformer's applied voltage.

(b) Unlike the ideal model, the windings in a real transformer have non-zero resistances and inductances associated with:

Joule losses due to resistance in the primary and secondary windings

Leakage flux that escapes from the core and passes through one winding only resulting in primary and secondary reactive impedance.

(c) similar to an inductor, parasitic capacitance and self-resonance phenomenon due to the electric field distribution. Three kinds of parasitic capacitance are usually considered and the closed-loop equations are provided

Capacitance between adjacent turns in any one layer;

Capacitance between adjacent layers;

Capacitance between the core and the layer(s) adjacent to the core;

Inclusion of capacitance into the transformer model is complicated, and is rarely attempted; the 'real' transformer model's equivalent circuit shown below does not include parasitic capacitance. However, the capacitance effect can be measured by comparing open-circuit inductance, i.e. the inductance of a primary winding when the secondary circuit is open, to a short-circuit inductance when the secondary winding is shorted.

The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary winding links all the turns of every winding, including itself. In practice, some flux traverses paths that take it outside the windings. Such flux is termed leakage flux, and results in leakage inductance in series with the mutually coupled transformer windings. Leakage flux results in energy being alternately stored in and discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the power supply. It is not directly a power loss, but results in inferior voltage regulation, causing the secondary voltage not to be directly proportional to the primary voltage, particularly under heavy load. Transformers are therefore normally designed to have very low leakage inductance.

In some applications increased leakage is desired, and long magnetic paths, air gaps, or magnetic bypass shunts may deliberately be introduced in a transformer design to limit the short-circuit current it will supply. Leaky transformers may be used to supply loads that exhibit negative resistance, such as electric arcs, mercury- and sodium- vapor lamps and neon signs or for safely handling loads that become periodically short-circuited such as electric arc welders.

Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially audio-frequency transformers in circuits that have a DC component flowing in the windings. A saturable reactor exploits saturation of the core to control alternating current.

Knowledge of leakage inductance is also useful when transformers are operated in parallel. It can be shown that if the percent impedance and associated winding leakage reactance-to-resistance ( X/ R) ratio of two transformers were the same, the transformers would share the load power in proportion to their respective ratings. However, the impedance tolerances of commercial transformers are significant. Also, the impedance and X/R ratio of different capacity transformers tends to vary.

Referring to the diagram, a practical transformer's physical behavior may be represented by an equivalent circuit model, which can incorporate an ideal transformer.

Winding joule losses and leakage reactance are represented by the following series loop impedances of the model:

In normal course of circuit equivalence transformation, R S and X S are in practice usually referred to the primary side by multiplying these impedances by the turns ratio squared, ( N P/ N S) 2 = a ².

Core loss and reactance is represented by the following shunt leg impedances of the model:

R C and X M are collectively termed the magnetizing branch of the model.

Core losses are caused mostly by hysteresis and eddy current effects in the core and are proportional to the square of the core flux for operation at a given frequency. The finite permeability core requires a magnetizing current I M to maintain mutual flux in the core. Magnetizing current is in phase with the flux, the relationship between the two being non-linear due to saturation effects. However, all impedances of the equivalent circuit shown are by definition linear and such non-linearity effects are not typically reflected in transformer equivalent circuits. With sinusoidal supply, core flux lags the induced EMF by 90°. With open-circuited secondary winding, magnetizing branch current I ₀ equals transformer no-load current.

Instrument transformer, with polarity dot and X1 markings on low-voltage ("LV") side terminal

The resulting model, though sometimes termed 'exact' equivalent circuit based on linearity assumptions, retains a number of approximations. Analysis may be simplified by assuming that magnetizing branch impedance is relatively high and relocating the branch to the left of the primary impedances. This introduces error but allows combination of primary and referred secondary resistances and reactance by simple summation as two series impedances.

Transformer equivalent circuit impedance and transformer ratio parameters can be derived from the following tests: open-circuit test, short-circuit test, winding resistance test, and transformer ratio test.

If the flux in the core is purely sinusoidal, the relationship for either winding between its rms voltage E rms of the winding, and the supply frequency f, number of turns N, core cross-sectional area A in m ² and peak magnetic flux density B peak in Wb/m ² or T (tesla) is given by the universal EMF equation:

A dot convention is often used in transformer circuit diagrams, nameplates or terminal markings to define the relative polarity of transformer windings. Positively increasing instantaneous current entering the primary winding's 'dot' end induces positive polarity voltage exiting the secondary winding's 'dot' end. Three-phase transformers used in electric power systems will have a nameplate that indicate the phase relationships between their terminals. This may be in the form of a phasor diagram, or using an alpha-numeric code to show the type of internal connection (wye or delta) for each winding.

The EMF of a transformer at a given flux increases with frequency. By operating at higher frequencies, transformers can be physically more compact because a given core is able to transfer more power without reaching saturation and fewer turns are needed to achieve the same impedance. However, properties such as core loss and conductor skin effect also increase with frequency. Aircraft and military equipment employ 400 Hz power supplies which reduce core and winding weight. Conversely, frequencies used for some railway electrification systems were much lower (e.g. 16.7 Hz and 25 Hz) than normal utility frequencies (50-60 Hz) for historical reasons concerned mainly with the limitations of early electric traction motors. Consequently, the transformers used to step-down the high overhead line voltages were much larger and heavier for the same power rating than those required for the higher frequencies.

Operation of a transformer at its designed voltage but at a higher frequency than intended will lead to reduced magnetizing current. At a lower frequency, the magnetizing current will increase. Operation of a large transformer at other than its design frequency may require assessment of voltages, losses, and cooling to establish if safe operation is practical. Transformers may require protective relays to protect the transformer from overvoltage at higher than rated frequency.

One example is in traction transformers used for electric multiple unit and high-speed train service operating across regions with different electrical standards. The converter equipment and traction transformers have to accommodate different input frequencies and voltage (ranging from as high as 50 Hz down to 16.7 Hz and rated up to 25 kV).

At much higher frequencies the transformer core size required drops dramatically: a physically small transformer can handle power levels that would require a massive iron core at mains frequency. The development of switching power semiconductor devices made switch-mode power supplies viable, to generate a high frequency, then change the voltage level with a small transformer.

Transformers for higher frequency applications such as SMPS typically use core materials with much lower hysteresis and eddy-current losses than those for 50/60 Hz. Primary examples are iron-powder and ferrite cores. The lower frequency-dependant losses of these cores often is at the expense of flux density at saturation. For instance, ferrite saturation occurs at a substantially lower flux density than laminated iron.

Large power transformers are vulnerable to insulation failure due to transient voltages with high-frequency components, such as caused in switching or by lightning.

Transformer energy losses are dominated by winding and core losses. Transformers' efficiency tends to improve with increasing transformer capacity. The efficiency of typical distribution transformers is between about 98 and 99 percent.

As transformer losses vary with load, it is often useful to tabulate no-load loss, full-load loss, half-load loss, and so on. Hysteresis and eddy current losses are constant at all load levels and dominate at no load, while winding loss increases as load increases. The no-load loss can be significant, so that even an idle transformer constitutes a drain on the electrical supply. Designing energy efficient transformers for lower loss requires a larger core, good-quality silicon steel, or even amorphous steel for the core and thicker wire, increasing initial cost. The choice of construction represents a trade-off between initial cost and operating cost.

Transformer losses arise from:

Winding joule losses

Current flowing through a winding's conductor causes joule heating due to the resistance of the wire. As frequency increases, skin effect and proximity effect causes the winding's resistance and, hence, losses to increase.

Core losses

Hysteresis losses

Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due to hysteresis within the core, caused by motion of the magnetic domains within the steel. According to Steinmetz's formula, the heat energy due to hysteresis is given by
and,

hysteresis loss is thus given by

where, f is the frequency, η is the hysteresis coefficient and β max is the maximum flux density, the empirical exponent of which varies from about 1.4 to 1.8 but is often given as 1.6 for iron.[20] For more detailed analysis, see Magnetic core and Steinmetz's equation.

Eddy current losses

Eddy currents are induced in the conductive metal transformer core by the changing magnetic field, and this current flowing through the resistance of the iron dissipates energy as heat in the core. The eddy current loss is a complex function of the square of supply frequency and inverse square of the material thickness.[20] Eddy current losses can be reduced by making the core of a stack of laminations (thin plates) electrically insulated from each other, rather than a solid block; all transformers operating at low frequencies use laminated or similar cores.

Magnetostriction related transformer hum

Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to physically expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field, an effect known as magnetostriction, the frictional energy of which produces an audible noise known as mains hum or "transformer hum".[21] This transformer hum is especially objectionable in transformers supplied at power frequencies and in high-frequency flyback transformers associated with television CRTs.

Stray losses

Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied to its magnetic fields is returned to the supply with the next half-cycle. However, any leakage flux that intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the transformer's support structure will give rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat.[22]

Radiative

There are also radiative losses due to the oscillating magnetic field but these are usually small.

Mechanical vibration and audible noise transmission

In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating forces between the primary and secondary windings. This energy incites vibration transmission in interconnected metalwork, thus amplifying audible transformer hum.[23]

Core form = core type; shell form = shell type

Closed-core transformers are constructed in 'core form' or 'shell form'. When windings surround the core, the transformer is core form; when windings are surrounded by the core, the transformer is shell form. Shell form design may be more prevalent than core form design for distribution transformer applications due to the relative ease in stacking the core around winding coils. Core form design tends to, as a general rule, be more economical, and therefore more prevalent, than shell form design for high voltage power transformer applications at the lower end of their voltage and power rating ranges (less than or equal to, nominally, 230 kV or 75 MVA). At higher voltage and power ratings, shell form transformers tend to be more prevalent. Shell form design tends to be preferred for extra-high voltage and higher MVA applications because, though more labor-intensive to manufacture, shell form transformers are characterized as having inherently better kVA-to-weight ratio, better short-circuit strength characteristics and higher immunity to transit damage.

Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies typically have cores made of high permeability silicon steel. The steel has a permeability many times that of free space and the core thus serves to greatly reduce the magnetizing current and confine the flux to a path which closely couples the windings. Early transformer developers soon realized that cores constructed from solid iron resulted in prohibitive eddy current losses, and their designs mitigated this effect with cores consisting of bundles of insulated iron wires. Later designs constructed the core by stacking layers of thin steel laminations, a principle that has remained in use. Each lamination is insulated from its neighbors by a thin non-conducting layer of insulation. The transformer universal EMF equation can be used to calculate the core cross-sectional area for a preferred level of magnetic flux.

One common design of laminated core is made from interleaved stacks of E-shaped steel sheets capped with I-shaped pieces, leading to its name of E-I transformer. Such a design tends to exhibit more losses, but is very economical to manufacture. The cut-core or C-core type is made by winding a steel strip around a rectangular form and then bonding the layers together. It is then cut in two, forming two C shapes, and the core assembled by binding the two C halves together with a steel strap. They have the advantage that the flux is always oriented parallel to the metal grains, reducing reluctance.

A steel core's remanence means that it retains a static magnetic field when power is removed. When power is then reapplied, the residual field will cause a high inrush current until the effect of the remaining magnetism is reduced, usually after a few cycles of the applied AC waveform. Overcurrent protection devices such as fuses must be selected to allow this harmless inrush to pass.

Distribution transformers can achieve low no-load losses by using cores made with low-loss high-permeability silicon steel or amorphous (non-crystalline) metal alloy. The higher initial cost of the core material is offset over the life of the transformer by its lower losses at light load.

