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Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi is considered the father of algebra, since he was the first to write about it  using words
https://www.intmath.com/basic-algebra/al-khwarizmi-father-algebra.php

Judaism,Christianity,and Islam was founded in the middle east

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Did you know the middle east is the birth place for most religion.
Did you know food is an important part of the culture.
Did you know the worlds biggest building is in the middle east.
Did you now the term "Middle East" is a misnomer.

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Fact 1: One of the most popular foods in the middle east is falafel
https://www.thespruceeats.com/popular-middle-eastern-foods-2355798
Fact 2: The major religion of the middle east is Islam

Fact 3:  Modestly for men no shorts and for women, a headscarf is an essential and absolutely no bare arms or legs.

Fact 4: You cannot take pictures of any women without asking. They believe that taking a photo image steals their soul.
https://www.pilotguides.com/articles/visiting-the-middle-east-customs-and-culture/

I used the bottom link for fact 2,3,4

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culture fact/1 pt.: There is no pork in the middle east (unless it is a tourist area)because they follow the laws of Kashrut for Judism or Halal for Islam.

mathematicians/3 pt.: Abu Kamil Shuja ibn Aslam ibn Muhammad ibn Shuja
Born: about 850 in (possibly) Egypt
Died: about 930
Abu Kamil Shuja is sometimes known as al'Hasib and he worked on integer solutions of equations. He also gave the solution of a fourth degree equation and of a quadratic equations with irrational coefficients.

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Originally Persian, Al-Khwarizmi spent his academic life in the city of Baghdad.

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None of the great achievements of modern science would be possible without the mathematisation of science and the development of algebra.

*Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi was a 9th-century Muslim mathematician and astronomer.

*He is known as the "father of algebra", a word derived from the title of his book, Kitab al-Jabr.

*His pioneering work offered practical answers for land distribution, rules on inheritance and distributing salaries.

*He also developed the concept of the algorithm in mathematics, which is why some have called him the "grandfather of computer science".

*Khwarizmi was one of the most famous scholars of Bayt al-Hikma (The House of Wisdom), Baghdad's intellectual powerhouse.

*The House of Wisdom was a centre for the study of sciences, including mathematics, astronomy, medicine, chemistry, geography and astrology.

The word algebra stems from the Arabic word al-jabr, which has its roots in the title of a 9th century manuscript written by the mathematician Al-Khwarizmi.

Al-Khwarizmi's Kitab al-mukhtasar fi hisab al-jabr wal-muqabala (The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing) was a pioneering piece of work - offering practical answers for land distribution, rules on inheritance and distributing salaries.

In this episode of Science in a Golden Age, theoretical physicist, Jim al-Khalili explores Al-Khwarizmi's 9th century treatise that also underpins the science of flight and the engineering behind the fastest car in the world.

Originally Persian, Al-Khwarizmi spent his academic life in the city of Baghdad from where the Abbasid caliphs ruled and established the Bayt al-Hikma (The House of Wisdom), a renowned centre of learning.

With Professor Ramazan Sesen and Dr Peter Starr, Jim discusses the origins of the House of Wisdom and how the translation of Greek, Persian and other texts was central to the progressive scientific and mathematical revolution that originated in Baghdad.

And, in the Sulemaniye Library in Istanbul, Jim uncovers a rare text by Al-Kindi, a philosopher, polymath, and musician - and perhaps the world's earliest mathematical code breaker.

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None of the great achievements of modern science would be possible without the mathematisation of science and the development of algebra. *Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi was a 9th-century Muslim mathematician and astronomer. *He is known as the "father of algebra", a word derived from the title of his book, Kitab al-Jabr.

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A Persian mathematician is Muhammad Al-Khwarizmi
https://www.storyofmathematics.com/islamic.html

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Olives, chickpeas, lentils, beans and vegetables are an important to many Middle East countries.https://www.thespruceeats.com/introduction-to-middle-eastern-food-and-cooking-2355721

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2 famous mathematicians from the middle east are
Abu'l-Hasan Thabit ibn Qurra
Born: 826 in Harran, Mesopotamia (now Turkey)
Died: 18 Feb 901 in Baghdad, (now in Iraq)
how he contributed to math:    In al-Uqlidisi's book Kita b al-fusul fi-l-hisab al-Hindii (The book of chapters on Hindu Arithmetic), two new contributions are significant: (1) an algorithm for multiplication on paper is given, and (2) decimal fractions are used for the first time. Both methods do not resemble modern ones, but the methods are easily understood using modern terminology.
and
Ghiyath al'Din Jamshid Mas'ud al'Kashi
Born: 1390 in Kashan, Iran
Died: 1450 in Samarkand (now Uzbek)

how he contributed to math: He calculated  to 16 decimal places and considered himself the inventor of decimal fractions. In fact, he gives 2 pie  as  6.2831853071795865

which was the best until about 1700.

website: https://www.math.tamu.edu/~don.allen/history/arab/arab.html

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Ismail_al-Jazari is a famous mathematician from the middle east he did the math to start basic machinery and devices.  https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/ismail-al-jazari-38170.php

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In Egypt start a food called falafel

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fact 1: Their religion is Islam and there are also Jews and Christians that live in the Middle East.
https://www.pilotguides.com/articles/visiting-the-middle-east-customs-and-culture/
fact 2: The way they dress is very important if you ever travel there because men are NOT supposed to wear shorts and women wear head scarfs and cant show bare arms or legs.
https://www.pilotguides.com/articles/visiting-the-middle-east-customs-and-culture/
fact 3:

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the Great Mosque of Samarra is there and it is 42 acres wide and 170 foot tall

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Explore the fact-checked online encyclopedia from Encyclopaedia Britannica with hundreds of thousands of objective articles, biographies, videos, and images from experts.

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Countries classified as being part of the middle east are Iraq, Iran, Cyprus, Oman, Egypt, Bahrain, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Palestine, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, Israel, Syria, Kuwait, and Jordan.

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Why is it Called the Middle East?

The term "Middle East" originated from the same European perspective that described Eastern Asia as "the Far East." The Middle East denotes the transcontinental area between Western Asia and Egypt. It is comprised of 17 nations and an estimated population of 371 million. Some of the area's largest cities include Riyadh, Cairo, and Istanbul.

Background

The origin of the term "Middle East" is considered to be in the British India Office during the 1850s. It was popularized by Alfred Thayer Mahan, an American naval strategist who was referring to the region between Arabia and India in 1902. Mahan's definition of the Middle East was the area around the Persian Gulf. Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol further enlarged this definition to cater for the Asian regions whose territories extended to India.

Prior to the Second World War, another term, the "Near East", denoted the eastern shores of the Mediterranean in addition to regions centered around Turkey. Middle East was used by the British while naming its command in Egypt in the late 1930s. It was after this usage that the term became widely used in the West. In 1946, the Middle East Institute began operating in Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States.

History of the Region

The area now designated as the Middle East was known as the Near East in medieval times. It is reputed as the cradle of civilization as it was home to some of the most ancient human developments. Such civilizations include those of Mesopotamia, ancient Egypt, Hittite, Greek, the Levant, Persia, and the Arabian Peninsula. Ancient Near East was governed by multiple empires starting with the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Achaemenid, Macedonian, Iranian, Roman, and Byzantine Empires. The Islamic Caliphate began their Arab conquest of the area in the 7th century. The Ottoman Empire, which had established control in the region, was defeated by the British after First World War. The French and the British divided power in the Middle East after carrying out their partition and thus defining some of the geographic boundaries still used today. By the late 1960s, nations of the Middle East had attained independence and were seeking an identity in the global landscape. The region has achieved economic significance due to the presence of oil reserves.

Countries of the Middle East

Countries classified as being part of this region are Iraq, Iran, Cyprus, Oman, Egypt, Bahrain, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Palestine, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, Israel, Syria, Kuwait, and Jordan. Some countries are occasionally added in the definition such as Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Armenia. Other nations are quoted in the affairs of the Middle East such as Pakistan, Afghanistan, Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria.

Ethnicity, Language, and Religion

The majority of the region's population identify as Arabian, while the rest include Turkic, Arameans, Persians, Kurds, Berbers, Shabaks, Zazas, Assyrians, and Samaritans. Numerous dialects of the Arabic Language are widely spoken in the Middle East. Literary Arabic serves as the official language in most states in the area. Other languages also spoken are Persian, Turkish, Hebrew, Kurdish, Armenian, Greek, and English. Some of the world's major religions including Islam, Christianity, and Judaism have their roots in the Middle East. These religions have many adherents in the Middle East even in modern day. Other religions practiced in the area are Yazidism, Bahá'I Faith, Shabakism, and Mandaeism.

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The term "Middle East" originated from the same European perspective that described Eastern Asia as "the Far East." The Middle East denotes the transcontinental area between Western Asia and Egypt. It is comprised of 17 nations and an estimated population of 371 million. Some of the area's largest cities include Riyadh, Cairo, and Istanbul.

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The area now designated as the Middle East was known as the Near East in medieval times.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Why is it Called the Middle East?

