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Description

This session will facilitate transdisciplinary reflection and dialogue on the relationships between people and plants in the context of Mediterranean Cultural Landscapes. Lying at the intersection of vastly different cultures and biomes, the Mediterranean has long been a space characterised by movement and change. Here, people-plant relationships - and the landscapes in which they are embedded - are continuously being transformed by migrations, natural and cultural cross-pollinations, human and natural disasters and the innovations that blossom in this fertile ground. As these transformations accelerate in a context of rapid socioecological change, we are pressed to find new ways of coping with our precarious and indeterminate environmental futures.

The session brings the conservation sciences into dialogue with emerging social scientific concepts that 'disrupt' our binary perspective of nature as separate from culture. In doing so, it hopes to find new spaces for creative and joint reflection on how to conserve Mediterranean plants in rapidly changing landscapes. In particular, it will explore how we can harness the dynamic, active and reciprocal relationships that exist between people and plants in the Mediterranean to sustain existing community conservation initiatives and to build innovative plant conservation actions across the region.

The session will be composed of 10 Pecha Kucha talks followed by an interactive dialogue session.

Topics to address

Changing relationships between people and plants

Transformation, loss and maintenance of traditional plant knowledge

Agrobiodiversity and seed conservation

Community-based conservation initiatives and their diversity

Innovative approaches to plant conservation, particularly in the context of rapid environmental change

Chair of the session

Emily Caruso (Global Diversity Foundation).

Co-Chair of the session

Ugo D'Ambrosio (GDF Mediterranean Ethnobiology Programme Director).
Keynote.
Zaatar and zaitra: a parable of disruption and rewilding in Moroccan cultural landscapes Gary Martin
What's the point of talking about flowers?. Hub Members: Attard Everaldo, Gerada Mario, Pisani Maria, Radmilli Rachel. Hub Researchers: Cutajar Simone, Lippi Simiona. Hub Collaborations: Caruana Censu, Caruana Joseph, Farrugia Pyt.
Short presentations.
Local knowledge on uses and the ecological sustainability of wild medicinal plant harvesting: a case study on Lemnos island, Greece. Papageorgiou Dimitrios, Schunko Christoph.

Ethnobotanical knowledge in the High Atlas: potential for plant biodiversity conservation. Ugo D'Ambrosio, Irene Teixidor-Toneu, Hajar Salamat , Soufiane M'Sou, Hamid Ait Baskad, Fadma Ait Illigh, Touda Atyah, Giada Bellia, Abdeddaim El Hajjam, Hafida Mouhdach, Hassan Rankou, Emily Caruso & Gary J.Martin.

Conserving and managing local seed crops biodiversity in Sicily: towards functional community seed banks. Cristina Salmeri

Functional seed traits of wild edible East Mediterranean plants. Pablo Gómez-Barreiro, Efisio Mattana, Khaled Abulaila, Joelle Breidy, Nizar Hani , Michiel van Slageren, Elinor Breman, Udayangani Liu, Tiziana Cossu, Santiago Vilanova Navarro, Tiziana Ulian.

Conservation of traditional knowledge on wild plants, despite the vanishing of their natural habitats: the case of central spanish wetlands. Segundo RÍOS, Alonso VERDE, José FAJARDO, Vicente CONSUEGRA, Diego RIVERA, Concepción OBÓN4, Francisco ALCARAZ, Vanessa MARTÍNEZ-FRANCÉS, Arturo VALDÉS, José REYES, Estela BARROSO, Luis SAN JOAQUÍN2, José GARCÍA, P. Pablo FERRER- GALLEGO & Emilio LAGUNA.

Plant species translocation in Mediterranean: lessons from the Antiquity on the meaning and value of the alien species. Pietro Minissale.

A quantitative tool to assess local preference for the conservation of Important Plant Areas (IPA): a case study of Sannine-Kneysseh IPA in Lebanon. Salman, M.M., S.N. Talhouk, S. Kharroubi, and M. Itani.

Reconnecting people with plants: implementation of guidelines for ancillary botanical gardens (ABG). Melhem, G. M., Y. Abunnasr, and S.N. Talhouk.