Powdered iron cores are used in circuits such as switch-mode power supplies that operate above mains frequencies and up to a few tens of kilohertz. These materials combine high magnetic permeability with high bulk electrical resistivity. For frequencies extending beyond the VHF band, cores made from non-conductive magnetic ceramic materials called ferrites are common. Some radio-frequency transformers also have movable cores (sometimes called 'slugs') which allow adjustment of the coupling coefficient (and bandwidth) of tuned radio-frequency circuits.

Toroidal transformers are built around a ring-shaped core, which, depending on operating frequency, is made from a long strip of silicon steel or permalloy wound into a coil, powdered iron, or ferrite. A strip construction ensures that the grain boundaries are optimally aligned, improving the transformer's efficiency by reducing the core's reluctance. The closed ring shape eliminates air gaps inherent in the construction of an E-I core. The cross-section of the ring is usually square or rectangular, but more expensive cores with circular cross-sections are also available. The primary and secondary coils are often wound concentrically to cover the entire surface of the core. This minimizes the length of wire needed and provides screening to minimize the core's magnetic field from generating electromagnetic interference.

Toroidal transformers are more efficient than the cheaper laminated E-I types for a similar power level. Other advantages compared to E-I types, include smaller size (about half), lower weight (about half), less mechanical hum (making them superior in audio amplifiers), lower exterior magnetic field (about one tenth), low off-load losses (making them more efficient in standby circuits), single-bolt mounting, and greater choice of shapes. The main disadvantages are higher cost and limited power capacity (see Classification parameters below). Because of the lack of a residual gap in the magnetic path, toroidal transformers also tend to exhibit higher inrush current, compared to laminated E-I types.

Ferrite toroidal cores are used at higher frequencies, typically between a few tens of kilohertz to hundreds of megahertz, to reduce losses, physical size, and weight of inductive components. A drawback of toroidal transformer construction is the higher labor cost of winding. This is because it is necessary to pass the entire length of a coil winding through the core aperture each time a single turn is added to the coil. As a consequence, toroidal transformers rated more than a few kVA are uncommon. Relatively few toroids are offered with power ratings above 10 kVA, and practically none above 25 kVA. Small distribution transformers may achieve some of the benefits of a toroidal core by splitting it and forcing it open, then inserting a bobbin containing primary and secondary windings.

A transformer can be produced by placing the windings near each other, an arrangement termed an "air-core" transformer. An air-core transformer eliminates loss due to hysteresis in the core material. The magnetizing inductance is drastically reduced by the lack of a magnetic core, resulting in large magnetizing currents and losses if used at low frequencies. Air-core transformers are unsuitable for use in power distribution, but are frequently employed in radio-frequency applications. Air cores are also used for resonant transformers such as Tesla coils, where they can achieve reasonably low loss despite the low magnetizing inductance.

Cut view through transformer windings. Legend:
White: Air, liquid or other insulating medium
Green spiral: Grain oriented silicon steel
Black: Primary winding
Red: Secondary winding

The electrical conductor used for the windings depends upon the application, but in all cases the individual turns must be electrically insulated from each other to ensure that the current travels throughout every turn. For small transformers, in which currents are low and the potential difference between adjacent turns is small, the coils are often wound from enamelled magnet wire. Larger power transformers may be wound with copper rectangular strip conductors insulated by oil-impregnated paper and blocks of pressboard.

High-frequency transformers operating in the tens to hundreds of kilohertz often have windings made of braided Litz wire to minimize the skin-effect and proximity effect losses. Large power transformers use multiple-stranded conductors as well, since even at low power frequencies non-uniform distribution of current would otherwise exist in high-current windings. Each strand is individually insulated, and the strands are arranged so that at certain points in the winding, or throughout the whole winding, each portion occupies different relative positions in the complete conductor. The transposition equalizes the current flowing in each strand of the conductor, and reduces eddy current losses in the winding itself. The stranded conductor is also more flexible than a solid conductor of similar size, aiding manufacture.

The windings of signal transformers minimize leakage inductance and stray capacitance to improve high-frequency response. Coils are split into sections, and those sections interleaved between the sections of the other winding.

Power-frequency transformers may have taps at intermediate points on the winding, usually on the higher voltage winding side, for voltage adjustment. Taps may be manually reconnected, or a manual or automatic switch may be provided for changing taps. Automatic on-load tap changers are used in electric power transmission or distribution, on equipment such as arc furnace transformers, or for automatic voltage regulators for sensitive loads. Audio-frequency transformers, used for the distribution of audio to public address loudspeakers, have taps to allow adjustment of impedance to each speaker. A center-tapped transformer is often used in the output stage of an audio power amplifier in a push-pull circuit. Modulation transformers in AM transmitters are very similar.

It is a rule of thumb that the life expectancy of electrical insulation is halved for about every 7 °C to 10 °C increase in operating temperature (an instance of the application of the Arrhenius equation).

Small dry-type and liquid-immersed transformers are often self-cooled by natural convection and radiation heat dissipation. As power ratings increase, transformers are often cooled by forced-air cooling, forced-oil cooling, water-cooling, or combinations of these. Large transformers are filled with transformer oil that both cools and insulates the windings. Transformer oil is often a highly refined mineral oil that cools the windings and insulation by circulating within the transformer tank. The mineral oil and paper insulation system has been extensively studied and used for more than 100 years. It is estimated that 50% of power transformers will survive 50 years of use, that the average age of failure of power transformers is about 10 to 15 years, and that about 30% of power transformer failures are due to insulation and overloading failures. Prolonged operation at elevated temperature degrades insulating properties of winding insulation and dielectric coolant, which not only shortens transformer life but can ultimately lead to catastrophic transformer failure. With a great body of empirical study as a guide, transformer oil testing including dissolved gas analysis provides valuable maintenance information.

Building regulations in many jurisdictions require indoor liquid-filled transformers to either use dielectric fluids that are less flammable than oil, or be installed in fire-resistant rooms. Air-cooled dry transformers can be more economical where they eliminate the cost of a fire-resistant transformer room.

The tank of liquid-filled transformers often has radiators through which the liquid coolant circulates by natural convection or fins. Some large transformers employ electric fans for forced-air cooling, pumps for forced-liquid cooling, or have heat exchangers for water-cooling. An oil-immersed transformer may be equipped with a Buchholz relay, which, depending on severity of gas accumulation due to internal arcing, is used to either alarm or de-energize the transformer. Oil-immersed transformer installations usually include fire protection measures such as walls, oil containment, and fire-suppression sprinkler systems.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) have properties that once favored their use as a dielectric coolant, though concerns over their environmental persistence led to a widespread ban on their use. Today, non-toxic, stable silicone-based oils, or fluorinated hydrocarbons may be used where the expense of a fire-resistant liquid offsets additional building cost for a transformer vault. However, the long life span of transformers can mean that the potential for exposure can be high long after banning.

Some transformers are gas-insulated. Their windings are enclosed in sealed, pressurized tanks and often cooled by nitrogen or sulfur hexafluoride gas.

Experimental power transformers in the 500‐to‐1,000 kVA range have been built with liquid nitrogen or helium cooled superconducting windings, which eliminates winding losses without affecting core losses.

Insulation must be provided between the individual turns of the windings, between the windings, between windings and core, and at the terminals of the winding.

Inter-turn insulation of small transformers may be a layer of insulating varnish on the wire. Layer of paper or polymer films may be inserted between layers of windings, and between primary and secondary windings. A transformer may be coated or dipped in a polymer resin to improve the strength of windings and protect them from moisture or corrosion. The resin may be impregnated into the winding insulation using combinations of vacuum and pressure during the coating process, eliminating all air voids in the winding. In the limit, the entire coil may be placed in a mold, and resin cast around it as a solid block, encapsulating the windings.

Large oil-filled power transformers use windings wrapped with insulating paper, which is impregnated with oil during assembly of the transformer. Oil-filled transformers use highly refined mineral oil to insulate and cool the windings and core. Construction of oil-filled transformers requires that the insulation covering the windings be thoroughly dried of residual moisture before the oil is introduced. Drying may be done by circulating hot air around the core, by circulating externally heated transformer oil, or by vapor-phase drying (VPD) where an evaporated solvent transfers heat by condensation on the coil and core. For small transformers, resistance heating by injection of current into the windings is used.

Larger transformers are provided with high-voltage insulated bushings made of polymers or porcelain. A large bushing can be a complex structure since it must provide careful control of the electric field gradient without letting the transformer leak oil.

An electrical substation in Melbourne, Australia showing three of five 220 kV - 66 kV transformers, each with a capacity of 150 MVA

Camouflaged transformer in Langley City, Canada

Transformers can be classified in many ways, such as the following:

Power rating: From a fraction of a volt-ampere (VA) to over a thousand MVA.

Duty of a transformer: Continuous, short-time, intermittent, periodic, varying.

Frequency range: Power-frequency, audio-frequency, or radio-frequency.

Voltage class: From a few volts to hundreds of kilovolts.

Cooling type: Dry or liquid-immersed; self-cooled, forced air-cooled;forced oil-cooled, water-cooled.

Application: power supply, impedance matching, output voltage and current stabilizer, pulse, circuit isolation, power distribution, rectifier, arc furnace, amplifier output, etc..

Basic magnetic form: Core form, shell form, concentric, sandwich.

Constant-potential transformer descriptor: Step-up, step-down, isolation.

General winding configuration: By IEC vector group, two-winding combinations of the phase designations delta, wye or star, and zigzag; autotransformer, Scott-T

Rectifier phase-shift winding configuration: 2-winding, 6-pulse; 3-winding, 12-pulse; . . ., n-winding, [n − 1]·6-pulse; polygon; etc..

Transformer at the Limestone Generating Station in Manitoba, Canada

Various specific electrical application designs require a variety of transformer types. Although they all share the basic characteristic transformer principles, they are customized in construction or electrical properties for certain installation requirements or circuit conditions.

In many electronic devices, a transformer is used to convert voltage from the distribution wiring to convenient values for the circuit requirements, either directly at the power line frequency or through a switch mode power supply.

Signal and audio transformers are used to couple stages of amplifiers and to match devices such as microphones and record players to the input of amplifiers. Audio transformers allowed telephone circuits to carry on a two-way conversation over a single pair of wires. A balun transformer converts a signal that is referenced to ground to a signal that has balanced voltages to ground, such as between external cables and internal circuits. Isolation transformers prevent leakage of current into the secondary circuit and are used in medical equipment and at construction sites. Resonant transformers are used for coupling between stages of radio receivers, or in high-voltage Tesla coils.

Faraday's experiment with induction between coils of wire[53]

Electromagnetic induction, the principle of the operation of the transformer, was discovered independently by Michael Faraday in 1831 and Joseph Henry in 1832. Only Faraday furthered his experiments to the point of working out the equation describing the relationship between EMF and magnetic flux now known as Faraday's law of induction:

where is the magnitude of the EMF in volts and Φ B is the magnetic flux through the circuit in webers.[58]

The first type of transformer to see wide use was the induction coil, invented by Rev. Nicholas Callan of Maynooth College, Ireland in 1836. He was one of the first researchers to realize the more turns the secondary winding has in relation to the primary winding, the larger the induced secondary EMF will be. Induction coils evolved from scientists' and inventors' efforts to get higher voltages from batteries. Since batteries produce direct current (DC) rather than AC, induction coils relied upon vibrating electrical contacts that regularly interrupted the current in the primary to create the flux changes necessary for induction. Between the 1830s and the 1870s, efforts to build better induction coils, mostly by trial and error, slowly revealed the basic principles of transformers.