The term "Middle East" originated from the same European perspective that described Eastern Asia as "the Far East." The Middle East denotes the transcontinental area between Western Asia and Egypt. It is comprised of 17 nations and an estimated population of 371 million. Some of the area's largest cities include Riyadh, Cairo, and Istanbul.

Background

The origin of the term "Middle East" is considered to be in the British India Office during the 1850s. It was popularized by Alfred Thayer Mahan, an American naval strategist who was referring to the region between Arabia and India in 1902. Mahan's definition of the Middle East was the area around the Persian Gulf. Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol further enlarged this definition to cater for the Asian regions whose territories extended to India.

Prior to the Second World War, another term, the "Near East", denoted the eastern shores of the Mediterranean in addition to regions centered around Turkey. Middle East was used by the British while naming its command in Egypt in the late 1930s. It was after this usage that the term became widely used in the West. In 1946, the Middle East Institute began operating in Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States.

History of the Region

The area now designated as the Middle East was known as the Near East in medieval times. It is reputed as the cradle of civilization as it was home to some of the most ancient human developments. Such civilizations include those of Mesopotamia, ancient Egypt, Hittite, Greek, the Levant, Persia, and the Arabian Peninsula. Ancient Near East was governed by multiple empires starting with the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Achaemenid, Macedonian, Iranian, Roman, and Byzantine Empires. The Islamic Caliphate began their Arab conquest of the area in the 7th century. The Ottoman Empire, which had established control in the region, was defeated by the British after First World War. The French and the British divided power in the Middle East after carrying out their partition and thus defining some of the geographic boundaries still used today. By the late 1960s, nations of the Middle East had attained independence and were seeking an identity in the global landscape. The region has achieved economic significance due to the presence of oil reserves.

Countries of the Middle East

Countries classified as being part of this region are Iraq, Iran, Cyprus, Oman, Egypt, Bahrain, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Palestine, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, Israel, Syria, Kuwait, and Jordan. Some countries are occasionally added in the definition such as Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Armenia. Other nations are quoted in the affairs of the Middle East such as Pakistan, Afghanistan, Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria.

Ethnicity, Language, and Religion

The majority of the region's population identify as Arabian, while the rest include Turkic, Arameans, Persians, Kurds, Berbers, Shabaks, Zazas, Assyrians, and Samaritans. Numerous dialects of the Arabic Language are widely spoken in the Middle East. Literary Arabic serves as the official language in most states in the area. Other languages also spoken are Persian, Turkish, Hebrew, Kurdish, Armenian, Greek, and English. Some of the world's major religions including Islam, Christianity, and Judaism have their roots in the Middle East. These religions have many adherents in the Middle East even in modern day. Other religions practiced in the area are Yazidism, Bahá'I Faith, Shabakism, and Mandaeism.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The term "Middle East" originated from the same European perspective that described Eastern Asia as "the Far East." The Middle East denotes the transcontinental area between Western Asia and Egypt. It is comprised of 17 nations and an estimated population of 371 million. Some of the area's largest cities include Riyadh, Cairo, and Istanbul.

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Arron, the middle east has the worlds tallest building there

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Arron, the middle east has the worlds tallest building there

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it is 828 meters high

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Jeddah Tower: What does the world's next tallest skyscraper look like now? | CNN

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These are the images that show what will soon be known as the world's next tallest building rising from the desert. When the 3,280-feet-tall (1,000-meter-tall) Jeddah Tower, in Saudi Arabia, opens in 2020, it will knock Dubai's iconic Burj Khalifa off its throne as the tallest skyscraper in the world by 236 feet (72 meters).

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The estimated area of the middle east is 2,742,000 square miles

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Kids learn about the countries and geography of the Middle East. The flags, maps, facts, exports, natural resouces, economy, populations, and languages of the Middle East.

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The population of the middle east is rufly 368,927,551

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Kids learn about the countries and geography of the Middle East. The flags, maps, facts, exports, natural resouces, economy, populations, and languages of the Middle East.

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There are actually 17 country's in the middle east.

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Though an understanding of Middle Eastern society, culture, and demography isn't necessary for enjoying Terrace Restaurant and Lounge's great Lebanese cuisine, we think knowing more about where our favorite dishes come from adds a little "flavor" to the experience. Read on to learn some interesting facts about the Middle East that might surprise you!

The Term "Middle Eastern" is a Misnomer

In America, we often use the term "Middle East" as a catch-all for peoples living on or around the Arabian Peninsula, but in actuality, the Middle East is an extremely diverse region comprised of many countries and ethnic groups, each with its own distinct language, customs, religious beliefs, cultural norms, and societal structure. Even the largest subset of Middle Easterners - collectively call "Arabs" - use different languages, hold different religious beliefs, eat different types of food, and listen to different kinds of music.

There Are Actually 17 Countries in the "Middle East"

17 separate countries makes up the region known as The Middle East, including: Bahrain, Cyprus, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.) and Yemen. (Turkey also recognizes the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus as it's own nation, though the international community considers this faction a part of Cyprus.) Of the Middle Eastern Countries, Egypt is the most populace with 88,500,000 people, while Saudi Arabia is largest country, stretching over 2,000,000 square kilometers. The smallest countries are Cyprus and Bahrain by population and land area, respectively.

There World's Tallest Building is Located in the Middle East

Standing at 828 meters (2,717 feet) and boasting 163 floors, the Burj Khalifa in the United Arab Emirates is the world's tallest building. However, it may not hold that title for long: plans are already in the works for Tokyo's Millennium Tower, which will best the Burj by 12 meters.

Iran Is Nuts About Nuts

The nation of Iran is the world's largest producer of pistachios, and the sweet green nut is the country's second-largest export behind oil. Due to sanctions, however, it's nearly impossible to buy Iranian-produced pistachios in the United States.

The Middle East Is The Birthplace Of Religion

All three of the world's major monotheistic religions - Christianity, Judaism, and Islam - were founded in the Middle East. The only other major world religion that did not originate in the region, Hinduism, was born not far away, in India.

Food Is An Important Aspect of Middle Eastern Culture

Though each region - Maghreb, Egypt, Levant, Iraq, Gulf - has its own distinct cuisine, most Middle Eastern food shares a common influence in traditional Ottoman recipes. Many countries in this region use olives, chickpeas, grains like rice and flatbreads, chicken, beef, and lamb, yogurt and cheeses, and spices like cumin, nutmeg, turmeric, and caraway in their food preparation.

To sample Los Angeles' best Middle Eastern cuisine, stop by Terrace Restaurant and Lounge today!

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Website and Internet Marketing by Alecan Marketing Solutions

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Interesting Facts About "The Middle East" From Terrace

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Though an understanding of Middle Eastern society, culture, and demography isn't necessary for enjoying Terrace Restaurant and Lounge's great Lebanese cuisine, we think knowing more about where our favorite dishes come from adds a little "flavor" to the experience. Read on to learn some interesting facts about the Middle East that might surprise you!

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Al-Khwārizmī was a Muslim mathematician.

http://www.britannica.com/biography/al-Khwarizmi

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3 points-
Al Khwarizmi-
Al Khwarizmi spent his academic life in the city of Baghdad where the Abbasid caliphs established the House of Wisdom. Al Khwarizmi was one of the most famous scholars in the House of Wisdom.

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None of the great achievements of modern science would be possible without the mathematisation of science and the development of algebra.

*Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi was a 9th-century Muslim mathematician and astronomer.

*He is known as the "father of algebra", a word derived from the title of his book, Kitab al-Jabr.

*His pioneering work offered practical answers for land distribution, rules on inheritance and distributing salaries.

*He also developed the concept of the algorithm in mathematics, which is why some have called him the "grandfather of computer science".

*Khwarizmi was one of the most famous scholars of Bayt al-Hikma (The House of Wisdom), Baghdad's intellectual powerhouse.

*The House of Wisdom was a centre for the study of sciences, including mathematics, astronomy, medicine, chemistry, geography and astrology.

The word algebra stems from the Arabic word al-jabr, which has its roots in the title of a 9th century manuscript written by the mathematician Al-Khwarizmi.

Al-Khwarizmi's Kitab al-mukhtasar fi hisab al-jabr wal-muqabala (The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing) was a pioneering piece of work - offering practical answers for land distribution, rules on inheritance and distributing salaries.

In this episode of Science in a Golden Age, theoretical physicist, Jim al-Khalili explores Al-Khwarizmi's 9th century treatise that also underpins the science of flight and the engineering behind the fastest car in the world.

Originally Persian, Al-Khwarizmi spent his academic life in the city of Baghdad from where the Abbasid caliphs ruled and established the Bayt al-Hikma (The House of Wisdom), a renowned centre of learning.

With Professor Ramazan Sesen and Dr Peter Starr, Jim discusses the origins of the House of Wisdom and how the translation of Greek, Persian and other texts was central to the progressive scientific and mathematical revolution that originated in Baghdad.

And, in the Sulemaniye Library in Istanbul, Jim uncovers a rare text by Al-Kindi, a philosopher, polymath, and musician - and perhaps the world's earliest mathematical code breaker.

