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Abstract

Whilst many definitions of formative assessment have been offered, there is no clear rationale to define and delimit it within broader theories of pedagogy. This paper aims to offer such a rationale, within a framework which can also unify the diverse set of practices which have been described as formative. The analysis is used to relate formative assessment both to other pedagogic initiatives, notably cognitive acceleration and dynamic assessment, and to some of the existing literature on models of self-regulated learning and on classroom discourse. This framework should indicate potentially fruitful lines for further enquiry, whilst at the same time opening up new ways of helping teachers to implement formative practices more effectively.

Keywords

Formative assessment Assessment for learning Dynamic assessment Self-regulation Instruction Pedagogy Cognitive acceleration Dialogue

References

1. ARG (2002). Assessment for Learning: 10 Principles. Available on the Assessment Reform Group website: www.assessment-reform-group.org.uk .

2. Ciofalo, J., & Wylie, C. E. (2006). Using diagnostic classroom assessment: one question at a time. Teachers College Record, January 10, 2006, , ID Number: 12285.

3. Leung, C. (2007). Dynamic assessment: assessment for or as teaching? Language Assessment Quarterly, 4(3), 257-278.

© Springer Science + Business Media, LLC 2009

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Developing the theory of formative assessment

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Whilst many definitions of formative assessment have been offered, there is no clear rationale to define and delimit it within broader theories of pedagogy. This paper aims to offer such a rationale, within a framework which can also unify the diverse set of practices which have been described as formative.

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A talk focus for promoting enjoyment and developing understanding in science

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Publikasjoner og praktiske tips om å legge til rette for dialog i klasserommet

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This page has some resources for teachers and teacher-trainers to use to develop their own and their students' awareness of how talk is used in classrooms.

Many more useful resources can be found in the books for teachers listed on the publications web page!

For teachers to use with children

1. Thinking Together Talk Tally
This a simple observation sheet which a child can use to record the kind of talk they observe when a group of other children are working together.

2. Ground rules for talk: traffic lights
This worksheet can be used as the initial basis for an activity in which younger children (6-8) consider together how to make their talk in groups most effective. (For more about 'ground rules' for talk, see the journal article Reasoning as a Scientist which is downloadable from the publications' journals page.)

3. Talking points about group talk
This worksheet can be used as the initial basis for an activity in which children (8-12) consider together how to make their talk in groups most effective.

4. Are these useful rules for discussion?
This is a two-part worksheet which can be used as the basis for an activity in which children (10-14) consider together how to make their talk in groups most effective. (For more about 'ground rules' for talk, see the journal article Reasoning as a Scientist which is downloadable from the publications' journals page.)

Thinking Together lessons

These 3 typical Thinking Together lessons were created for our Smile project 'Thinking Together in Primary Maths': These lessons are also available in Spanish translated with thanks by Lorena Lopez Oterino.

There is also a Magic Square resource to go with Lesson 3 and a Preparing for Group Work document.

Creating a speaking and listening classroom

These resources are associated with the book 'Creating a speaking and listening classroom' by Lyn Dawes (as described in the 'Books' section)

More resources for teachers/teacher-trainers to use

1. Teacher techniques checklist
This is an observation schedule which education students or teacher can use to observe some different ways that teachers use talk in the classroom - and then go on to reflect and evaluate the ways these techniques are used. (For more information about these techniques, see the book The Guided Construction of Knowledge, as listed on the publications' books page.)

2. Five examples of talk in groups
This is a worksheet for helping teachers/ education students develop their awareness of how talk can be used in groups. It lists 3 types of talk which have been observed in classrooms. The idea is to see how well each or any of the examples which then follow fit the 2 types. (For more information about the 3 types of talk, see the book The Guided Construction of Knowledge, as listed on the publications' books page.)

3. Preparing for group work
Two key lessons for preparing children to work together.

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Thinking Together is a dialogue-based approach to the development of children's thinking and learning, promoting children's awareness and use of talk as a tool for thinking - connecting the development of children's 'thinking skills' to the development of their communication skills and curriculum learning.

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CIESL-prosjektet ser mellom anna på korleis læraren støttar elevane sine læringsprosessar og legg til rette for utvidande dialogar.
Tekst: førsteamanuensis Randi M. Sølvik
I CIESL-prosjektet observerer me eit utval lærarar, som me analyserer ved hjelp av skåringsmanualen CLASS-S. Eit område me ser nærare på i desse observasjonane er korleis læraren støttar elevane sine læringsprosessar gjennom å engasjere elevane i læringsaktivitetar, fremje djup forståing, utvikle tenking om tenking, støtte og tilbakemelde i læringsarbeidet - og leggje til rette for utvidande dialogar. Dialogane mellom lærar og elev, og mellom elevane er i den samanheng interessante og vil vera viktige i dei vidare analysane i CIESL-prosjektet.