By the 1870s, efficient generators producing alternating current (AC) were available, and it was found AC could power an induction coil directly, without an interrupter.

In 1876, Russian engineer Pavel Yablochkov invented a lighting system based on a set of induction coils where the primary windings were connected to a source of AC. The secondary windings could be connected to several 'electric candles' (arc lamps) of his own design. The coils Yablochkov employed functioned essentially as transformers.

In 1882, Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs first exhibited a device with an initially widely criticized laminated plate open iron core called a 'secondary generator' in London, then sold the idea to the Westinghouse company in the United States in 1886. They also exhibited the invention in Turin, Italy in 1884, where it was highly successful and adopted for an electric lighting system. Their device used a fixed 1:1 ratio to supply a series circuit for the utilization load (lamps). The voltage of their system was controlled by pushing in and pulling out its open iron core.

Induction coils with open magnetic circuits are inefficient at transferring power to loads. Until about 1880, the paradigm for AC power transmission from a high voltage supply to a low voltage load was a series circuit. Open-core transformers with a ratio near 1:1 were connected with their primaries in series to allow use of a high voltage for transmission while presenting a low voltage to the lamps. The inherent flaw in this method was that turning off a single lamp (or other electric device) affected the voltage supplied to all others on the same circuit. Many adjustable transformer designs were introduced to compensate for this problematic characteristic of the series circuit, including those employing methods of adjusting the core or bypassing the magnetic flux around part of a coil. Efficient, practical transformer designs did not appear until the 1880s, but within a decade, the transformer would be instrumental in the war of the currents, and in seeing AC distribution systems triumph over their DC counterparts, a position in which they have remained dominant ever since.

Shell form transformer. Sketch used by Uppenborn to describe ZBD engineers' 1885 patents and earliest articles.[62]

The ZBD team consisted of Károly Zipernowsky, Ottó Bláthy and Miksa Déri

In the autumn of 1884, Károly Zipernowsky, Ottó Bláthy and Miksa Déri (ZBD), three Hungarian engineers associated with the Ganz Works, had determined that open-core devices were impracticable, as they were incapable of reliably regulating voltage. The Ganz factory had also in the autumn of 1884 made delivery of the world's first five high-efficiency AC transformers, the first of these units having been shipped on September 16, 1884. This first unit had been manufactured to the following specifications: 1,400 W, 40 Hz, 120:72 V, 11.6:19.4 A, ratio 1.67:1, one-phase, shell form. In their joint 1885 patent applications for novel transformers (later called ZBD transformers), they described two designs with closed magnetic circuits where copper windings were either wound around an iron wire ring core or surrounded by an iron wire core. The two designs were the first application of the two basic transformer constructions in common use to this day, termed "core form" or "shell form" .

In both designs, the magnetic flux linking the primary and secondary windings traveled almost entirely within the confines of the iron core, with no intentional path through air (see Toroidal cores below). The new transformers were 3.4 times more efficient than the open-core bipolar devices of Gaulard and Gibbs. The ZBD patents included two other major interrelated innovations: one concerning the use of parallel connected, instead of series connected, utilization loads, the other concerning the ability to have high turns ratio transformers such that the supply network voltage could be much higher (initially 1,400 to 2,000 V) than the voltage of utilization loads (100 V initially preferred). When employed in parallel connected electric distribution systems, closed-core transformers finally made it technically and economically feasible to provide electric power for lighting in homes, businesses and public spaces. Bláthy had suggested the use of closed cores, Zipernowsky had suggested the use of parallel shunt connections, and Déri had performed the experiments; In early 1885, the three engineers also eliminated the problem of eddy current losses with the invention of the lamination of electromagnetic cores.

Transformers today are designed on the principles discovered by the three engineers. They also popularized the word 'transformer' to describe a device for altering the EMF of an electric current although the term had already been in use by 1882. In 1886, the ZBD engineers designed, and the Ganz factory supplied electrical equipment for, the world's first power station that used AC generators to power a parallel connected common electrical network, the steam-powered Rome-Cerchi power plant.

Building on the advancement of AC technology in Europe, George Westinghouse founded the Westinghouse Electric in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on January 8, 1886. The new firm became active in developing alternating current (AC) electric infrastructure throughout the United States. The Edison Electric Light Company held an option on the US rights for the ZBD transformers, requiring Westinghouse to pursue alternative designs on the same principles. George Westinghouse had bought Gaulard and Gibbs' patents for $50,000 in February 1886. He assigned to William Stanley the task of redesign the Gaulard and Gibbs transformer for commercial use in United States. Stanley's first patented design was for induction coils with single cores of soft iron and adjustable gaps to regulate the EMF present in the secondary winding (see image). This design was first used commercially in the US in 1886 but Westinghouse was intent on improving the Stanley design to make it (unlike the ZBD type) easy and cheap to produce.

Westinghouse, Stanley and associates soon developed a core that was easier to manufacture, consisting of a stack of thin 'E‑shaped' iron plates insulated by thin sheets of paper or other insulating material. Pre-wound copper coils could then be slid into place, and straight iron plates laid in to create a closed magnetic circuit. Westinghouse obtained a patent for the new low-cost design in 1887.

Beeman, Donald, ed. (1955). Industrial Power Systems Handbook. McGraw-Hill.

Calvert, James (2001). "Inside Transformers". University of Denver. Archived from the original on May 9, 2007.

Coltman, J. W. (Jan 1988). "The Transformer". Scientific American. 258 (1): 86-95. Bibcode:1988SciAm.258a..86C. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0188-86. OSTI 6851152.

Coltman, J. W. (Jan-Feb 2002). "The Transformer [Historical Overview]". IEEE Industry Applications Magazine. 8 (1): 8-15. doi:10.1109/2943.974352. S2CID 18160717.

Brenner, Egon; Javid, Mansour (1959). "Chapter 18-Circuits with Magnetic Coupling". Analysis of Electric Circuits. McGraw-Hill. pp. 586-622.

CEGB, (Central Electricity Generating Board) (1982). Modern Power Station Practice. Pergamon. ISBN 978-0-08-016436-6.

Crosby, D. (1958). "The Ideal Transformer". IRE Transactions on Circuit Theory. 5 (2): 145. doi:10.1109/TCT.1958.1086447.

Daniels, A. R. (1985). Introduction to Electrical Machines. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-19627-4.

De Keulenaer, Hans; Chapman, David; Fassbinder, Stefan; McDermott, Mike (2001). The Scope for Energy Saving in the EU through the Use of Energy-Efficient Electricity Distribution Transformers (PDF). 16th International Conference and Exhibition on Electricity Distribution (CIRED 2001). Institution of Engineering and Technology. doi:10.1049/cp:20010853.

Fink, Donald G.; Beatty, H. Wayne, eds. (1978). Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers (11th ed.). McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-020974-9.

Guarnieri, M. (2013). "Who Invented the Transformer?". IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine. 7 (4): 56-59. doi:10.1109/MIE.2013.2283834. S2CID 27936000.

Halacsy, A. A.; Von Fuchs, G. H. (April 1961). "Transformer Invented 75 Years Ago". IEEE Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. 80 (3): 121-125. doi:10.1109/AIEEPAS.1961.4500994. S2CID 51632693.

Hameyer, Kay (2004). Electrical Machines I: Basics, Design, Function, Operation (PDF). RWTH Aachen University Institute of Electrical Machines. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-02-10.

Hammond, John Winthrop (1941). Men and Volts: The Story of General Electric. J. B. Lippincott Company. pp. see esp. 106-107, 178, 238.

Hughes, Thomas P. (1993). Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-8018-2873-7.

Hindmarsh, John (1977). Electrical Machines and Their Applications (4th ed.). Exeter: Pergamon. ISBN 978-0-08-030573-8.

McLaren, Peter (1984). Elementary Electric Power and Machines. Ellis Horwood. ISBN 978-0-470-20057-5.

Parker, M. R; Ula, S.; Webb, W. E. (2005). "§2.5.5 'Transformers' & §10.1.3 'The Ideal Transformer'". In Whitaker, Jerry C. (ed.). The Electronics Handbook (2nd ed.). Taylor & Francis. pp. 172, 1017. ISBN 0-8493-1889-0.

General links:

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A transformer is a passive component that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit to another circuit, or multiple circuits. A varying current in any coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, which induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) across any other coils wound around the same core.

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According to allaboutcircuts.com "A transformer that increases voltage from primary to secondary (more secondary winding turns than primary winding turns) is called a step-up transformer."

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So far, we've observed simulations of transformers where the primary and secondary windings were of identical inductance, giving approximately equal voltage and current levels in both circuits. Equality of voltage and current between the primary and secondary sides of a transformer, however, is not the norm for all transformers. If the inductances of the two windings are not equal, something interesting happens:

transformer
v1 1 0 ac 10 sin
rbogus1 1 2 1e-12
rbogus2 5 0 9e12
l1 2 0 10000
l2 3 5 100
k l1 l2 0.999
vi1 3 4 ac 0
rload 4 5 1k
.ac lin 1 60 60
.print ac v(2,0) i(v1)
.print ac v(3,5) i(vi1)
.end

freq v(2) i(v1)
6.000E+01 1.000E+01 9.975E-05 Primary winding
freq v(3,5) i(vi1)
6.000E+01 9.962E-01 9.962E-04 Secondary winding

Notice how the secondary voltage is approximately ten times less than the primary voltage (0.9962 volts compared to 10 volts), while the secondary current is approximately ten times greater (0.9962 mA compared to 0.09975 mA). What we have here is a device that steps voltage down by a factor of ten and current up by a factor of ten: (Figure below)

Turns ratio of 10:1 yields 10:1 primary:secondary voltage ratio and 1:10 primary:secondary current ratio.

This is a very useful device, indeed. With it, we can easily multiply or divide voltage and current in AC circuits. Indeed, the transformer has made long-distance transmission of electric power a practical reality, as AC voltage can be "stepped up" and current "stepped down" for reduced wire resistance power losses along power lines connecting generating stations with loads. At either end (both the generator and at the loads), voltage levels are reduced by transformers for safer operation and less expensive equipment. A transformer that increases voltage from primary to secondary (more secondary winding turns than primary winding turns) is called a step-up transformer. Conversely, a transformer designed to do just the opposite is called a step-down transformer.

Let's re-examine a photograph shown in the previous section: (Figure below)

In case you were wondering, it is possible to operate either of these transformer types backwards (powering the secondary winding with an AC source and letting the primary winding power a load) to perform the opposite function: a step-up can function as a step-down and visa-versa. However, as we saw in the first section of this chapter, efficient operation of a transformer requires that the individual winding inductances be engineered for specific operating ranges of voltage and current, so if a transformer is to be used "backwards" like this it must be employed within the original design parameters of voltage and current for each winding, lest it prove to be inefficient (or lest it be damaged by excessive voltage or current!).

Transformers are often constructed in such a way that it is not obvious which wires lead to the primary winding and which lead to the secondary. One convention used in the electric power industry to help alleviate confusion is the use of "H" designations for the higher-voltage winding (the primary winding in a step-down unit; the secondary winding in a step-up) and "X" designations for the lower-voltage winding. Therefore, a simple power transformer will have wires labeled "H ₁", "H ₂", "X ₁", and "X ₂". There is usually significant to the numbering of the wires (H ₁ versus H ₂, etc.), which we'll explore a little later in this chapter.