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None of the great achievements of modern science would be possible without the mathematisation of science and the development of algebra. *Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi was a 9th-century Muslim mathematician and astronomer. *He is known as the "father of algebra", a word derived from the title of his book, Kitab al-Jabr.

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1 points-
Baghdad
Baghdad culture consists of making buildings and architecture rooms surrounding an open center or courtyard, with the use of multiple colors, tiles, and arches. It is traditional to sacrifice a lamb or a goat to celebrate holidays. However, today few Iraqis have the means to do this, and celebrations are now minimal.

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Orientation

Identification. Modern Iraq covers almost the same area as ancient Mesopotamia, which centered on the land between the Tigres and the Euphrates Rivers. Mesopotamia, also referred to as the Fertile Crescent, was an important center of early civilization and saw the rise and fall of many cultures and settlements. In the medieval era, Iraq was the name of an Arab province that made up the southern half of the modern-day country. In today's Republic of Iraq, where Islam is the state religion and claims the beliefs of 95 percent of the population, the majority of Iraqis identify with Arab culture. The second-largest cultural group is the Kurds, who are in the highlands and mountain valleys of the north in a politically autonomous settlement. The Kurds occupy the provinces of As Sulaymaniyah, Dahuk and Irbil, the area of which is commonly referred to as Kurdistan.

Location and Geography. Iraq, in the Middle East, is 168,754 square miles (437,073 square kilometers), which is comparable to twice the size of Idaho. Iraq is bordered by Iran, Jordan, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, and the Persian Gulf. Baghdad was the name of a village that the Arabs chose to develop as their capital and is in the central plains. The northern border areas near Iran and Turkey are mountainous and experience cold, harsh winters, while the west is mostly desert. The differences in climate have influenced the economies of the various areas and ethnic groups, especially since a large part of the economy used to be agriculturally based.

Demography. The estimated Iraqi population for 2000 is 22,675,617 people. Arabs comprise about three-fourths of the population, and Kurds compose about one-fifth. The remaining people are divided into several ethnic groups, including Assyrian, Turkoman, Chaldean, Armenian, Yazidi, and Jewish.

Linguistic Affiliation. Almost all Iraqis speak and understand their official language, Arabic. Arabic, a Semitic language, was introduced by the Arab conquerors and has three different forms: classical, modern standard, and spoken. Classical Arabic, best known by scholars, is the written language of the Qur'an. Modern standard Arabic, which has virtually the same structure in all Arabic-speaking countries, is taught in schools for reading and writing. The spoken language is Iraqi Arabic, and is extremely similar to that which is spoken in Syria, Lebanon, and parts of Jordan. Those who go to school learn Modern Standard Arabic, and many that do not attend school are likely to at least understand it. The major differences between modern standard and Iraqi Arabic are changes in verb form, and an overall simplicity in grammar of the spoken Arabic.

Kurdish is the official language in Kurdistan, and serves to distinguish Kurds from other Iraqis. It is not of Semitic origin nor an Arab or Persian dialect, but a distinct language from the Indo-European family. Other minority languages include Aramaic, Turkic, Armenian, and Persian.

Symbolism. In the 1970s a cultural campaign was launched to influence a national consciousness based on Iraq's history, including the pre-Islam era and the former glory of Mesopotamia and Babylon. The goal was to focus on a new cultural life for modern Iraq and to emphasize Iraq's uniqueness, especially in the Arab world. Archaeological museums were built in several cities, which held exhibitions and educational programs especially for children, so that they were made aware of the historical importance of their culture and nation. In order to promote this center of attention on history, several ancient sites from the city of Babylon were reconstructed, such as the Ziggurat of Aqarquf, the ruins of Babylon, the temple of Ishtar, the southern

fortress of Nebuchadnezzar, and the Greek amphitheater.

The Iraqi flag is also an important national symbol, and is composed of three colored, horizontal sections, starting with red on the top, white, and black. On the white band there are three green five-pointed stars. During the Persian Gulf War in 1991, the phrase Allahu Akbar (God is great) was added to the flag. The flag resembles other Arab countries' flags and demonstrates Iraqi faith in Allah and Arab unity.

History and Ethnic Relations

Emergence of the Nation. Starting from prehistory, the area of Mesopotamia has been under the

control of several civilizations. In about 4000 B.C.E. the land belonged to the Sumerians, who built advanced irrigation systems, developed cereal agriculture, invented the earliest form of writing, a math system on which time in the modern world is based, the wheel, and the first plow. Literature was produced, including the first known recorded story, the Epic of Gilgamesh. Unlike their Egyptian counterparts who believed that all land belonged to the pharaoh, Sumerians believed in private property, still an important notion in Iraq today.

When the Sumerian civilization collapsed in about 1700 B.C.E. , King Hammurabi took over the area and renamed it Babylonia. Hammurabi, a great leader known for creating the first recorded legal code in history, united the Assyrians and Babylonians in harmony. Following several changes in power, Nebuchadnezzar II came to rule from 604 to 562 B.C.E. , and restored Babylonia to its former glory. Babylon, which is about thirty miles (forty-eight kilometers) south of modern-day Baghdad, became the most famous city in the world, and boasted, among other things, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon.

In 323 B.C.E. Babylonia became part of the Persian Empire, until Arab Muslims overtook it in 634 C.E. At the time of the invasion, the people of Mesopotamia were mostly Christian, and paid non-Muslim taxes to the invaders. As the Persians were eventually defeated, the people of Mesopotamia began to convert to Islam and intermarry with Arabs. In 762 C.E. the capital city of Baghdad was founded, and it became an important commercial, cultural, and educational center. It linked Asia to Mediterranean countries via trade; welcomed visitors, scholars, and commercial traders from all over the world; and produced incredible philosophical and scientific works by both Arab and Persian thinkers.

The 1200s witnessed yet another invasion, and control went to the Mongols, who ruled until the 1400s. The Ottoman Turks took control in the sixteenth century, in a reign that lasted until the end of World War I. When the Ottoman Empire was defeated in that war, the League of Nations assigned Britain to set up the administration in Mesopotamia. The British defined the territory of Iraq, and in doing so paid little attention to natural boundaries and ethnic divisions. They set up the institutional framework for government and politics, which included installation of a monarchy and influence in writing the constitution. On 14 July 1958 the monarchy was overthrown, and Iraq was declared a republic. The following ten years were followed by much political instability. Then, on 17 July 1968, another coup d'état occurred, which brought to power the Baath Party, today's government leader.

National Identity. Arab rule during the medieval period had the greatest cultural impact on modern Iraq. The dominating culture within Iraq is Arab, and most Arabs are Muslim. Iraqi Muslims are split into two groups, the Sunnis and the Shias (Shiites). The Sunnis, a majority in Islam, are a minority in Iraq, and the Shias, a minority in the Arab world, are the majority in Iraq. Between the Shia and Sunni Muslims, loyalty to Iraq has come to be a common factor. Though they have differing views, both Sunnis and Shias hold high leadership positions in the government (including the Sunni Saddam Hussein), as do some Christians.

The Arab culture, as influenced by the conquerors in the seventh century, withstood many changes of power throughout the centuries, and managed to remain influential. In the nineteenth century, while the Ottoman Empire was focusing on the "Turkification" of its people, rebels in Mesopotamia were building their Arab nationalist movement. They were granted an opportunity to act during World War I, when the British agreed to recognize Arab independence in Mesopotamia if they helped fight against the Turks. Though Iraq was subject to British mandate rule following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, Arab nationalism stood strong. For the next few decades, even after independence from Britain, the government's attitude wavered between being pro-British and Arab nationalist. Today Iraq stands firm in its belief in pro-Arab nationalism.

Ethnic Relations. The largest minority in Iraq, the Kurds, continually battle with the majority Arabs, and the sparring between these two cultural groups has contributed to a survivalist mentality for the Kurds. The Turkomans, who populate the northern mountainous areas, also have had strained relations with the Kurds due to their historical role as buffers between Arab and Kurdish areas. Other cultural groups who are sometimes subject to the will of the Arab majority are the Yazidis, who are of Kurdish descent, but differ from the Kurds because of their unique religion. There are the Assyrians, who are direct descendents of the ancient Mesopotamian people and speak Aramaic. They are mainly Christian, and though they compose a significant minority in Iraq, the government does not officially recognize them as an ethnic group. Regarding relations with other countries, Iraq's Shias have been the traditional enemies of Persians for centuries; this contributed to Iraq fighting Iran in a costly war from 1980 to 1988 over a land dispute. The Iraqi Kurdish population is surrounded by fellow Kurds in the countries of Iran, Turkey, Syria, and Azerbaijan.

Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space

Iraq's economy was once based on agriculture, which stipulated a large rural population. However, due to oil production, an economic boom hit Iraq in the 1970s, and with the change of economic basis, much of population migrated toward urban centers. Modern apartment and office buildings sprang up in Baghdad, and programs and services such as education and health care developed with the shift from rural areas to urban population centers. In addition to modernization, the influx of monetary resources allowed Iraq to do things for its cultural identity and preservation, especially in architecture. High priority was placed on restoring and building according to historic style, and the structures targeted included archaeological sites, mosques, and government buildings. Some of the traditional aspects of the architecture include rooms surrounding an open center or courtyard, and use of multiple colors, tiles, and arches.

Food and Economy

Food in Daily Life. Prior to the United Nations economic sanctions, the traditional diet included rice with soup or sauce, accompanied by lamb and vegetables. Today, because food is tightly rationed, most people eat rice or another grain sometimes with sauce. Both vegetables and meat are hard to come by. In rural areas it is customary for families to eat together out of a common bowl, while in urban areas individuals eat with plates and utensils.

Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. It is traditional to sacrifice a lamb or a goat to celebrate holidays. However, today few Iraqis have the means to do this, and celebrations are now minimal.

Basic Economy. Iraq's economy is currently in a difficult position. Following the 1991 Persian Gulf War, the United Nations imposed Security Council Resolution 687, which requires Iraq to disclose the full extent of its programs to develop chemical and nuclear weapons and missiles, and to eliminate its weapons of mass destruction. Until Iraq complies with these requirements, the United Nations attests that there will be an economic embargo and trade sanctions against Iraq. At first the resolution meant that Iraq could not assume trade relations with any foreign country. In 1996 the United Nations modified

the sanctions and implemented the oil-for-food program, which allows Iraq to pump and sell a limited amount of oil for humanitarian purposes, with no direct exchange of cash, but rather with all transactions taking place through an offshore escrow account. Two-thirds of the proceeds are to be spent on food and medicine for the Iraqi people; the remaining third is to be directed to victims of Iraq's occupation of Kuwait.

Prior to the sanctions, Iraq imported about 70 percent of its food. However, food shortages have forced people to grow their own, but given the severity of the economic situation of the country, it is difficult for Iraqis to find the means to do this. Items that are imported through the oil-for-food program are distributed to people in a food basket on the first of each month. The rations are estimated to last twenty to twenty-three days and include flour, tea, sugar, rice, beans, milk, cooking oil, soap, and salt.

Land Tenure and Property. Private property was an important notion first introduced by the Sumerians during their control of Mesopotamia, and emerged again in the late nineteenth century. The reintroduction of private property had a major impact on Iraq's social system, as it went from a feudal society where sheikhs provided both spiritual and tribal leadership for the inhabitants, to one separated between landowners and sharecroppers. At present many people have sold or are selling their land to the government to purchase essentials such as food and medicine. Though private property does exist, fewer and fewer people can now claim it.

Commercial Activities. Oil, mining, manufacturing, construction, and agriculture are the major types of goods and services produced for sale.

Major Industries. Crude oil, refined petroleum products, and natural gas are products produced by the most important industry in Iraq. Other products and services include light manufacturing, food processing, textiles, and mining of nonmetallic minerals.

Trade. Iraq may only legally trade with other countries through the oil-for-food program, wherein they are allowed to sell oil to buy basic food supplies. However, diplomatic reports have indicated that Iraq has been illegally exporting some of its medical supplies and food, purchased through the oil-for-food program, to Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan. Prior to the sanctions, Iraq's main exports were crude oil, refined petroleum products, natural gas, chemical fertilizers, and dates. Its major trade partners were Russia, France, Brazil, Spain, and Japan.

Division of Labor. It is common for jobs to be assigned through knowing people in the government. Those who enter the military may have more opportunity locating work, as they are trained for jobs that are specifically needed in the country.

Social Stratification

Classes and Castes. Arabs, Kurds, and other ethnic groups each have their own social stratospheres, and no one ethnicity dominates another in a caste system. In terms of social class there is great disparity between rich and poor. Those who compose the high class in society of Iraq are essentially chosen by the government, since there is no opportunity to start a business or make a name for oneself without the endorsement of the government. The once-dominant middle class of the 1970s has deteriorated in the face of the economic crisis. These people, who are very well educated, now perform unskilled labor, if they have jobs at all, and have joined the ranking of the majority lower or poor class.

Political Life

Government. Iraq is a republic divided into eighteen provinces, which are subdivided into districts. There is a National Assembly elected every four years, and they meet twice annually and work with the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) to make legislative decisions. The RCC holds ultimate authority over legislative decisions, and the chairman of the RCC is also president of the country. The president exercises all executive decision-making powers, and he as well as the vice presidents are elected by a two-thirds majority vote of the RCC. There is universal suffrage at age eighteen, and the popular vote elects 220 of the 250 seats in the National Assembly. The president chooses the remaining 30 seats, which belong to the three provinces of Kurdistan; he also appoints judges.

Leadership and Political Officials. On 16 July 1979 Saddam Hussein became president of Iraq, and has been reelected since. He is also the prime minister, as well as chairman of the RCC. The Baath Party, which stands for Arab Socialist Resurrection, is the controlling party of the government and the most powerful political party. Its authority is the Regional Command, and the secretary general of the Regional Command is Saddam Hussein.

Political activities are carried out through the Progressive National Front (PNF), which is an official organization of political parties. PNF participants include the Iraqi Communist Party, Kurdish political parties, and other independent groups. Politics that try to be exercised outside the framework of the PNF are banned.

Though granted the right to vote for some positions, many Iraqis feel that elections are fixed. They also fear that they might vote for the "wrong" candidate and that they may be punished for doing so. It is a crime for any Iraqi to speak out against the government, and those who disagree with it place themselves and their families at great risk of being persecuted, as many citizens will turn in fellow Iraqis they feel are not loyal to the government or Saddam Hussein.

Social Problems and Control. The head of the formal judicial system is the Court of Cassation, which is the highest court in the country. There are other levels of courts, and all judges are government-appointed. Personal disputes are handled by religious community courts, which are based on Islamic law. Normally punishment is swift for crimes, with no long court trials and with severe sentences.

The crime rate has been traditionally low, but following the United Nations embargo, there has been an increase in crime, especially theft. In addition to crimes by the general public, many crimes by corrupt police and military forces have been reported, the most common being bribery and blackmail. Conditions in prisons are said to be extremely harsh. Prisoners are housed with more than twenty people in a cell meant for two, with no sanitation system, and no food is given unless brought by relatives. Other punishment practices include torture, often in front of family members, and execution.

Military Activity. Current statistics about Iraq's military are not available, though it is believed to be one of the strongest in the world. In 1994 a report indicated that Iraq spent $2.6 billion (U.S.) on its military. Iraq has not officially stated that military service is compulsory, but another statistic from 1994 stated that most of the 382,000 service people were required to be in the military. The average length of service was eighteen to twenty-four months, and there were another 650,000 in the reserves. Regarding compensation, wages for those who fought in the Iran-Iraq War were generous. Journalists reported that families who lost a son in the fighting would receive compensation in such

forms as an automobile, a generous pension for life, real estate, and loans with easy terms for repayment. It is estimated that current compensation to the military has changed, but no specific information is available.

Social Welfare and Change Programs

Before the Persian Gulf War, welfare benefits such as Social Security, pensions for retirees and disabled people, and money for maternity and sick leaves were available. Currently the only known welfare programs are food distribution and medical aid food. Some nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have been involved, but unless the Iraqi government can direct NGO operations, they are not permitted to function.

Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations

The most important NGOs are those that are responsible for food rationing and distribution, medical aid, and rebuilding of water and sewage treatment facilities. Many of the NGOs, such as the World Food Program, are associated with the United Nations. Currently Iraqi leaders have been turning down humanitarian efforts and have refused offers of relief from private medical groups. They recently expelled representatives of the Middle East Council of Churches, and denied entry of a Russian envoy from the United Nations who was to investigate the cases of missing persons since 1990. The only NGOs Iraq allows are foreign antisanctions protesters, who bring in small amounts of aid but who are welcome principally because of the propaganda they provide.

The presence of NGOs is different between the south and the three provinces of Kurdistan in the north. The Kurds welcomed NGOs in 1991, immediately following the Persian Gulf War, while they were not allowed in the South until 1996. Kurdistan hosts more than thirty NGOs, while in 1999 there were eleven in the south, with even fewer in 2000. Local Kurdish officials work with the United Nations to manage food, health, and economic programs, while the resources and control of the NGOs are restricted in the south. Due to the attitude toward NGOs as well as other contributing factors such as arable land, population, and availability of natural resources, the north is more productive agriculturally and economically and has a more advanced health system infrastructure. The south, under Iraqi control and closed to outside help, has

suffered with more food, health, and economic problems.

Gender Roles and Statuses

Division of Labor by Gender. During the Iran-Iraq War, with so many men fighting in the military, women were required to study in fields and to work in positions normally filled by men. Many women joined the labor force as teachers, physicians, dentists, factory workers, and civil servants, with the majority performing unskilled labor. Women professionals, such as doctors, are normally pediatricians or obstetricians, so that they work with only women or children. Those drafted into the workforce during the Iran-Iraq War were also made to comply with about a one-third deduction from their salary to go toward the war effort.