Rolla, forma og organiseringa av dialogen i klasserommet er sentral. Vygotsky har gjennom sine teoriar satt fokus på forholdet mellom tenking, språk og kultur. Sjølv om studiane hans ikkje er utarbeida i klasserommet, har han danna grunnlag for ei forståing av korleis språket spelar ei avgjerande rolle for elevane si læring i klasserommet (Wittek, 2012):

1. Det er viktig å leggje til rette for at elevane kan setje ord på sine tankar.
2. Når elevane set ord på eigne tankar, får læraren og andre i klasserommet tilgang til kvarandre si tenking.
3. Måten elevar og lærarar snakkar saman på er ein del av det som blir lært.

Læring framstår såleis grunnleggande sosial og situert, og språket utgjer eit sentralt verktøy i læringsprosessen. Forsking frå norske og internasjonale klasserom indikerer at lærarar i stor grad nyttar ein autoritativ form for samtale i klasserommet. Samtalen pregast då av lukka spørsmål-svar responsar der både utfall og retning på samtalen i stor grad er lærarstyrt. I følgje Mercer and Howe (2012) ligg det eit potensial i at læraren i større grad legg til rette for ein meir dialogisk form for samtale i klasserommet, og dei listar opp nokre forskingsbaserte strategiar læraren kan bruke for å få elevane meir deltakande og auke deira læring:

* Bruk opne spørsmål for å utforske elevane sine idear.
* Oppmuntre elevane til å setje eigne ord på sin kunnskap, samstundes som du gir dei nytt vokabular for å utdjupe og støtte nye idear.
* Be elevane utdjupe og rettferdiggjere sine synspunkt:

* "Korleis kom du fram til det?"
* "Kvifor?"
* "Kan du fortelje litt meir?"

* Gi elevane fleire mulegheiter til å uttrykke sine tankar og oppdage eventuelle misforståingar gjennom samtalen.
* La nokre elevar få dele sine idear før du demonstrerer eller forklarar. På den måten kan forklaringar lenkast til det elevane har sagt og dei moment elevane allereie har framheva.
* Gi kvar elev nok tid til å konstruere gjennomtenkte svar på eit spørsmål. Ikkje gå raskt vidare til ein anna elev fordi første elev nøler.
* Bruk klassediskusjonar for å synleggjere poenget og formålet med å lære om eit emne.
* Følg elevane sitt initiativ, i det minste nokre gonger, og la elevane sine kommentarar og innspel påverke retninga på diskusjonen (og kanskje til og med retninga på heile timen).
* Modellér måtar å bruke språket på for å vise rasjonelle argument, slik at elevane kan lære av døme.

Dei nemnte strategiane utfordrar elevane til å setje ord på eigne tankar og bidreg til at medelevar og lærarar kan få tilgang til den enkelte sine refleksjonar og analysar. På denne måten kan lærar og elev saman skape modellar for læring. Strategiane kan såleis vera eitt steg i retning av å balansere forholdet mellom den autoritative samtalen og den dialogiske samtalen. Eit avgjerande poeng er då at læringsmiljøet er trygt nok til å undrast høgt saman og at kulturen for læring i klasserommet verdsett dei ulike bidrag inn i dialogen.

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Lærar-elev-dialogen og elevane si læring

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CIESL-prosjektet ser mellom anna på korleis læraren støttar elevane sine læringsprosessar og legg til rette for utvidande dialogar. Tekst: førsteamanuensis Randi M. Sølvik I CIESL-prosjektet observerer me eit utval lærarar, som me analyserer ved hjelp av skåringsmanualen CLASS-S.

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Her står det enkelt om hvordan du kan henvise og referere til lover.

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Henvise til offentlige publikasjoner - HiOA

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Høgskolen i Oslo og Akershus (HiOA) tilbyr utdanning innen helsefag, samfunnsfag, lærerutdanning og teknologi, kunst og design

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Dette er en fin artikkel om formativ vurdering i klasseromssituasjoner

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Dialog i matematikkundervisning

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It is often claimed that working and talking with partners while carrying out maths activities is beneficial to students' learning and the development of their mathematical understanding. However, observational research has shown that primary school children often do not work productively in group-based classroom activities, with the implication that they lack the necessary skills to manage their joint activity. The research we describe investigated these issues and also explored the role of the teacher in guiding the development of children's skills in using language as a tool for reasoning. It involved an interventional teaching programme called Thinking Together, designed to enable children to talk and reason together effectively. The results obtained indicate that children can be enabled to use talk more effectively as a tool for reasoning; and that talk-based group activities can help the development of individuals' mathematical reasoning, understanding and problem-solving. The results also encourage the view that the teacher of mathematics can play an important role in the development of children's awareness and use of language as a tool for reasoning. We suggest some ways that this role can be carried out most effectively.

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Teaching Children How to Use Language to Solve Maths Problems

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
It is often claimed that working and talking with partners while carrying out maths activities is beneficial to students' learning and the development of their mathematical understanding. However, observational research has shown that primary school children often do not work productively in group-based classroom activities, with the implication that they lack the necessary skills to manage their joint activity.