The fact that voltage and current get "stepped" in opposite directions (one up, the other down) makes perfect sense when you recall that power is equal to voltage times current, and realize that transformers cannot produce power, only convert it. Any device that could output more power than it took in would violate the Law of Energy Conservation in physics, namely that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted. As with the first transformer example we looked at, power transfer efficiency is very good from the primary to the secondary sides of the device.

The practical significance of this is made more apparent when an alternative is considered: before the advent of efficient transformers, voltage/current level conversion could only be achieved through the use of motor/generator sets. A drawing of a motor/generator set reveals the basic principle involved: (Figure below)

In such a machine, a motor is mechanically coupled to a generator, the generator designed to produce the desired levels of voltage and current at the rotating speed of the motor. While both motors and generators are fairly efficient devices, the use of both in this fashion compounds their inefficiencies so that the overall efficiency is in the range of 90% or less. Furthermore, because motor/generator sets obviously require moving parts, mechanical wear and balance are factors influencing both service life and performance. Transformers, on the other hand, are able to convert levels of AC voltage and current at very high efficiencies with no moving parts, making possible the widespread distribution and use of electric power we take for granted.

In all fairness it should be noted that motor/generator sets have not necessarily been obsoleted by transformers for all applications. While transformers are clearly superior over motor/generator sets for AC voltage and current level conversion, they cannot convert one frequency of AC power to another, or (by themselves) convert DC to AC or visa-versa. Motor/generator sets can do all these things with relative simplicity, albeit with the limitations of efficiency and mechanical factors already described. Motor/generator sets also have the unique property of kinetic energy storage: that is, if the motor's power supply is momentarily interrupted for any reason, its angular momentum (the inertia of that rotating mass) will maintain rotation of the generator for a short duration, thus isolating any loads powered by the generator from "glitches" in the main power system.

Looking closely at the numbers in the SPICE analysis, we should see a correspondence between the transformer's ratio and the two inductances. Notice how the primary inductor (l1) has 100 times more inductance than the secondary inductor (10000 H versus 100 H), and that the measured voltage step-down ratio was 10 to 1. The winding with more inductance will have higher voltage and less current than the other. Since the two inductors are wound around the same core material in the transformer (for the most efficient magnetic coupling between the two), the parameters affecting inductance for the two coils are equal except for the number of turns in each coil. If we take another look at our inductance formula, we see that inductance is proportional to the square of the number of coil turns:

So, it should be apparent that our two inductors in the last SPICE transformer example circuit-with inductance ratios of 100:1-should have coil turn ratios of 10:1, because 10 squared equals 100. This works out to be the same ratio we found between primary and secondary voltages and currents (10:1), so we can say as a rule that the voltage and current transformation ratio is equal to the ratio of winding turns between primary and secondary.

The step-up/step-down effect of coil turn ratios in a transformer (Figure above) is analogous to gear tooth ratios in mechanical gear systems, transforming values of speed and torque in much the same way: (Figure below)

Step-up and step-down transformers for power distribution purposes can be gigantic in proportion to the power transformers previously shown, some units standing as tall as a home. The following photograph shows a substation transformer standing about twelve feet tall: (Figure below)

Substation transformer.

REVIEW:

Transformers "step up" or "step down" voltage according to the ratios of primary to secondary wire turns.

A transformer designed to increase voltage from primary to secondary is called a step-up transformer. A transformer designed to reduce voltage from primary to secondary is called a step-down transformer.

The transformation ratio of a transformer will be equal to the square root of its primary to secondary inductance (L) ratio.

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So far, we've observed simulations of transformers where the primary and secondary windings were of identical inductance, giving approximately equal voltage and current levels in both circuits. Equality of voltage and current between the primary and secondary sides of a transformer, however, is not the norm for all transformers.

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Chapter 11
"This was the same forest where I'd been convinced I'd been bewitched by the bubblegum man, the same forest where I'd accepted magic and been defeated, and now i was back there to cut down trees to build a ladder to science and creation- something greater and more real than any magic in the land."
William finally shows the word what he is capable, and he begins to dream more vividly of a better world.

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Chapter 10
"It was like adding the last piece to the great puzzle of my life."
William is forced out of school yet again, but in the free time creates his windmill much to the ridicule of his neighbors.

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According to Merriam-Webster Gratitude means "a feeling of appreciation or thanks"

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Gratitude definition is - the state of being grateful : thankfulness. How to use gratitude in a sentence.

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Williams windmill is a thing of beauty and functionality. It is often referred to as a work of art. Its amazing to think that this piece of beauty is created out of trash, but it is. Afew specific details about his windmilll include:
• William used his fathers old bike to make a gear of sorts on the back to take in the spinning from the blades of the windmill.
• William visits the junkyard picking up pieces of scrap including bottle caps for screws and washers.

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William displays perseverance throughout the book, but when he is faced with another year of school and is extremely behind. He shows this when he says "As i had feared I was behind in everything: Geography, agriculture, Social studies, alll things I'd studied in the library." Despite being behind in his school work he was able to work as hard as he could to catch up. Even though he tries his hardest, when it is time for fees to be paid once again he is forced to leave school yet again. "My greatest fear was coming true: I would end up just like him, another Malawian farmer laboring in the soil." This is very sad because we know his potential and he is held back by society. But he goes on and does his best with what he has.

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Like many scientists in their time William Kamkwamba faces many challenges by unbelievers in his village. One of the most renowned scientists for being ridiculed would be Albert Einstein himself. As a widely known scientists and mathematician its hard to believe that he was ever mocked by his peers but they believed him to be mad and a complete moron. Another Scientists mocked as William was would be the great Ludwig Boltzmann who is primarily known for his work with matter specifically atoms. He was ridiculed for his work due to the contradictory debate among scientists at the time over the idea of matter. In time though people have come to appreciate these geniuses and each have become some of the greatest scientists of all time.

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As quoted on linked website
¨For the price of a year in a US college, five girls can go to university in Africa.¨
¨12 girls can go to school in East Africa for the price on one student in the US.¨

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Chapter 9
"A windmill meant more than just power, it was freedom."
The Famine now over, William is starting to think about the future and starts building his  windmill."

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In the video "I just schooled the school system" by Prince Ed, he talks about how the education system was corrupt and ineffective. In TBWHTW Kamkwamba was thought to be stupid by the schooling system, but he created things out of a little trash and his own innovation. The schooling system is outdated and ineffective and Kamkwamba is an example of that.

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Smarter Every Day 153
In the YouTube channel SmarterEveryDay the creator talks about amazing acts of science and why they are. In this episode he talks about magnets and their properties.

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Mind-Blowing Magic Magnets - Smarter Every Day 153

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Chapter 8
¨We lived, we survived¨
The devastation of the famine had reached even Kamkwambas dog, but there is a new beginning on the horizon.

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At the end of chapter 8, the maize is ready for harvesting. People are finally starting to eat again and the overall mood is much lighter with a bit of food.

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I believe that killing his dog was the right decision in the desperate time, and I am surprised he did not kill it sooner. If I were in Kamkwamba's position i would find it difficult to kill my own dog, but when times are tough you must take drastic measures. Ido think that the family should have eaten the dog rather than burying it, but in being sentimental towards an animal, I can understand his feelings.

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Kamkwamba uses a simile to describe his hunger on page 141 of The Boy Who Harnessed The Wind "Little did I Know, but my stomach had taken over my entire body during the night, filled every limb and crevice, all the was up to my head like a big balloon." Another example of this would be "By now his [Kamkwambas Father] mighty frame had shrunk like a little piece of fruit in the sun."

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Chapter 7
"this much was certain: Every man for himself. We were on our own"
The president of Malawi incorrectly advertise the famine in Malawi, and people are starting to lose hope.

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I believe that society is obligated to take care of the weak and sick. It is human nature to care about our fellow humans. Sometime people don't take into consideration the needs of others but it is only natural to care.

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Chapter 6
"My father's spirit seemed to disappear in the days after my sister left"
Kamkwamba's sister left to be married, and that year was a sad christmas without food or his sister.

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Mob mentality affecting personal moral code?

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Mob mentality affecting personal moral code?

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Mina Cikara, a sociologist at Carnegie Mellon University, recently attended a New York Yankee game with her husband. They are Red Sox fans and wore a hat to prove it. They were, of course, jeered, and they left the ball field stunned and wondering: Why did they torment us?

In a new research paper led by Cikara, a team of researchers have discovered a new insight into mob mentality - the propensity for groups of people to shed the inhibitions of societal and moral standards. Isolated individuals seldom heckle or riot. But throngs of sports fans torch cars, protesters storm government offices, and gangs go to war over intangible slights. Cikara and her colleagues may have discovered a culprit we can't control: our brains.

"Although humans exhibit strong preferences for equity and moral prohibitions against harm in many contexts, people's priorities change when there is an 'us' and a 'them,'" co-author Rebecca Saxe, an associate professor of cognitive neuroscience at MIT, told The groups's paper appeared recently in the journal Neuroimage. "A group of people will often engage in actions that are contrary to the private moral standards of each individual in that group, sweeping otherwise decent individuals into 'mobs' that commit looting, vandalism, even physical brutality."

Some of the apparent causes of mob mentality are well understood. Anonymity is one: Yankee fans can disappear into a blur of blue pinstripes. "I have never been called names like that in my entire life," says Cikara of her New York visit. (She has completed post-doctoral research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, in Cambridge.) When people feel they will not be recognized or called to answer for their actions, they are more likely to behave wantonly. Another factor is responsibility. Guilt, shared collectively and spread thin, is an easier thing to stomach.

Yet, there may be something else going on: something less subjective and more quantifiable. Cikara and her colleagues wanted to find out whether an individual's sense of self - and therefore the individual's moral compass - is diminished during times of collective endeavor. But how do you measure sense of self? A functional magnetic resonance imaging brain scan, of course.

Hooking test subjects up to these machines, the scientists could monitor activity in different parts of the brain. A brain section called the medial prefrontal cortex lights up when people think about themselves and is more dormant when people act in groups, like playing on a team or rallying for a cause. During the testing, study participants were asked a series of questions about moral judgment as individuals and while competing in groups.

For some people in groups, the medial prefrontal cortex was more inactive than others. Those same people were also the least kind. After the series of questions, subjects were asked to choose pictures of teammates and of members of the opposing team to appear with the published study. The people with less self-reflection chose the most flattering pictures of themselves and their teammates and the ugliest pictures of their opponents. For shame.

"It's been hard to get a direct handle on the extent to which people within a group are tapping into their own understanding of things versus the group's understanding," David Rand, a Yale University psychologist who didn't participate in the study, told MIT News. "This is a nice way of using neuroimaging to try to get insight into something that behaviorally has been really hard to explore."

Incidentally, the people with low self-reflection had trouble remembering the questions that appeared during the study. Cikara says that's because the questions were about their own morality - something they weren't paying much attention to at the time. Which is convenient: You can't feel guilty about something if you can't remember it.

Source: Cikara M, Jenkins A, Dufour N, Sax R. Reduced self-referential neural response during intergroup competition predicts competitor harm. Neuroimage. 2014.

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Why Mobs Behave Badly - It's The Brain's Fault

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Mina Cikara, a sociologist at Carnegie Mellon University, recently attended a New York Yankee game with her husband. They are Red Sox fans and wore a hat to prove it. They were, of course, jeered, and they left the ball field stunned and wondering: Why did they torment us?