The Relative Status of Women and Men. The General Federation for Iraqi Women (GFIW) is a government organization for women with eighteen branches, one in each province. Its stated goal is to officially organize women, promote literacy and higher education, and encourage women in the labor force. The federation supported big legislative steps, such as a 1977 law that said a woman may be appointed an officer in the military if she has a university degree in medicine, dentistry, or pharmacy. However, it has had little impact on issues that affect women as individuals, such as polygamy, divorce, and inheritance.

Many believe that the GFIW is not really functioning in the interests of women, but rather in the interests of the Baathist regime. Instead of trying to improve the situation of women in Iraq, the government seems to use the federation as a means to exercise control over them. In an address to the federation, Saddam said that an educated and liberated mother is one who will give back to the country conscious and committed fighters for Iraq. An underlying goal of the GFIW, whether it is stated or not, is to encourage women to "liberate" themselves through commitment to the Iraqi revolution.

In politics Iraq was the first Arab country ever to elect a woman to a parliamentary position. Though an incredible advancement for women in the Arab world, many believe that rather than exercising real authority, she was put in power to falsely demonstrate the controlling regime as a progressive one. Today there are women in politics, though the legitimacy of their authority is often questioned. In Islam, the state religion, women do not hold any leadership roles. Many cannot go to the mosque to pray, and if they do, they are segregated from the men. It is largely due to Islamic influence that women do not enjoy the same social rights and privileges as men, and if gender reform is to take place, it will have to be within the context of Islamic law.

Marriage, Family, and Kinship

Marriage. In the past, arranged marriages were common. However, this practice is becoming more rare, and a law was passed that gave authority to a state-appointed judge to overrule the wishes of the father in the event of an early marriage. The Muslim majority traditionally views marriage as a contract between two families, as the family's needs are considered most important. In urban settings, women and men have more options in choosing their spouses, though the proposed spouse still must have parental approval. Partners often come from the same kin group, and though marriage between different ethnic groups is accepted, it is not too common. The ruling Baath regime considers marriage to be a national duty that should be guided and encouraged. Starting in 1982, women were forbidden to marry non-Iraqi men. If they were already married, they were prohibited from transferring money or property to their spouses.

Following the Iran-Iraq War, the loss of men's lives was so severe that the government embarked on a campaign to increase the population. Government grants were given to men to marry war widows, and polygamy, once rare, became more common. Divorce is accepted, but usually is left solely as a decision of the husband. If the husband wishes to be divorced, it is normally without question or problem, while it is close to impossible for a woman to initiate a divorce proceeding. In the event of divorce, custody is supposed to be granted based on what is best for the child's welfare.

Domestic Unit. Couples can live in either of two ways: with the husband's extended family, or as a nuclear family. At present, with economic hard-ships, families tend to live with extended households. The extended family unit consists of the older couple, sons, their wives and families, and unmarried daughters. Other dependent relatives also may make up part of this group, and the oldest male heads the group. He manages property and makes the final decisions regarding such things as the type of education the children receive, their occupations, and whom they will marry. In this living arrangement household and child-rearing tasks are shared among all female members of the larger families. If the couple can afford to live in a nuclear household, women, even though they work outside the home, retain all domestic and child-care responsibilities. The challenge of the woman's role in this situation is that there is no change in cooking methods or materials, and they are isolated from the help and emotional support of other female family members. Families often grow large, because the Iraqi government has stated that every family should have five children, as four children or fewer is considered a threat to national security. Considering the extreme hardships families now face in light of economic hardship and harsh living conditions, the goal of many is now to simply feed their families and preserve a semblance of some sort of home life.

Inheritance. Based on the Islamic rule, a man inherits twice as much as a woman. The justification for this is that women are to be protected by their male relatives, so men need to be granted more means to provide. Normally, property and belongings are passed down through the family, split two-to-one between sons and daughters.

Kin Groups. Large kin groups are the fundamental social units, and are of higher importance than ethnic, social class, and sectarian lines. Familial loyalty is considered an essential quality, and the family is mutually protective of each other. The kin group usually is organized through descent and marriage and involves three generations, many of whom live together. They often cooperate in areas such as agriculture and land ownership. If some family members live in nuclear families, they keep up practices such as depending on one another and asking the elders for advice. Individual status within the group is determined by the family's position and the individual's position within that group.

Socialization

Infant Care. Children are the mother's responsibility, and in extended domestic units other female members also take care of the children. Children normally imitate older siblings, and obedience and loyalty to elders are of vital importance. Boys and girls have different upbringings, as a boy's birth into the family is usually celebrated, while a girl's typically is not. The boy is thought to be more valuable to a family, given his potential to work, while the girl is considered more of a dependent. At puberty girls are separated from boys and have much less freedom than boys.

Child Rearing and Education. The family holds an important role in teaching values, and they consider it their duty and feel responsible for other family members' behaviors. A good child is loyal, obedient, and does not question authority. The

most important value impressed upon young girls and boys is premarital chastity. In addition, girls are taught ideas of weakness, naïveté, resignation, and passivity, while boys go with men at an early age to learn the worth of authority and dominance.

In urban settings, more authority is found in schools rather than with the family. Schools teach about religion and values that stem from it. One present problem, however, is that differing values are taught in schools than are taught in families. State schools tend to emphasize national sovereignty, Arab unity, economic security, and socialism, while families usually focus on such values as love, people, generosity, and religion. Many families also fear that their children acquire violent views and habits such as spying while in school.

Higher Education. Prior to the Persian Gulf War higher education was greatly prized, and the state used to pay for all of it, even literacy classes for adults. In the 1980s the literacy rate was about 80 percent, and there were several plans to build new universities and expand existing ones. During the Iran-Iraq War the government refused to recruit or draft university students, claiming that they would ensure the future of Iraq. However, the situation has gravely changed since the Persian Gulf War. No current literacy statistic is available, but in 1995 the rate was estimated to be 42 percent, a sharp drop from the previous decade. Also, there is no indication that the universities were ever expanded. Fewer women than men receive the highest levels of education.

Etiquette

In general, both adults and children keep to themselves and are not loud and boisterous, especially in public. Men commonly hold hands or kiss when greeting each other, but this is not the case for men and women. Respect is given to the elderly and women, especially those with children, as men give up their seats to them on buses and trains.

Religion

Religious Beliefs. Islam is the officially recognized religion of Iraq and is practiced by 95 percent of the population. Islam itself does not distinguish between church and state, so any distinctions between religious and secular law are the result of more recent developments. There are two forms of Muslims in Iraq, the majority Shias (Shiites) and the minority Sunnis. The Shias believe that the original twelve imams

(Islamic leaders) were both spiritual and temporal leaders and that the caliph, or successor of Muhammad and leader of Islam, is selected through lineage and descent. The Sunnis believe that the imams were strictly temporal leaders and that the caliph should be elected. The Sunni sect is considered the orthodox branch of Islam. A small percentage of the population is Christian, divided into four churches: Chaldean, Nestorian, Jacobite (Syrian) Orthodox, and Syrian Catholic. The Yazidis, a cultural group living in the northern mountains, believe in a religion that combines paganism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam. They are concentrated in the Sinjar Mountains in the north and are herders and cultivators. In the past they have been victims of persecution due to their religious beliefs and practices, of ten being called heretical.

Religious Practitioners. There are five pillars of Islam: praise of Allah as the only God, with Muhammad as his prophet; prayer five times per day; almsgiving; fasting; and pilgrimage to Mecca. Muezzins invoke a call to prayer, reminding everyone it is either time to pray or to call them to the mosque, and imams lead the prayers. Imams are not required to go through formal training, but usually are men of importance in their communities and are appointed by the government. During Ramadan, men gather in homes or the marketplace to participate in readings of the Qur'an led by mumins (men trained at a religious school in An Najaf) or by mullahs (men apprenticed with older specialists). Christians are organized under a bishop who resides in Baghdad, and gather for Mass on Sundays.

Rituals and Holy Places. Muslims gather at the mosque every Friday for afternoon prayer. Ramadan falls in the ninth month of the Muslim calendar, which is on a lunar cycle and thus falls during different times of the year. The month entails a period of fasting from all food, drink, and activities such as smoking and sexual intercourse during daylight hours. At night the fast is broken, and on the first day of the tenth month there is a celebration, Id al Fitr, to acknowledge the end of the fast. During Id al Adha, on the tenth day of the twelfth month, there is a sacrificial festival. Both this and the one following Ramadan last for three or four days, and people dress up, visit each other, exchange gifts, and also visit cemeteries.

Death and the Afterlife. Funerals are very simple and somber events. People are buried on the day following their death, and are wrapped in a white cloth and placed in a plain box, if available. Whether the person is rich or poor, funerals are generally the same for everyone.