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2nd Mediterranean Plant Conservation Week - Mediterranean plant conservation week

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Description This session will facilitate transdisciplinary reflection and dialogue on the relationships between people and plants in the context of Mediterranean Cultural Landscapes. Lying at the intersection of vastly different cultures and biomes, the Mediterranean has long been a space characterised by movement and change.

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Abstract

Chamomile is one of the most ancient medicinal herbs known to mankind. It is a member of Asteraceae/ Compositae family and represented by two common varieties viz. German Chamomile ( Chamomilla recutita) and Roman Chamomile ( Chamaemelum nobile). The dried flowers of chamomile contain many terpenoids and flavonoids contributing to its medicinal properties. Chamomile preparations are commonly used for many human ailments such as hay fever, inflammation, muscle spasms, menstrual disorders, insomnia, ulcers, wounds, gastrointestinal disorders, rheumatic pain, and hemorrhoids. Essential oils of chamomile are used extensively in cosmetics and aromatherapy. Many different preparations of chamomile have been developed, the most popular of which is in the form of herbal tea consumed more than one million cups per day. In this review we describe the use of chamomile in traditional medicine with regard to evaluating its curative and preventive properties, highlight recent findings for its development as a therapeutic agent promoting human health.

Keywords: chamomile, dietary agents, flavonoids, polyphenols, human health

1. INTRODUCTION

The interplay of plants and human health has been documented for thousands of years ( 1- 3). Herbs have been integral to both traditional and non-traditional forms of medicine dating back at least 5000 years ( 2, 4- 6). The enduring popularity of herbal medicines may be explained by the tendency of herbs to work slowly, usually with minimal toxic side effects. One of the most common herbs used for medicinal purposes is chamomile whose standardized tea and herbal extracts are prepared from dried flowers of Matricaria species. Chamomile is one of the oldest, most widely used and well documented medicinal plants in the world and has been recommended for a variety of healing applications ( 7). Chamomile is a native of the old World and is a member of the daisy family ( Asteraceae or Compositae). The hollow, bright gold cones of the flowers are packed with disc or tubular florets and are ringed with about fifteen white ray or ligulate florets, widely represented by two known varieties viz. German chamomile ( Matricaria chamomilla) and Roman chamomile ( Chamaemelum nobile) ( 8) . In this review we will discuss the use and possible merits of chamomile, examining its historical use and recent scientific and clinical evaluations of its potential use in the management of various human ailments.

2. BIOACTIVE CONSTITUENTS OF CHAMOMILE

Different classes of bioactive constituents are present in chamomile, which have been isolated and used as medicinal preparations and cosmetics ( 9). The plant contains 0.24%-1.9% volatile oil, composed of a variety of separate oils. When exposed to steam distillation, the oil ranges in color from brilliant blue to deep green when fresh but turns to dark yellow after storage. Despite fading, the oil does not lose its potency. Approximately 120 secondary metabolites have been identified in chamomile, including 28 terpenoids and 36 flavonoids ( 10, 11). The principal components of the essential oil extracted from the German chamomile flowers are the terpenoids α-bisabolol and its oxide azulenes including chamazulene and acetylene derivatives. Chamazulene and bisabolol are very unstable and are best preserved in an alcoholic tincture. The essential oil of Roman chamomile contains less chamazulene and is mainly constituted from esters of angelic acid and tiglic acid. It also contains farnesene and α-pinene. Roman chamomile contains up to 0.6% of sesquiterpene lactones of the germacranolide type, mainly nobilin and 3-epinobilin. Both α-bisabolol, bisabolol oxides A and B and chamazulene or azulenesse, farnesene and spiro-ether quiterpene lactones, glycosides, hydroxycoumarins, flavanoids (apigenin, luteolin, patuletin, and quercetin), coumarins (herniarin and umbelliferone), terpenoids, and mucilage are considered to be the major bio-active ingredients ( 12, 13). Other major constituents of the flowers include several phenolic compounds, primarily the flavonoids apigenin, quercetin, patuletin as glucosides and various acetylated derivatives. Among flavonoids, apigenin is the most promising compound. It is present in very small quantities as free apigenin, but predominantly exists in the form of various glycosides ( 14- 18).