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According to the the guardian.com "The scale of the crisis unfolding in 10 or more southern African countries has shocked the United Nations."https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/may/22/africa-worst-famine-since-1985-looms-for-50-million

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arvest should be the time for celebrations, weddings and full bellies in southern Malawi. But Christopher Witimani, Lilian Matafle and their seven children and four grandchildren had nothing to celebrate last week as they picked their meagre maize crop.

Last year's drought, followed by erratic rains, hit the village of Nkhotakota hard. But this year the rains never came and, for a second year running, the family grain store is empty. If they manage their savings carefully and eat just one small meal a day, they may just have enough food for two more months.

By August, said Irish charity Concern Worldwide, they and tens of thousands of other small farmers in southern Malawi will have completely run out of food, with no prospect of another harvest for at least seven months. With nothing to sell and no chance of earning money, Witimani, Matafle and family will starve.

"I am worried the children will starve to death. I don't know what to do," said Matafle.

"We need food. We are in a desperate situation," her husband added.

Countries are just waking up to the most serious global food crisis of the last 25 years. Caused by the strongest El Niño weather event since 1982, droughts and heatwaves have ravaged much of India, Latin America and parts of south-east Asia. But the worst effects of this natural phenomenon, which begins with waters warming in the equatorial Pacific, are to be found in southern Africa. A second consecutive year without rain now threatens catastrophe for some of the poorest people in the world.

The scale of the crisis unfolding in 10 or more southern African countries has shocked the United Nations. Lulled into thinking that Ethiopia in 1985 was the last of the large-scale famines affecting many millions, donor countries have been slow to pledge funds or support. More than $650m and 7.9m tonnes of food are needed immediately, says the UN. By Christmas, the situation will have become severe.

Malawi, Mozambique, Lesotho, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Madagascar, Angola and Swaziland have already declared national emergencies or disasters, as have seven of South Africa's nine provinces. Other countries, including Botswana and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, have also been badly hit. President Robert Mugabe has appealed for $1.5bn to buy food for Zimbabwe and Malawi is expected to declare that more than 8 million people, or half the country, will need food aid by November.

Serena Gadinala, from the in Neno district of Malawi, has tried different planting techniques but nothing worked and her crops continue to wilt. Photograph: Tamara van Vliet/OCHA

More than 31 million people in the region are said by the UN to need food now, but this number is expected to rise to at least 49 million across almost all of southern Africa by Christmas. With 12 million more hungry people in Ethiopia, 7 million in Yemen, 6 million in Southern Sudan and more in the Central African Republic and Chad, a continent-scale food crisis is unfolding.

"Food security across southern Africa will start deteriorating by July, reaching its peak between December 2016 and April 2017," says the UN's office for humanitarian affairs. The regional cereal deficit already stands at 7.9m tonnes and continues to put upward pressure on market prices, which are already showing unprecedented increases, diminishing purchasing power and thereby reducing food access. As food insecurity tightens and water scarcity increases due to the drought, there are early signs of acute malnutrition in Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabawe.

For Coco Ushiyama, head of the UN's World Food Programme in Lilongwe, Malawi's capital, just working out how to import a million tonnes of food, needed to support between five million and eight million people in Malawi over the next 12 months, is proving nightmarishly difficult. With no guarantees of money from donors, she cannot buy the food on the open market, or book ships and transport.

"We are very concerned. Last year, like many other countries in the region, Malawi had a double disaster with erratic rains and then floods which led into droughts," said Ushiyama. "Last year, 2.8 million people were affected. Then we had a deficit of 220,000 tonnes of food. This year, we are anticipating it will be four times as bad. The maize price is already exceptionally high.

"We are monitoring 50 markets throughout the country and already they are seeing abnormally high prices. We have very worryingly high admission rates for childhood malnutrition in health clinics. In some areas it is very serious already and it is likely to get much more serious. It will be a regional issue," she said.

The government has declared a disaster and will publish a new assessment of its needs in the next few weeks. The vice-president, Saulos Chilima, has said that about 1.3m tonnes of maize will be needed.

Politicians may talk of going on to the world market to buy a million tonnes of maize, but Ushiyama is unsure where it will come from. There is usually enough food in the region, but South Africa, which usually exports a million tonnes of food a year, will need to import 3.5m tonnes this year. Only Zambia may have enough food to export and it has imposed restrictions, she said.

"South Africa is in trouble. Nearby Zambia has had a better harvest than most countries but it has put export restrictions on its food. If we import it [from outside Africa], the food will take four to six months [to arrive]. We have learned from experience that the rains start in November so the roads will be terrible when the food is most needed and some lorry drivers will refuse to come. By November, we will need to have pre-positioned food in key areas. But to get it there by then means ordering the food right now," she said.

People are divide pulses among themselves at a United Nations World Food Programme food distribution centre in Chikwawa district, Malawi. Photograph: Tamara van Vliet/OCHA

Finding the cash to feed possibly 50 million people for eight or more months is the biggest problem of all, says the UN, because Africa's slow-burn crisis must compete with Middle East wars, refugees and natural disasters for attention. According to the UN, which is holding an unprecedented humanitarian summit this week in Istanbul, 125 million people worldwide need long-term assistance and a further 60 million have been forced from their homes by war, violence and disaster.

More than $1.5bn has been requested by southern African governments, says Ocha, the UN's Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, but less than a quarter of this has been pledged. Officially, the deficit is $677 million (87%) but this will grow when countries complete their assessments of the harvests in the next few weeks.

"The window for responding in a meaningful manner is closing rapidly," said Shadrack Omol, senior adviser to the UN children's fund, Unicef. "The concern is that slow-onset emergencies, like the one we are dealing with in southern Africa, do not get enough attention because they creep up on us."

John Makina, Oxfam country director in Malawi, said: "The donors just do not have the money; there is donor fatigue. Malawi has been hit by drought, then floods, then drought. The donors are getting tired of it. In 2015, Malawi alone needed $170m. In 2016-17, it will be far more.

"The full impact will be felt from October to March 2017. It's looking really bad. The most affected will be the poorest and jobless. They will end up selling what little they possess. The price of maize flour has already gone to 9,000 kwachas (£8.70) for 50kg. It will double again for sure," he said.

International development minister Nick Hurd, who has visited Mozambique, wants Britain to lead the humanitarian effort. But money cannot be given directly to the country following a corruption scandal, and the government must work through a consortium of NGOs, providing food vouchers, medical aid and food-for-work schemes.

"We cannot and will not stand idly by while millions suffer. Britain is playing a leading role in helping countries across Africa to cope with the impact of El Niño. Support for people affected by El Niño is important to Africa and also firmly in Britain's national interest," says Hurd.

In villages across southern Africa, people are fearful, unsure how they will survive. In Mozambique, where Britain is contributing £11.8m over three years, some food aid has arrived in the village of Mblalava.

A farmer tries to grow crops with the help of a United Nations supported irrigation scheme in the Neno district of Malawi. Photograph: Tamara van Vliet/OCHA

The women are ecstatic: "It's been two and a half years since we had good rain," said Rosita Chauque, a mother of three. "When the drought started we used to be able to find vegetables in the bush, but even these have gone now. We used to make and sell charcoal, but there are so many other people doing that now it's not possible. We have thought of leaving, but where to? We have no crops in the fields, no food for the cattle and nothing for ourselves. There is no water, no grass. People are selling their animals. They have no other resources. There is a lot of suffering."

"The situation is critical," said Abdoulaye Balde, the World Food Programme country director in Mozambique's capital, Maputo. "We are at the point of no return."

Droughts and "hungry seasons" are common throughout southern Africa, but the breadth of this year's crisis is very unusual, says Caoimhe de Barra, Malawi country director of Concern Worldwide. Her frontline workers see rural people already employing traditional coping strategies, including eating wild foods, taking children out of school, selling their animals and assets.

"Early action is key. If we can start supporting people now, we can save lives and prevent an even worse situation later this year. People are not currently dying of hunger but the overall health of the population will be severely affected by hunger-related illnesses. Malnutrition will blight the life chances of countless more Malawian children," she said.

The secretary general of the International Red Cross, Elhadj As Sy, who visited Malawi and Zimbabwe last week, said: "Much more needs to be done to support communities to survive and strive over the coming months. We met families who have received no external support and who are simply desperate. We need to urgently scale up our interventions to prevent this situation from becoming a catastrophe," he said.

Relief from Africa's long drought may finally be coming, says the World Meteorological Organisation, which is monitoring the temperature of waters in the Pacific. These are said to be cooling rapidly and are expected to be "neutral" by mid-June. That, says the UN, signals the coming end of the El Niño, the droughts and the worldwide heatwaves.

The effects, however, will not be felt in southern Africa until April 2017 when the next main harvest should be in. But, says the WMO, there may be a sting in the tale. There is a 50:50 chance that the continent will be hit from September by El Niño's climatic "twin", known as La Niña, which develops as the Pacific Ocean equatorial waters cool after an El Niño.

Instead of droughts, La Niña usually brings heavier monsoon rains in south-east Asia and much cooler and wetter conditions in southern Africa.

"We pray hard for rain and then we must pray harder that it stops. Is there no end of extreme weather?" said Malawian villager Richard Kapenda.

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Across Africa, the worst food crisis since 1985 looms for 50 million

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A second year without rain threatens to bring catastrophe for some of the poorest people in the world. Donor countries, in the grip of wars and refugee crises, have been slow to pledge funds. But by the time they do, it could be too late

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As quoted by TBWHTW
"if a girl likes a guy enough, she'll ask him to come meet her family. He'll then visit for several weekends in a row. If all goes well and the guy senses he's safe  with the family, he'll propose marriage. The girl will say, "Okay, let me go talk with my uncle."The mother will talk to the father, who will speak to the wife's brother. The groom then approaches the groom's uncle and the two men convene. The bride's uncle then names the price of the dowery- usually money, anywhere upwards of one hundred thousand Kwacha, or livestock, such as a cow. The bride's uncle will also be given a "mouth fee," for speaking on behalf of his family. All of this happened before the wedding is even planned."

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Chapter 5
¨If the government treated our dear leader in such a way, with the hunger bearing down, I wondered if we people would fare much better¨
The hunger has started to become devastating, and William starts to realize what true hunger feels like.

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According to Dictionary.com "the deliberate and systematic extermination of a national, racial, political, or cultural group."

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Genocide definition, the deliberate and systematic extermination of a national, racial, political, or cultural group. See more.

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According to History.com "From April to July 1994, members of the Hutu ethnic majority in the east-central African nation of Rwanda murdered as many as 800,000 people, mostly of the Tutsi minority."

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During the Rwandan genocide of 1994, members of the Hutu ethnic majority in the east-central African nation of Rwanda murdered as many as 800,000 people, mostly of the Tutsi minority. Started by Hutu nationalists in the capital of Kigali, the genocide spread throughout the country with shocking speed and brutality, as ordinary citizens were incited by local officials and the Hutu Power government to take up arms against their neighbors. By the time the Tutsi-led Rwandese Patriotic Front gained control of the country through a military offensive in early July, hundreds of thousands of Rwandans were dead and 2 million refugees (mainly Hutus) fled Rwanda, exacerbating what had already become a full-blown humanitarian crisis.

Rwandan Ethnic Tensions

By the early 1990s, Rwanda, a small country with an overwhelmingly agricultural economy, had one of the highest population densities in Africa. About 85 percent of its population was Hutu; the rest were Tutsi, along with a small number of Twa, a Pygmy group who were the original inhabitants of Rwanda.