Medicine and Health Care

Health care is socialized, with a few private hospitals. The current situation of hospitals is dire, as they are tremendously understaffed, under-equipped, and overbooked. There has been a dramatic rise in disease since 1990, due to chemicals used in the fighting of the Persian Gulf War, and from malnutrition and bacterial disease exacerbated by conditions resulting from the economic embargo. In the 1980s Iraq was extremely advanced in health care, but lack of resources and education has compromised medical advancement, and in fact has caused it to regress. Doctors who could once cure many diseases through medicine or surgery are no longer able to do so due for lack of resources. Because Iraq was so advanced in medical expertise in the past, there was little reliance on traditional medicine. The current situation is disheartening for older physicians, because they are not able to do medical procedures that they have the capability to perform, and young physicians are no longer educated in the available techniques that older physicians know. The health care situation is rapidly deteriorating, and once-controlled diseases such as malnutrition, diarrhea, typhoid fever, measles, chicken pox, and cholera are reappearing in great numbers; in addition, there is a large increase in diseases such as leukemia and other cancers.

Secular Celebrations

The Anniversary of the Revolution is 17 July and the most important secular holiday. It was on this day in 1968 that the Baath Party took control of the Republic of Iraq. Other holidays celebrate Islamic feasts and include the day following the month-long fast of Ramadan (Id al Fitr), the sacrificial festival of Id al Adha, the birth of Muhammad, and a pilgrim's return from Mecca.

The Arts and Humanities

Support for the Arts. The government supports artists, provided they are chosen by the state and do works requested by the state. For example, all writers, when commissioned by the state, must include praise to Saddam Hussein in their work. In general, artistic forms of thought and expression have been banned. Private ownership of typewriters and photocopiers is prohibited, so that no independent writings may be published or distributed. In addition, publishing houses, distribution networks, newspapers, art galleries, theaters, and film companies are subject to state censorship and must register all writing equipment with authorities. The end result is that artists are unable to express themselves freely.

Graphic Arts. Islamic art is very important, as are ceramics, carpets, and Islamic-style fashion design. In 1970 the Iraqi Fashion House opened, and design concentrated on the preservation of traditional attire and historical style. At present historical art, which is colorful and fine, has been reduced to art produced for function, such as sculptures of political figures and propaganda for the government.

Performance Arts. Music festivals have been important, such as the Babylon International Music and Arts Festival (last held in 1987 and 1995). International orchestras and performance troupes were invited to perform in the restored sites of Babylon, and people from all over the world attended. At present due to the harsh and severe living conditions, there are no resources to allocate to performance arts.

Bibliography

Al-Khalil, Samir. Republic of Fear: The Politics of Modern Iraq , 1991.

Al-Khayyat, Sana. Honor and Shame: Women in Modern Iraq , 1990.

Baram, Amatzia. Culture, History, and Ideology in the Formation of Ba'thist Iraq, 1968-89 , 1991.

Calabrese, John, ed. The Future of Iraq , 1997.

CARDRI (Committee Against Repression and for Democratic Rights in Iraq). Saddam's Iraq: Revolution or Reaction? , 1986.

Chalian, Gerard, ed. A People Without a Country: The Kurds and Kurdistan , 1993.

Crossette, Barbara. "Iraq Won't Let Outside Experts Assess Sanctions' Impact." New York Times , 12 September 2000.

Fernea, Elizabeth and Robert. The Arab World: Personal Encounters , 1985.

Fisher, W. B. The Middle East and North Africa 1995 , 1994.

Hazelton, Fran, ed. Iraq Since the Gulf War: Prospects for Democracy , 1994.

Hopwood, Derek; Ishow, Habib; and Kozinowski, Thomas, eds. Iraq: Power and Society , 1993.

Lewis, Bernard. The Middle East: A Brief History of the Last 2000 Years , 1995.

Lukitz, Liora. Iraq: The Search for National Identity , 1995.

Marr, Phebe. The Modern History of Iraq , 1985.

Miller, Judith and Laurie Mylroie. Saddam Hussein and the Crisis in the Gulf , 1990.

Roberts, Paul William. The Demonic Comedy: Some Detours in the Baghdad of Saddam Hussein , 1998.

Simons, G.L. Iraq: From Sumer to Saddam , 1994.

Taylor, Marisa. "The Great Iraqi Exodus: Arrival of Chaldeans at Border Part of 'Enormous' Migration." San Diego Union Tribune , 30 September 2000.

Web Sites

Hickey, Brian; Danielle LeClair; Brian Sims; and Jack Zylman. "Iraq Trip Report." Congressional Staffers Report, 16 March 2000, www.nonviolence.org/vitw/pages/94.htm

Metz, Helen Chapin, ed. "Iraq: A Country Study." Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, May 1988. www.loc.gov (search "Iraq")

Saleh. "Iraq History and Culture from Noah to the Present." www.achilles.net/~sal/iraq_history.html

U.S. State Department. CIA World Factbook 2000: Iraq. www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/iz.html

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Identification. Modern Iraq covers almost the same area as ancient Mesopotamia, which centered on the land between the Tigres and the Euphrates Rivers. Mesopotamia, also referred to as the Fertile Crescent, was an important center of early civilization and saw the rise and fall of many cultures and settlements.

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Mathematics, during the Golden Age of Islam, was built on Greek and Indian Mathematics. Important Progress was made, such as the first systematized study of Algebra. (By Scholar Al-Khwarizmi)

Fun Fact About the Middle East: The Land Around the Tigris and Euphrates River is called Mesopotamia. The World's First Ever Civilization, The Sumer, was developed in this area.

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The middle east is the birthplace of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam

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© Annie Griffiths Belt/CORBIS

Culture, a shared set of traditions, belief systems, and behaviors, is shaped by history, religion, ethnic identity, language, and nationality, among other factors. The Middle East consists of approximately 20 countries, with many different religions and a variety of ethnic and linguistic groups. Given this diversity, we should not be surprised to find a multitude of different cultures coexisting in the region.

During the 19th century, translations of the Arabian Nights and archaeological discoveries in Egypt dominated the imaginations of people in the West who had never visited the Middle East. These armchair explorers conjured up competing images of a desert region populated by nomads and camels and, of course, pyramids, but also brimming with all manner of sweet and savory treats in bustling urban bazaars. During the 20th century, stories about the Middle East have tended to focus on oil wealth, territorial wars, and religious conflicts. All of these do exist, but there is much more to life in this area.

Daily life in the region is too complex to be summarized on a Web page; we can only begin to suggest the multiple variables involved in the lives of people there. A common thread that runs through many lives is the importance of family and the values that derive from having a strong extended family: respect, honor, and loyalty.

The Middle East is the birthplace of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, all monotheistic religions that grew from the same tradition. Each religion used the texts from earlier groups, and so they share many rules and beliefs. For example, Islam and Judaism observe the same dietary rules and have a similar focus on religion as a foundation for civil law. All three share a tradition of prophets, from Adam and Abraham to Solomon and Joseph. Jesus is significant for both Christianity and Islam, and Muslims in addition follow the teachings of Muhammad.

Religion plays a large part in the rhythm of daily life, not only through prayer and study, but also in determining the end of the work week. Shops in different neighborhoods close down on Fridays for the Muslim holy day, Saturdays for the Jewish Sabbath, and Sundays for the Christian day of rest. Religious festivals and remembrances, like Id al-Fitr (the Festival of Fast-Breaking, celebrated at the end of Ramadan), or the Jewish Passover holiday, or Easter Sunday as determined by the Roman or Eastern Orthodox Christian churches, are all recognized as national holidays in different countries.

An awareness of God (Arabic: Allah) is exhibited in common Arabic expressions that are used throughout the region -- even in Turkey and Iran, where Arabic is not the local language. A common response to "How are you?" is "Ilhamdillah!" -- "Praise be to God." When expressing hope for a future event, one might say "Inshallah" -- "God willing." The exclamation "Mashallah" -- "What God wills!" -- is often heard as an expression of delight, at the sight of a new baby, for example. While there are those for whom these phrases reflect the divine, others use them the way many English speakers use "Good-bye" (literally, "God be with ye").

Religion plays a role in national and international politics as well. Turkey has a Muslim majority, but is officially a secular nation. Other countries in the region identify themselves with a specific religion, mostly Islam. Lebanon's constitution attempted to provide for power sharing among 18 officially recognized religions, including Maronite and Orthodox Christians, Sunni and Shii Muslims, and Druze. But because the populations of the various groups grew at different rates, this system eventually became less representative of the nation as a whole and civil war broke out.

The poor relations between Israel and most of its Arab neighbors are sometimes described in terms of a perpetual religious conflict between Jews and Muslims. This reading, however, is too simplistic. Although control over important historical sites of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam is a factor in the disagreements, many of the details that stall negotiations have to do with control of land and access to water resources. Furthermore, many Palestinians who demand restitution for their property are Christian, not Muslim, and Egypt's historic treaty with Israel provides a model for how Muslim and Jewish neighbors can live peaceably.

Situated between Africa, Asia, and Europe, the Middle East has been a crossroads for traders, travelers, and empire builders for thousands of years. Africans, Central Asians, and Celts have all added to the ethnic mix. Major ethnic groups in the Middle East today include Arabs, Iranians (also known as Persians), Turks, Jews, Kurds, Berbers, Armenians, Nubians, Azeris, and Greeks.