Part of German East Africa from 1897 to 1918, Rwanda became a Belgium trusteeship under a League of Nations mandate after World War I, along with neighboring Burundi.

Rwanda's colonial period, during which the ruling Belgians favored the minority Tutsis over the Hutus, exacerbated the tendency of the few to oppress the many, creating a legacy of tension that exploded into violence even before Rwanda gained its independence.

A Hutu revolution in 1959 forced as many as 330,000 Tutsis to flee the country, making them an even smaller minority. By early 1961, victorious Hutus had forced Rwanda's Tutsi monarch into exile and declared the country a republic. After a United Nations referendum that same year, Belgium officially granted independence to Rwanda in July 1962.

Ethnically motivated violence continued in the years following independence. In 1973, a military group installed Major General Juvenal Habyarimana, a moderate Hutu, in power.

The sole leader of Rwandan government for the next two decades, Habyarimana founded a new political party, the National Revolutionary Movement for Development (NRMD). He was elected president under a new constitution ratified in 1978 and reelected in 1983 and 1988, when he was the sole candidate.

In 1990, forces of the Rwandese Patriotic Front (RPF), consisting mostly of Tutsi refugees, invaded Rwanda from Uganda. Habyarimana accused Tutsi residents of being RPF accomplices and arrested hundreds of them. Between 1990 and 1993, government officials directed massacres of the Tutsi, killing hundreds. A ceasefire in these hostilities led to negotiations between the government and the RPF in 1992.

In August 1993, Habyarimana signed an agreement at Arusha, Tanzania, calling for the creation of a transition government that would include the RPF.

This power-sharing agreement angered Hutu extremists, who would soon take swift and horrible action to prevent it.

Rwandan Genocide Begins

On April 6, 1994, a plane carrying Habyarimana and Burundi's president Cyprien Ntaryamira was shot down over the capital city of Kigali, leaving no survivors. (It has never been conclusively determined who the culprits were. Some have blamed Hutu extremists, while others blamed leaders of the RPF.)

Within an hour of the plane crash, the Presidential Guard, together with members of the Rwandan armed forces (FAR) and Hutu militia groups known as the Interahamwe ("Those Who Attack Together") and Impuzamugambi ("Those Who Have the Same Goal"), set up roadblocks and barricades and began slaughtering Tutsis and moderate Hutus with impunity.

Among the first victims of the genocide were the moderate Hutu Prime Minister Agathe Uwilingiyimana and 10 Belgian peacekeepers, killed on April 7. This violence created a political vacuum, into which an interim government of extremist Hutu Power leaders from the military high command stepped on April 9. The killing of the Belgium peacekeepers, meanwhile, provoked the withdrawal of Belgium troops. And the U.N. directed that peacekeepers only defend themselves thereafter.

Slaughter Spreads Across Rwanda

The mass killings in Kigali quickly spread from that city to the rest of Rwanda. In the first two weeks, local administrators in central and southern Rwanda, where most Tutsi lived, resisted the genocide. After April 18, national officials removed the resisters and killed several of them. Other opponents then fell silent or actively led the killing. Officials rewarded killers with food, drink, drugs and money. Government-sponsored radio stations started calling on ordinary Rwandan civilians to murder their neighbors. Within three months, some 800,000 people had been slaughtered.

Meanwhile, the RPF resumed fighting, and civil war raged alongside the genocide. By early July, RPF forces had gained control over most of country, including Kigali.

In response, more than 2 million people, nearly all Hutus, fled Rwanda, crowding into refugee camps in the Congo (then called Zaire) and other neighboring countries.

After its victory, the RPF established a coalition government similar to that agreed upon at Arusha, with Pasteur Bizimungu, a Hutu, as president and Paul Kagame, a Tutsi, as vice president and defense minister.

Habyarimana's NRMD party, which had played a key role in organizing the genocide, was outlawed, and a new constitution adopted in 2003 eliminated reference to ethnicity. The new constitution was followed by Kagame's election to a 10-year term as Rwanda's president and the country's first-ever legislative elections.

International Response

As in the case of atrocities committed in the former Yugoslavia around the same time, the international community largely remained on the sidelines during the Rwandan genocide.

A United Nations Security Council vote in April 1994 led to the withdrawal of most of a U.N. peacekeeping operation (UNAMIR), created the previous fall to aid with governmental transition under the Arusha accord.

As reports of the genocide spread, the Security Council voted in mid-May to supply a more robust force, including more than 5,000 troops. By the time that force arrived in full, however, the genocide had been over for months.

In a separate French intervention approved by the U.N., French troops entered Rwanda from Zaire in late June. In the face of the RPF's rapid advance, they limited their intervention to a "humanitarian zone" set up in southwestern Rwanda, saving tens of thousands of Tutsi lives but also helping some of the genocide's plotters - allies of the French during the Habyarimana administration - to escape.

In the aftermath of the Rwandan genocide, many prominent figures in the international community lamented the outside world's general obliviousness to the situation and its failure to act in order to prevent the atrocities from taking place.

As former U.N. Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali told the PBS news program Frontline: "The failure of Rwanda is 10 times greater than the failure of Yugoslavia. Because in Yugoslavia the international community was interested, was involved. In Rwanda nobody was interested."

Attempts were later made to rectify this passivity. After the RFP victory, the UNAMIR operation was brought back up to strength; it remained in Rwanda until March 1996, as one of the largest humanitarian relief efforts in history.

Did you know? In September 1998, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) issued the first conviction for genocide after a trial, declaring Jean-Paul Akayesu guilty for acts he engaged in and oversaw as mayor of the Rwandan town of Taba.

Rwandan Genocide Trials

In October 1994, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), located in Tanzania, was established as an extension of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) at The Hague, the first international tribunal since the Nuremburg Trials of 1945-46, and the first with the mandate to prosecute the crime of genocide.

In 1995, the ICTR began indicting and trying a number of higher-ranking people for their role in the Rwandan genocide; the process was made more difficult because the whereabouts of many suspects were unknown.

The trials continued over the next decade and a half, including the 2008 conviction of three former senior Rwandan defense and military officials for organizing the genocide.

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During the Rwandan genocide of 1994, members of the Hutu ethnic majority in the east-central African nation of Rwanda murdered as many as 800,000 people, mostly of the Tutsi minority. Started by Hutu nationalists in the capital of Kigali, the genocide spread throughout the country with shocking speed and brutality, as ordinary citizens were incited by local officials and the Hutu Power government to take up arms against their neighbors.

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As quoted by TBWHTW
"the only thing he [president of Malawi]did for the school building was give it a fresh coat of paint  and a new iron sheet for the roof" (95)
"the same president who promised that every person in Malawi would get new shoes if he won the election...[he later responded with] I never promised shoes."(95)
"he [the president] tossed the poor just enough flour or kwacha to make sure they remembered him come election day"(94)

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According to WebMD "Anemia is a condition that develops when your blood lacks enough healthy red blood cells or hemoglobin."

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What Is Anemia?

Anemia is a condition that develops when your blood lacks enough healthy red blood cells or hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is a main part of red blood cells and binds oxygen. If you have too few or abnormal red blood cells, or your hemoglobin is abnormal or low, the cells in your body will not get enough oxygen. Symptoms of anemia -- like fatigue -- occur because organs aren't getting what they need to function properly.

Anemia is the most common blood condition in the U.S. It affects about 3.5 million Americans. Women, young children, and people with chronic diseases are at increased risk of anemia. Important factors to remember are:

Certain forms of anemia are hereditary and infants may be affected from the time of birth.

Women in the childbearing years are particularly susceptible to iron-deficiency anemia because of the blood loss from menstruation and the increased blood supply demands during pregnancy.

Older adults also may have a greater risk of developing anemia because of poor diet and other medical conditions.

There are many types of anemia. All are very different in their causes and treatments. Iron-deficiency anemia, the most common type, is very treatable with diet changes and iron supplements. Some forms of anemia -- like the mild anemia that develops during pregnancy -- are even considered normal. However, some types of anemia may present lifelong health problems.

What Causes Anemia?

There are more than 400 types of anemia, which are divided into three groups:

Anemia caused by blood loss

Anemia caused by decreased or faulty red blood cell production

Anemia caused by destruction of red blood cells

Anemia Caused by Blood Loss

Red blood cells can be lost through bleeding, which often can occur slowly over a long period of time, and can go undetected. This kind of chronic bleeding commonly results from the following:

Continued

Anemia Caused by Decreased or Faulty Red Blood Cell Production

With this type of anemia, the body may produce too few blood cells or the blood cells may not function correctly. In either case, anemia can result. Red blood cells may be faulty or decreased due to abnormal red blood cells or a lack of minerals and vitamins needed for red blood cells to work properly. Conditions associated with these causes of anemia include the following:

Sickle cell anemia

Iron-deficiency anemia

Vitamin deficiency

Bone marrow and stem cell problems

Other health conditions

Sickle cell anemia is an inherited disorder that, in the U.S. affects mainly African-Americans and Hispanic Americans. Red blood cells become crescent-shaped because of a genetic defect. They break down rapidly, so oxygen does not get to the body's organs, causing anemia. The crescent-shaped red blood cells can also get stuck in tiny blood vessels, causing pain.

Iron-deficiency anemia occurs because of a lack of the mineral iron in the body. Bone marrow in the center of the bone needs iron to make hemoglobin, the part of the red blood cell that transports oxygen to the body's organs. Without adequate iron, the body cannot produce enough hemoglobin for red blood cells. The result is iron-deficiency anemia. This type of anemia can be caused by:

An iron-poor diet, especially in infants, children, teens, vegans, and vegetarians

The metabolic demands of pregnancy and breastfeeding that deplete a woman's iron stores

Menstruation

Frequent blood donation

Endurance training

Digestive conditions such as Crohn's disease or surgical removal of part of the stomach or small intestine

Certain drugs, foods, and caffeinated drinks

Vitamin-deficiency anemia may occur when vitamin B12 and folate are deficient. These two vitamins are needed to make red blood cells. Conditions leading to anemia caused by vitamin deficiency include:

Megaloblastic anemia: Vitamin B12 or folate or both are deficient

Pernicious anemia: Poor vitamin B12 absorption caused by conditions such as Crohn's disease, an intestinal parasite infection, surgical removal of part of the stomach or intestine, or infection with HIV

Dietary deficiency: Eating little or no meat may cause a lack of vitamin B12, while overcooking or eating too few vegetables may cause a folate deficiency.

Other causes of vitamin deficiency: pregnancy, certain medications, alcohol abuse, intestinal diseases such as tropical sprue and celiac disease

Continued

During early pregnancy, sufficient folic acid can help prevent the fetus from developing neural tube defects such as spina bifida.

Bone marrow and stem cell problems may prevent the body from producing enough red blood cells. Some of the stem cells found in bone marrow develop into red blood cells. If stem cells are too few, defective, or replaced by other cells such as metastatic cancer cells, anemia may result. Anemia resulting from bone marrow or stem cell problems include:

Aplastic anemia occurs when there's a marked reduction in the number of stem cells or absence of these cells. Aplastic anemia can be inherited, can occur without apparent cause, or can occur when the bone marrow is injured by medications, radiation, chemotherapy, or infection.

Thalassemia occurs when the red cells can't mature and grow properly. Thalassemia is an inherited condition that typically affects people of Mediterranean, African, Middle Eastern, and Southeast Asian descent. This condition can range in severity from mild to life-threatening; the most severe form is called Cooley's anemia.

Lead exposure is toxic to the bone marrow, leading to fewer red blood cells. Lead poisoning occurs in adults from work-related exposure and in children who eat paint chips, for example. Improperly glazed pottery can also taint food and liquids with lead.

Anemia associated with other conditions usually occurs when there are too few hormones necessary for red blood cell production. Conditions causing this type of anemia include the following:

Anemia Caused by Destruction of Red Blood Cells

When red blood cells are fragile and cannot withstand the routine stress of the circulatory system, they may rupture prematurely, causing hemolytic anemia. Hemolytic anemia can be present at birth or develop later. Sometimes there is no known cause. Known causes of hemolytic anemia may include:

Inherited conditions, such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia

Stressors such as infections, drugs, snake or spider venom, or certain foods

Toxins from advanced liver or kidney disease

Inappropriate attack by the immune system (called hemolytic disease of the newborn when it occurs in the fetus of a pregnant woman)

Vascular grafts, prosthetic heart valves, tumors, severe burns, exposure to certain chemicals, severe hypertension, and clotting disorders

In rare cases, an enlarged spleen can trap red blood cells and destroy them before their circulating time is up.

Sources

SOURCES:
American Academy of Family Physicians.
The American Medical Athletic Association.
Albemarle Pulmonary Medical Associates, PA.
Gary W. Tamkin, MD, Attending Physician, Highland General Hospital -- Alameda County Medical Center, Oakland.
Cornell University Department of Animal Science.

CDC.

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Anemia is a condition that develops when your blood lacks enough healthy red blood cells or hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is a main part of red blood cells and binds oxygen. If you have too few or abnormal red blood cells, or your hemoglobin is abnormal or low, the cells in your body will not get enough oxygen.

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1.  Economic Crash
2. Changes in Nature such as drought
3. Rise in prices
4. World Crisis
5. War

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News Analysis

LIKE California, much of Brazil is gripped by one of the worst droughts in its history. Huge reservoirs are bone dry and water has been rationed in São Paulo, a megacity of 20 million people; in Rio; and in many other places.

Drought is usually thought of as a natural disaster beyond human control. But as researchers peer deeper into the Earth's changing bioclimate - the vastly complex global interplay between living organisms and climatic forces - they are better appreciating the crucial role that deforestation plays.

Cutting down forests releases stored carbon dioxide, which traps heat and contributes to atmospheric warming. But forests also affect climate in other ways, by absorbing more solar energy than grasslands, for example, or releasing vast amounts of water vapor. Many experts believe that deforestation is taking place on such a large scale, especially in South America, that it has already significantly altered the world's climate - even though its dynamics are not well understood.

"A lot of people are scrambling to make observations in the Amazon this year, with the expected big El Niño coming," said Abigail L. S. Swann, an eco-climatologist at the University of Washington. "It's expected to drive significant drought over the Amazon, which will change how much water trees have available."

Humans have long settled in places where there is adequate and predictable precipitation, and large forests play a crucial role in generating dependable amounts of rainfall. Trees take up moisture from the soil and transpire it, lifting it into the atmosphere. A fully grown tree releases 1,000 liters of water vapor a day into the atmosphere: The entire Amazon rain forest sends up 20 billion tons a day.

The water vapor creates clouds, which are seeded with volatile gases like terpenes and isoprene, emitted by the trees naturally, to form rain. These water-rich banks of clouds travel long, wind-driven distances, a conveyor belt for the delivery of precipitation that scientists call flying rivers.

The sky-borne river over the Amazon carries more water than the Amazon River itself. It begins as moisture that builds over the Atlantic Ocean, and then flows westward over the emerald crown of the Amazon, where it picks up far more moisture. The laden clouds eventually bump up against the Andes and are steered south and then east, which means rain for Bolivia and Brazil.

One way forests may move water is known as "biotic pumping." As water transpires into the atmosphere above the forest, the theory holds, it creates a low-pressure system that sucks in air surrounding it, eventually and continually pumping moisture inland from the ocean. Cutting down forests degrades these low-pressure systems, essentially turning off the pump. Large-scale deforestation is thus believed to be a major contributor to the extreme drought in Brazil.

Scientists have long known that vegetation has a profound effect on weather. In 1907, officials built a 2,000-mile-long fence across Australia to keep invasive rabbits from crossing from the wild outback into farms. On the side with native vegetation, rain clouds formed in the sky above, but the farm-field skies were clear. The "bunny-fence experiments" charted a decline in rainfall of 20 percent on the cultivated side. Researchers are still trying to explain why, but the leading theory is that the darker native plants absorb more heat and release it into the atmosphere, along with energy and water vapor to form clouds.

Today's researchers mainly rely on computer modeling to understand the effects of deforestation, a difficult task because there are so many complex pathways through which trees control climate: precipitation, carbon storage, large clouds of complex chemical emissions and absorption of the sun's energy.

"This area is a frontier," said David Schimel, an eco-climatologist at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the author of "Climate and Ecosystems," "but a frontier because it's difficult, not because it's neglected."

In the last year alone some 2,000 square miles of the Amazon - roughly the size of Delaware - were lost to clearing, largely for planting soybeans and raising cattle. A growing number of scientists are warning that wide-scale deforestation - about 20 percent of the Amazon forest is gone already and nearly that much is degraded - may already be directing precipitation away from places long accustomed to it.

One Princeton study suggested that deforesting the Amazon could potentially contribute to drought in places as far away as California, while other research indicated that recent droughts in Texas and New Mexico might be linked to cutting in the Amazon. Despite the uncertainty embedded in these and other studies, "There's lots of evidence that changing the water cycle in the Amazon would have global consequences," Dr. Schimel said. "It's a fairly robust notion."

AND its impact could potentially accelerate. In a recent report, Antonio Donato Nobre, a veteran climatologist with Brazil's National Institute for Space Research, warned that if just 40 percent of the Amazon region is deforested there could be an abrupt large-scale shift to grasslands, which could substantially alter global weather patterns "and cause a breakdown of the current climate system." If deforestation continues, he has said, São Paulo will most likely "dry up."

In the broadest sense, scientists say, forests represent a kind of ecological infrastructure that helps maintain comfortable living conditions on the planet, whether by taking up and holding carbon dioxide, cleaning water through their roots, preventing floods by stabilizing soil - or, in this case, by regulating climate.

Dr. Nobre and other climate experts are urging an immediate halt to deforestation, as well as large-scale planting of new forests, as a way to essentially nurse the Amazon back to full health and stabilize its pivotal role in climate.

Gordon Bonan, a scientist at the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, Colo., and the author of "Ecological Climatology," said reducing deforestation and replanting forests should be priorities not just in Brazil but in North America and beyond for many reasons, including the health of climate systems. "The pace of change is far outpacing our understanding of what the change is doing," he said, "and by the time we do understand it's probably going to be too late."

While it is true that vast tree planting, which reroutes groundwater on a huge scale and absorbs far more energy than an unforested landscape, can have complex and potentially negative effects, "On balance," if done properly, "it's a positive strategy for climate change," he added.

Some people aren't waiting for further research and are hoping to geoengineer local climates with new forests. Bishop Fredrick Shoo, the bishop elect of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Tanzania, has been planting trees with 100,000 of his parishioners upwind of Mount Kilimanjaro for 12 years, in hopes of cooling the hot, dry winds that are melting the mountain's glaciers. During that time, he estimates, they have planted 3.7 million trees.

"My hope is we'll be able to restore the forests of Kilimanjaro and save the water sources of Kilimanjaro," said Bishop Shoo, known as the tree bishop. "We have a moral obligation to take care of creation and to be sure coming generations have a good place to live."

Jim Robbins is a frequent contributor to The New York Times and the author of "The Man Who Planted Trees."

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News Analysis LIKE California, much of Brazil is gripped by one of the worst droughts in its history. Huge reservoirs are bone dry and water has been rationed in São Paulo, a megacity of 20 million people; in Rio; and in many other places. Drought is usually thought of as a natural disaster beyond human control.

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According to Merriam-Webster dictionary "the action or process of clearing of forests; also :  the state of having been cleared of forests"
As quoted in The Boy Who Harnessed The Wind " Without the trees, the rains turn to floods and wash away the soil and its minerals. The soil along with loads of garbage___ runs into the Shire River, clogging up the dams with salt and trash and shutting down the turbine."

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1. Bicycle dynamos are small man powered lights that attach to your bicycle. When you pedal the dynamo uses the energy and converts it to create light.
2. Bicycle dynamos are generally frowned on by many Americans and Europeans
3. Bicycle dynamos are noisy and scuff up your tired, but they are good for safety reasons and they improve visibility.
4. The light of bicycle dynamos is very poor
5. Many people in Africa use Bicycle Dynamos because they are cheap and produce light which is needed because many do not use flashlights.

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Chapter 3
"I also carried the two hunting knifes I'd made myself"
In order to survive Kamkwamba has to learn how to hunt, leading him to invent intricate traps for his prey.

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Chapter 4
"That year, the drought would be felt for several more seasons."
Kamkwamba finds a new interest in finding how things work, and around this time the drought begins.

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"One night before bed, i saw a lamp flickering inside and found my father there alone, staring at the sacks as if he'd just asked them a question. Whatever they told him, I'd find out soon enough."

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"By February, the stalks were wilted and hunched toward the ground like an old woman sweeping the dirt"

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1.  The bugs are rich in protein and some minerals and are lower in cholesterol than beef or pork.
2. 1,700 species are eaten in at least 113 countries across the world, usually as a substitute for meat.
3. Eating insects also keep puts less strain on the environment because cultivating insects requires forest to be preserved rather than felled.
4. the hind legs of grasshoppers can be crushed and mixed with water. This concoction can be consumed as a powerful diuretic for treating kidney diseases.
5. Eating grasshoppers is ecologically beneficial as well, since insects have numbers in the millions and are nowhere near extinction.http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/earth/earthnews/3343288/Eat-more-insects-scientists-say.html

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This is a website that talks about how Curiosity is Critical For Learninghttps://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/10/111027150211.htm

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Curiosity may have killed the cat, but it's good for the student. That's the conclusion of a new study published in Perspectives in Psychological Science, a journal of the Association for Psychological Science. The authors show that curiosity is a big part of academic performance. In fact, personality traits like curiosity seem to be as important as intelligence in determining how well students do in school.

Intelligence is important to academic performance, but it's not the whole story. Everyone knows a brilliant kid who failed school, or someone with mediocre smarts who made up for it with hard work. So psychological scientists have started looking at factors other than intelligence that make some students do better than others.

One of those is conscientiousness -- basically, the inclination to go to class and do your homework. People who score high on this personality trait tend to do well in school. "It's not a huge surprise if you think of it, that hard work would be a predictor of academic performance," says Sophie von Stumm of the University of Edinburgh in the UK. She co-wrote the new paper with Benedikt Hell of the University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland and Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic of Goldsmiths University of London.

von Stumm and her coauthors wondered if curiosity might be another important factor. "Curiosity is basically a hunger for exploration," von Stumm says. "If you're intellectually curious, you'll go home, you'll read the books. If you're perceptually curious, you might go traveling to foreign countries and try different foods." Both of these, she thought, could help you do better in school.