Most of the countries in this region are multiethnic. But even as diversity enhances the cultural richness of a society, it unfortunately may also lead to political conflict. The Kurds, for example, do not have their own nation-state, but are instead spread across Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and Syria. Their political and military attempts to create an autonomous Kurdistan have been strongly resisted by those states.

The multiplicity of languages spoken in the Middle East reflects its ethnic diversity. Most of these languages come from three major language "families":

Semitic (including Arabic, Hebrew, and Aramaic)

Indo-European (Kurdish, Persian, Armenian)

Turkic (Turkish, Azeri)

These language families reflect the successive migrations of different peoples into the region. A quick examination of these languages reveals the influence they have had on each other. Persian, for example, is written in Arabic script, while Turkish incorporates vocabulary words from Persian and Arabic. Arabic itself is spoken in regional dialectics that are not always mutually understood. Some ethnic and religious communities have preserved "native" languages for religious use, such as Coptic and Greek.

The family is an important part of culture in the Middle East, as is evident in the Arabic honorific names that are often used in preference to given names. A man may be called Ibn ("son of") followed by his father's name or Abu ("father of") followed by his child's name.

In traditional Arab societies the family unit is an extended family -- cousins, grandparents, second cousins, cousins-in-law, nieces, nephews, and more -- all living together. This remains true in rural areas particularly. Migration to the cities has broken up some of these extended families, and the number of people living only with their nuclear family in urban areas is increasing.

The difference between life in the village and life in the city sometimes seems to be as great or greater than the difference between living in the Middle East and living in America. Two men in Egypt, for example, may share the same language (Arabic), religion (Islam), and nationality (Egyptian), but one may live in an air-conditioned apartment building with his wife and two children and wear a suit to his government job, while the other may live in a naturally cool mud-brick house surrounded by three generations of relatives and wear a traditional robe, called a galabiya, to work a plot of land.

These differences are eroding, however, with the introduction of inexpensive cellular phone service and the ubiquity of television. Even some mud-brick houses are now equipped with satellite dishes that bring news, entertainment, and fashions not only from the capital city, but from around the world as well.

Over the past 200 years, and increasingly in the contemporary age of globalization, more and more Western goods -- everything from clothing to food to computers -- have appeared in Middle Eastern markets. Not only goods, but culture as well, have been imported from the West. Western books and movies are popular, especially (but not exclusively) among the urban elite.

In fashion, Atatürk, the founder of modern Turkey, banished the fez and other aspects of Ottoman dress in favor of European three-piece suits. Today, one might see young people clad in jeans and T-shirts that advertise their fondness for Britney Spears or Titanic walking down the same street as their peers who are wearing traditional hijab or galibiyas.

There is an active debate in most Middle Eastern communities about how much Western culture and technology can and should be adopted before such influences begin to compromise their culture, traditions, and identity. This discussion will require defining that identity to some degree. Will they characterize themselves as Egyptian? Muslim? Arab? a resident of a particular village? a member of a particular tribe? Most importantly, in what order would they prioritize these qualities? These are not easy questions, but the encroachment of Western influences requires some answers.

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Related sites

Inside the Kingdom: Fatina Shaker:
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/middle_east /saudi_arabia/saudi_shaker_full.html
A Saudi Arabian sociologist talks to NewsHour about women's issues, religion, and politics.

Life in Israel and the West Bank:
http://search.npr.org/cf/cmn/cmnpd01fm.cfm ?PrgDate=04/08/2002&PrgID=5
Talk of the Nation speaks with Palestinians and Israelis about what life is like. Can kids go out and play? Can adults have dinner with friends? How do people make it to religious services?

Fiesta Bowl:
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/poems/jan -june01/middleeast_06-13.html
NewsHour presents poems from Israeli and Palestinian poets.

Fashion Slideshow:
http://www.pbs.org/adventuredivas/index.html
This slide show exhibits Iranian women wearing different kinds of veils.

Observing Islam:
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/religion/ july-dec01/islam_11-16.html
Islamic scholars discuss the future of Islam as Ramadan begins amid curiosity and concern. (Novemeber 2001)

Crescent and Star: Turkey Between Two Worlds:
http://freshair.npr.org/guestInfoFA.cfm?name=stephenkinzer
Writer Stephen Kinzer describes a country caught between the entrenched ruling elite and its younger, well-educated population who wants democracy.

Pari Zanganeh: Prima Folk/Opera Diva:
http://www.pbs.org/adventuredivas/iran/divas/zanganeh.html
Singer Pari Zanganeh speaks about women and music.

Beauty Shop Bop:
http://www.pbs.org/adventuredivas/iran/dispatches /beauty_video.html
This page links to streaming video of an Iranian beauty parlor and offers a clandestine peek underneath the veil.

Iranian Culture:
http://www.pbs.org/visavis/culture_mstr.html
Vis à Vis looks at Iran's rich traditions of cinema, literature, and music.

Religion & Culture:
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/wideangle/classroom/lp5.html
Students will consider the theme of religion and culture as they learn about the Hindu-Muslim conflict in the province of Gujarat, India.

Arab Americans: In the Aftermath of the Terrorist Attacks on the U.S.:
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/extra/teachers /lessonplans/lifeafter911/arabamerican.html
Students will begin to understand who Arab Americans are, where they come from, and the cultural diversity and complexity of what it means to be Arab American.

Advertisers Tread Lightly:
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/extra/teachers /lessonplans/october01/warads/index.html
Students will analyze how one national company responded to the recent tragedy by incorporating special messages into its advertising.

Gender Issues in Islam:
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/teach/muslims/
Students will compare and contrast the roles of men and women with regard to various topics in the six countries featured in the film.

Renaissance Man Comparison Poster:
http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/lesson5.html
Students will learn about both the Sultan Suleyman (b. 1494 C.E.) and another Renaissance character and make comparisons.

Great Thinkers and Accomplishments of Islam:
http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/lesson4.html
Students will learn about the diverse accomplishments of great Islamic scholars.

Creating a Textile Museum Piece from the Islamic Empire:
http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/lesson4.html
Students will learn about the importance of the textile industry to the strength and stability of the Islamic Empire in the 11th and 12th centuries.

A Woman's Place:
http://www.pbs.org/visavis/resources_mstr.html
Students will learn about women's status in Iran and the U.S. across different points in history, explain why women in Iran dress and interact with men in specific ways, and relate this to certain groups/religions in the U.S., and adopt the perspective of a woman living at a different time in the U.S. or Iran.

Tolerance in Times of Trial:
http://www.pbs.org/americaresponds/tolerance.html
Students will explore the problems inherent in assigning blame to populations or nations of people. Students will also look at contemporary examples of ethnic conflict, discrimination, and stereotyping at home and abroad.

An Introduction to Islam and Muhammad:
http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/lesson1.html
Students will compare the major monotheistic belief systems of the world.

Afghanland.com Web Site:
http://www.afghanland.com/home/home.html
A Web site on Afghan culture and politics

Religion: Three Religions, One God

How were the modern nation-states of the Middle East created?

What role have natural resources played in the politics and economy of the Middle East?

Historic Political Borders of the Middle East

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© Annie Griffiths Belt/CORBIS Culture, a shared set of traditions, belief systems, and behaviors, is shaped by history, religion, ethnic identity, language, and nationality, among other factors. The Middle East consists of approximately 20 countries, with many different religions and a variety of ethnic and linguistic groups.

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The dominating culture within Iraq is Arab, and most Arabs are Muslim.
https://www.everyculture.com/Ge-It/Iraq.html

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In the middle east women wear all sorts of different clothing such as an abaya.

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It's a very special What I Wore Wednesday! This week it's not about what I would wear, but what the Qatari people traditionally wear. My trip to Qatar was fascinating, and I learned so much! One of the things that concerned me most was dressing appropriately, but I really had nothing to worry about. Qatar is the most open Arabic country, with over 80 countries able to visit on a completely free visa. Additionally, unlike some of the other Arabic countries, women are not required by law to dress in the traditional clothing.

Still, I wanted to know more about what Arabic people wear-is it really hot all covered like that? Do the men wear traditional clothing, too? How do I wrap that head scarf? So, my friends were gracious enough to dress me up and answer all my questions!

Women

Many non-Muslims may believe that women who cover are oppressed and can't wear anything they want, but that is absolutely the opposite of the truth! Muslim women dress very stylishly-much more stylishly than I do!-and many of them have fun doing gorgeous hair and makeup. My new friend Noor was kind enough to do my hair and makeup for these pictures!

You might think, "Why bother? No one will ever see!" But it's important to know that they do not have to be covered at home or in the presence of other women. Honestly, it's kind of fun that their husbands are the only non-family members who see them without being completely covered, and when the women get together, it's always a party! Here are the pieces of clothing that Muslim women wear, with an explanation of each.