The researchers performed a meta-analysis, gathering the data from about 200 studies with a total of about 50,000 students. They found that curiosity did, indeed, influence academic performance. In fact, it had quite a large effect, about the same as conscientiousness. When put together, conscientiousness and curiosity had as big an effect on performance as intelligence.

von Stumm wasn't surprised that curiosity was so important. "I'm a strong believer in the importance of a hungry mind for achievement, so I was just glad to finally have a good piece of evidence," she says. "Teachers have a great opportunity to inspire curiosity in their students, to make them engaged and independent learners. That is very important."

Employers may also want to take note: a curious person who likes to read books, travel the world, and go to museums may also enjoy and engage in learning new tasks on the job. "It's easy to hire someone who has the done the job before and hence, knows how to work the role," von Stumm says. "But it's far more interesting to identify those people who have the greatest potential for development, i.e. the curious ones."

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k-12 education; educational psychology; child psychology; numeracy; child development; literacy; intelligence; infant and preschool learning

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Curiosity is critical to academic performance

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Curiosity may have killed the cat, but it's good for the student. Personality traits like curiosity seem to be as important as intelligence in determining how well students do in school, according to new research.

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12 years after the death of President Banda, a cult started to form that honored the deceased president. Banda Hastings motto was "Unity, Loyalty, Obedience and Discipline." The people of the Cult of Personality believe in this motto in hope of having their own "national hero" as quoted by the globe and mail. For more information about the Cult of Personality visit: http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/the-cult-of-hastings-banda-takes-hold/article4273860/

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Chapter 2
"Mangolomera was the ultimate self-defense, a kind of vaccine against weakness"
Kamkwamba's first experience with magic was a complete failure, and this caused him to turn to math and science in life.

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In the book "The Boy Who Harnessed The Winds" by William Kamkwamba, he speaks of his childhood. One of these childhood memories include the time he tried magic, specifically Mangolomera. Mangolomera is a type of "magic" that enhances a persons strength past the normal human capacities. This process includes cutting the knuckles of the person and smearing a "magic" paste on the cuts. In a few days this person is supposed to receive this magical power. In William Kamkwamba's experience this did not work out and the cute remained cuts rather  than giving him any powers. This experienced shaped Williams life and taught him that magic does not solve every problem, and that id does not work. This causes him to turn to math and science, that leads him to his windmill.

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Robert Fumulani was a businessman and musician in Africa, specializing in reggae/rock fusion.

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Nestled between Zambia, Tanzania and Mozambique, Malawi has earned it's nickname as 'the warm heart of Africa'. And 'warm' is precisely the adjective I would use to describe Malawian music. There is a sunny optimism in much of the Malawian music I've heard, and after a grim weekend of cold, rain, and snow, here in Washington D.C., I figured I'd warm myself up with a few Malawian recordings from our collection.

One of the most popular styles of music in Malawi, in the late 1960s was South African Kwela; a driving dance music, powered by virtuoso penny whistle players. Migrant workers returning from South Africa and Zimbabwe brought kwela music to Malawi, and it was in Salisbury, the capital of the federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (which is now Harare, the capital of Zimbabwe), that Daniel and Donald Kachamba discovered Kwela music. When the brothers returned, in 1961, to Nyasaland (which became Malawi in 1964), they started to perform Kwela music on the streets, at markets, and in nightclubs. Daniel played the guitar, and his younger brother Donald was a penny whistle virtuoso; he had been playing the instrument since the age of six.

In 1967, the Austrian ethnomusicologist Gerhard Kubik heard the Kachamba brothers playing for a large crowd near the main market in Blantyre, Malawi's largest city. And at some point that same year, he brought the Kachamba brothers band to the United States Cultural Center in Blantyre. In February of 1968, the United States Information Service office in Blantyre, sent a four-song tape to the Voice of America, with the following description: 'enclosed is [a recording, made on December 4, 1967 of] an African combo consisting of four boys aged 7-16. They were recently discovered by a German musicologist who was researching African music in Malawi.'

In fact, at the time of these recordings Daniel was 20 years old (he was born in 1947, and passed away in 1987), and Donald was 14 (he was born in 1953, and passed away in 2001); two younger boys accompanied them, one playing the string bass, and the other the rattle. Donald's penny whistle playing on these two tracks is fantastic.

Let's jump ahead a couple of decades, with one of Malawi's most popular bandleaders of the late 1980s and 1990s, Robert Fumulani (he is the man crouching in the picture above). He was born, in 1948, in the city of Zomba (which is 40 miles northeast of Blantyre), and first started to draw the attention of Malawian audiences in the 1970s. During the 1980s, Fumulani won the Malawian 'Entertainer of the Year' award three times. And by the time he passed away, in 1998, his musical earnings had allowed him to open several businesses, including the Likhubula Entertainment Centre, his nightclub in Chileka (a suburb of Blantyre), and a cargo services company at Chileka airport. His musical legacy is kept alive by three of his seven sons; Anjiri, Musandide, and Chizondi- who are the core of the Black Missionaries, currently one of Malawi's most popular groups.

This track gives you a good idea of Fumulani's relaxed Afroma (a contraction of Afro-Malawian) groove. In this one Fumulani pleads with 'Patricia', he sings, 'don't leave us, stay with us, don't break up your family.'

One of the key ingredients of the Likhubula River Dance Band's sound was the guitar playing of Ernest Mapemba. Near the end of 'Mwana Wanga', or 'My Child', Mapemba breaks things down with some wonderfully relaxed playing.

This last track has got a nice reggae beat. Fumulani asks for guidance and advice.

Let's keep the reggae beat going with Evison Matafale, who before he passed away in 2001, was one of Malawi's most loved artists. In 2000, he surprised music fans with his debut release 'Kuyimba I', which became one of the year's best-selling releases. Matafale recorded the album with Robert Fumulani's three aforementioned sons, who after Evison passed away, renamed themselves the Black Missionaries.

In 2001, after a long battle with tuberculosis, Matafale released 'Kuyimba II'. He passed away several months later, however, dying suddenly while in police custody. He was only 32 years old. According to an article published by the BBC, Matafale's brother Elton believes Evison was killed, because of letters he had written to then-president Bakilu Muluzi, denouncing his government's policies. In 'Yang'ana Nkhope', Evison sings 'Look at my face, look at your face, we are all God's Children.'

Next up is Joseph Tembo, a great guitar player, from southern Malawi. He was born in 1997, in southern Malawi, and is a member of the Sena ethnic group, who are related to the Shona people of Zimbabwe. This relationship helps explain the similarities between Tembo's music and the Shona melodies and rhythms of Zimbabwean Chimurenga music.

This last song is by Coss Chiwalo, who for many years was (and may still be) the bandleader of the 'Alleluya Band', a Malawian musical institution. He was born in 1974 and has released three solo albums. 'Wakwatiwa', one of his biggest hits, is a song that is usually played at weddings. He sings of the joy of the bride and groom.

I hope the music hit the spot. I would like to thank Dr. John Lwanda of Pamtondo records for his help with research and song translations.

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Nestled between Zambia, Tanzania and Mozambique, Malawi has earned it's nickname as 'the warm heart of Africa'. And 'warm' is precisely the adjective I would use to describe Malawian music. There is a sunny optimism in much of the Malawian music I've heard, and after a grim weekend of cold, rain, and snow, here in [...]

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President Banda was the first president of Malawi between 1961 to 1994. President Banda achieved a great deal in his life including having received education overseas, being a strong advocate in independence, and a supporter in women's rights. He was a feared leader and over 9000He lived to the age of 99 and left behind a legacy. All information found at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hastings_Banda. For more information go to http://www.nytimes.com/1993/06/01/world/longtime-african-dictator-s-grip-loosening.html?pagewanted=all

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This is a rough diagram of William Kamkwamba's simple windmill. With relatively no information on windmills Kamkwamba's Windmill ,while simplistic, is a great feat.

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The Yao people are a group of people that have existed for centuries, living with and yet apart from the people of Asia. The Yao people have different food, fashion, and an entirely different language than the rest of Asia. They have not yet developed a written language so they borrow characters from the Chinese, but they're spoken language is all their own. For more information about the Yao people go to this website:

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Yao Ethnic Minority, the Chinese Yao Ethnic Group

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The Chinese Yao people mainly live in Hunan, Guangxi, Guangdong, Jiangxi, Guizhou and Yunnan provinces.

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This is a map of Malawi located in the south eastern corner of Africa. This is where William Kamkwamba grew up.

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Chapter 1
"Before i discovered the miracles of science, magic ruled the world"
SIAS
The boy William Kamkwamba started his life with nothing but his own creativity, and the stories of his villages history.

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The Black Rhinos are a critically endangered species due to poaching in Africa. According to Malawian Rhinos "4,500 African rhinos have been killed in South Africa alone between early 2007 and October 2015." Black Rhinos may be very rare scientifically, but they also hold a significant place in historical beliefs in Malawi, Africa. According to Kwa Zulu-Natal "[rhino horns symbolize] the key qualities of power, danger and protection traditionally associated with African leadership." The Black Rhino is prized for its pricey horn and is widely poached for it. This is sad for both the species and the beliefs passed down about them throughout generations of African natives.

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Magic and what the Malawians call "Juju" is a part of culture around the world and is extremely historically significant. "Magic" has been known to change the minds of people and strike fear and a sense of longing into the minds and hearts of people throughout history. Magic is being heavily overlooked due to the scientific advancements of today  but it is still celebrated in many parts of Africa today. In the story "The Boy Who Harnessed The Wind" the boy William Kamkwamba grows up with a sense of fear and belief in the existence of magic. For more information in Magic/Juju in Malawian Culture visit: http://pitchinvasion.net/where-has-all-the-magic-gone-juju-africa-and-superstitions-in-the-game/

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According to the Intangible Cultural Heritage "Gule Wamkulu was a secret cult, involving a ritual dance practiced among the Chewa in Malawi, Zambia, and Mozambique." The Gule Wamkulu were often referred to in "The Boy Who Harnessed The Wind" as a group of spiritual dancers who wore masks and walked on stilts. They are a big part of the Malawian culture and has been practiced for decades. Here is a video and website about the Gule Wamkulu:
http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/RL/gule-wamkulu-00142

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Gule wamkulu from Njombwa village, T/A Njombwa in Kasungu district, Malawi performing @ Chi-Chi Lodge in Nkhotakota along Lake Malawi

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Short Presentation including 4 ELA Terms and their sources.

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This is a diagram of a modern windmill and its many complexities, compared to the simplicity of Kamkwambas windmill.

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This is an image of William Kamkwamba standing on the windmill that he made himself

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This is a map of Africa as of 2012 found at:
http://www.maps-of-the-world.net/maps-of-africa/

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According to Haiku Deck the characteristics of a memoir include:
»A memory; description of an event from the past
»Written in the first person;  told from one POV
»Based on the truth
»Reveals  the feeling of the writer
»Has meaning; shows what the author learned from the experience

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This picture is a visual of what a memoir is and isn't.

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According to E Reading Worksheets "The term “text structure” refers to how information is organized in a passage.  The structure of a text can change multiple times in a work and even within a paragraph." an example of text structures would include:
Chronological: information in the passage is organized in order of time.
Compare and Contrast: two or more things are described.  Their similarities and differences are discussed.
Order of Importance: information is expressed as a hierarchy or in priority.
Problem and Solution: a problem is described and a response or solution is proposed or explained."

All information found at "E Reading Worksheets" for more information visit http://www.ereadingworksheets.com/text-structure/

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This is an image that visually portrays nonfiction text features and their purposes