For starters, here is the whole get-up:

Abaya ("ah-bah-yah"): Floor-length Robe

The abaya is traditionally black, but I saw some that were gray, beige, navy, etc. All were neutral colors, as the point of covering is to not draw too much attention to oneself. But don't be fooled! Upon a closer look, you'll find beautiful embroidery, subtle tone-on-tone patterns, and even designer labels! The fabric is flowy and light, so the women can take advantage of a good breeze and keep cool, especially in the summer when temperatures can soar past 130 degrees Fahrenheit (55 degrees Celsius)!

Shayla ("shay-lah"): Neutral Head Covering Worn with the Abaya

The shayla is very important because Muslim women are to keep their hair covered in public. An abaya will often come with a matching shayla.

Hijab ("hih-job"): Head Covering Worn with Western-style Clothes

The hijab can be any color or any pattern, as long as it covers the hair. It is always worn with Western-style clothes instead of with an abaya. Many Muslim women in America choose to wear just the hijab, even when visiting predominantly Muslim countries like Qatar. This is my friend Janna! She is an American living in my hometown in Smith County, Tennessee, but she has a large family still living in Doha! She wears the hijab both at home and when she visits family in Doha.

Burqa (bur-kah) or Niqab ("nee-cob"): Face Covering Revealing Only the Eyes

Fewer women choose to wear a face covering, but my friends let me try this one on for a photo! I was a little confused about what the name was, but my friend Shairfa told me the terms "burqa" and "niqab" are used interchangeably for this piece. It is always worn with the abaya and shayla, but I am only wearing this piece here so that you can see what it looks like on its own.

There is also a piece called a Gushwa ("goo-shwah") that also covers the eyes. Don't worry-women who wear this can see! The fabric is very sheer. Most women wear only the shayla to cover their heads, but I did see several women with the burqa, and some women with the gushwa. The type of head covering a woman wears is the choice of the individual.

Palestinian Thobe ("thowb"): Palestinian Dress Closed in Front with Embroidery

Something else you may see in Qatar and other Arabic countries is the Palestinian thobe! The one below is black, but they could be red or white, or another color. And the embroidery can be any color as well. There are many people of Palestinian heritage in Qatar and throughout the Middle East, and this is their traditional dress.

Fun fact: girls do not begin to wear the abaya, shayla, etc., until they become teenagers, but the little boys wear the traditional clothing below to go to the mosque for prayer time with their male family members on Fridays!

Did you know Arabic men traditionally dress conservatively as well? It's true! The main difference is that they wear white instead of black, and their head covering is a little different. Also, how completely adorable is this?

Thobe ("thowb"): Long White Garment

The men's thobe is mostly closed, but there are three-four buttons at the top.

Gutra (goo-trah): White or Red and White Head Covering

The gutra is either sheer white for summer or red and white for cooler temperatures. I actually asked my friends if the Bedouins in the desert wear the traditional clothing all the time or if they just dress that way for the tourists. This is what they really wear all the time-no pretense here!

Gahfeia ("gah-fee-uh"): White Cap

A white cap that can be worn on its own or under the gutra.

Agal (uh-gol"): Black Rope Wrapped Around the Head

The agal is the black rope on top of the gutra to keep it in place. See the black part on the red gutra below?

Also, will you look at this cutie patootie? Can you imagine my complete surprise and delight when this was the first thing I saw on the Friday morning I was there? Peace, little man.

Does this post give you a better understanding of the traditional Arabic clothing? I hope so!

Love this post? Pin it for later!

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What Men and Women Wear in the Middle East

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It's a very special What I Wore Wednesday! This week it's not about what I would wear, but what the Qatari people traditionally wear. My trip to Qatar was fascinating, and I learned so much! One of the things that concerned me most was dressing appropriately, but I really had nothing to worry about.

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Egypt: Math relates to Egypt, because in the making of pyramids they used math to find the perfect way to make it. https://www.goldennumber.net/great-pyramid-giza-complex-golden-ratio/
Hypatia was a famous Female mathematician from Alexandria, Egypt. https://www.ancient.eu/Hypatia_of_Alexandria/

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The World's tallest building is located in the Middle East. It is 827 meters. http://www.terracerestaurantandlounge.com/

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Omar Khayyam : he discovered a geometrical method to solve cubic equations by intersecting a parabola with a circle
https://www.math.tamu.edu/~don.allen/history/arab/arab.html ( link to where i found Omar Khayyam )

culture: how they dress
men should dress modestly ( no shorts ) and Women head-scarfs are essential and no bare arms and bare legs
https://www.pilotguides.com/articles/visiting-the-middle-east-customs-and-culture/ ( the link about their culture and how they dress )

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In the middle east you usually won't find pork because grocery stores follow the laws of Kashrut for Judaism or Halal for Islam.

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The Middle East is a vast region that incorporates many diverse groups of people who are very different, yet more similar than they are different. Though certain groups may have different languages or religions, living in the Middle East means having a sense of culture and a type of cuisine that's connected to those of others in the region. As a traveler, you should understand the common culture and food in the Middle East, so you don't offend any of the locals.

Religious Customs

The primary religions of the region are Islam, Judaism and Christianity. Understanding how these religions play a role in the day-to-day lives of Middle Eastern people is helpful.

Some inhabitants may be extremely religious while others are more secular, and many countries have laws that reflect the laws of the religion. For instance, in Israel, public transportation on Friday evening until Saturday is difficult to find because it's the Sabbath. In Islamic countries during the fasting season of Ramadan, don't expect many restaurants to be open until after dark.

Dress and Act Modestly

In some major cities, such as Beirut, Tel Aviv or Dubai, you will likely see locals and tourists wearing shorts and a T-shirt on a warm summer's day. But if you plan to visit any religious sites, dress accordingly. Cover your shoulders, and don't wear shorts. Women should wear pants or a skirt that falls below their knees, and they often must cover their hair as well. Additionally, married men and women in some Middle Eastern religions cannot touch the opposite sex, so if you offer your hand for a handshake or go in for a hug, don't be offended if the gesture is not returned.

Hospitality Is Key

Almost all Middle Eastern cultures are hospitable by nature, a habit that partially originates from the Bedouin culture, in which the harsh conditions of the desert meant that nomadic travelers were always welcomed into the home and offered food, water, shelter or anything else they needed. Many hotels in the Middle East have incorporated this long-standing tradition of hospitality into the services and amenities they provide.

No Pork

In the Middle East, you probably won't find pork on restaurant menus, unless you're in a touristy area. Additionally, many restaurants and grocery stores follow the laws of Kashrut for Judaism or Halal for Islam. This means that all meat has to be Kosher or Halal; each is guided by a number of rules.

However, Middle Eastern cuisine incorporates some of the world's tastiest dishes. For example, in countries along the Mediterranean, you will find hummus, pita, eggs, cheeses, olives, fresh juices, salads, etc. Some common street foods include falafel and shwarma, which can be found in virtually any Middle Eastern country.

Jewish food and Arab food are slightly different, with some crossovers. Some dishes that you'll be sure to find in Muslim countries include manakeesh, an Arab pizza; grilled halloumi, a snack made from goat and sheep's milk; tabouleh, shish tawook, a skewered chicken dish served with garlic paste; or kabsa, a rice and meat dish. No matter where you travel, you'll notice that many dishes in the Middle East include the same spices, such as ground sumac, isot, oregano, mint, nigella seeds and spice blends, including za'atar, ras el hanout and baharat.

Don't Bring Up Politics

When traveling in the Middle East, don't discuss politics. A lot of tension exists in this region, but don't draw attention to it, or ask anyone about their opinions on issues such as the Arab-Israeli conflict, the situation in Syria or the oppression of women.

That said, understand that conflicts in the area may mean some difficulty traveling from one country to another. The biggest issue is typically travel from Israel to an Arab country, but Israel has solved this problem by stamping a piece of paper instead of the inside of your passport. Israeli stamps seen by an immigration official or an airline check-in employee could prevent you from continuing on to another destination.

About the Author

Hana LaRock is a freelance content writer from New York, currently living in Mexico. She has spent the last 5 years traveling the world and living abroad and has lived in South Korea and Israel. Hana enjoys reading, cooking, and watching foreign films.

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The Middle East is one of the most interesting regions to travel to, due to the diversity of the people and a fascinating ancient history. Although there are certainly differences across this region, there are also a lot of similiarities. Understanding the culture and cuisine here is important.

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When posting to this board, make sure to type your name in the title  of your post.
Must earn 4 points to receive 100

1 point – a fact about the culture of the country or area we are visiting

2 points – a fact about architecture, art, engineering, buildings, etc. found in this country that relates to math

3 points - famous mathematician from this country or area

4 points - a specific way the development of algebra relates to this country (not always available for all countries)

Make sure that all content is appropriate for sharing. Posts will be moderated.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Musa_al-Khwarizmi
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https://www.foodnetwork.com/recipes/bobby-flay/grilled-halloumi-cheese-recipe-1941212

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Al-Khwarizmi was a famous mathematician in the Middle East.
https://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/science-in-a-golden-age/2015/10/al-khwarizmi-father-algebra-151019144853758.html