3. HEALTHCARE PREPRATIONS OF CHAMOMILE

Chamomile is known to be used in various forms of its preparations. Dry powder of chamomile flower is recommended and used by many people for traditionally established health problems. Medicinal ingredients are normally extracted from the dry flowers of chamomile by using water, ethanol or methanol as solvents and corresponding extracts are known as aqueous, ethanolic (alcoholic) and/or methanolic extracts. Optimum chamomile extracts contain about 50 percent alcohol. Normally standardized extracts contain 1.2% of apigenin which is one of the most effective bioactive agents. Aqueous extracts, such as in the form of tea, contain quite low concentrations of free apigenin but include high levels of apigenin-7- O-glucoside. Oral infusion of chamomile is recommended by the German Commission E ( 19, 20).Chamomile tea is one of the world's most popular herbal teas and about a million cups are consumed every day. Tea bags of chamomile are also available in the market, containing chamomile flower powder, either pure or blended with other popular medicinal herbs. Chamomile tincture may also be prepared as one part chamomile flower in four parts of water having 12% grain alcohol, which is used to correct summer diarrhea in children and also used with purgatives to prevent cramping. Chamomile flowers are extensively used alone, or combined with crushed poppy-heads, as a poultice or hot foment for inflammatory pain or congestive neuralgia, and in cases of external swelling, such as facial swelling associated with underlying infection or abscess. Chamomile whole plant is used for making herb beers, and also for a lotion, for external application in toothache, earache, neuralgia and in cases of external swelling ( 20). It is also known to be used as bath additive, recommended for soothing ano-genital inflammation ( 21). The tea infusion is used as a wash or gargle for inflammation of the mucous membranes of the mouth and throat ( 22, 23). Inhalation of the vaporized essential oils derived from chamomile flowers is recommended to relieve anxiety, general depression. Chamomile oil is a popular ingredient of aromatherapy and hair care ( 24, 25). Roman chamomile is widely used in cosmetic preparations and in soothing and softening effect on the skin ( 26, 27).

4. TRADITIONAL USE OF CHAMOMILE

Traditionally, chamomile has been used for centuries as an anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, mild astringent and healing medicine ( 28). As a traditional medicine, it is used to treat wounds, ulcers, eczema, gout, skin irritations, bruises, burns, canker sores, neuralgia, sciatica, rheumatic pain, hemorrhoids, mastitis and other ailments ( 29, 30). Externally, chamomile has been used to treat diaper rash, cracked nipples, chicken pox, ear and eye infections, disorders of the eyes including blocked tear ducts, conjunctivitis, nasal inflammation and poison ivy ( 31, 32). Chamomile is widely used to treat inflammations of the skin and mucous membranes, and for various bacterial infections of the skin, oral cavity and gums, and respiratory tract. Chamomile in the form of an aqueous extract has been frequently used as a mild sedative to calm nerves and reduce anxiety, to treat hysteria, nightmares, insomnia and other sleep problems ( 33). Chamomile has been valued as a digestive relaxant and has been used to treat various gastrointestinal disturbances including flatulence, indigestion, diarrhea, anorexia, motion sickness, nausea, and vomiting ( 34, 35). Chamomile has also been used to treat colic, croup, and fevers in children ( 36). It has been used as an emmenagogue and a uterine tonic in women. It is also effective in arthritis, back pain, bedsores and stomach cramps.

5. SCIENTIFIC EVALUATION OF CHAMOMILE

5.1 Anti-inflammatory and antiphlogistic properties

The flowers of chamomile contain 1-2% volatile oils including alpha-bisabolol, alpha-bisabolol oxides A & B, and matricin (usually converted to chamazulene and other flavonoids which possess anti-inflammatory and antiphlogistic properties ( 12, 19, 35, 36). A study in human volunteers demonstrated that chamomile flavonoids and essential oils penetrate below the skin surface into the deeper skin layers ( 37). This is important for their use as topical antiphlogistic (anti-inflammatory) agents. One of chamomile's anti-inflammatory activities involve the inhibition of LPS-induced prostaglandin E(2) release and attenuation of cyclooxygenase (COX-2) enzyme activity without affecting the constitutive form, COX-1 ( 38).

5.2 Anticancer activity

Most evaluations of tumor growth inhibition by chamomile involve studies with apigenin which is one of the bioactive constituents of chamomile. Studies on preclinical models of skin, prostate, breast and ovarian cancer have shown promising growth inhibitory effects ( 39- 43). In a recently conducted study, chamomile extracts were shown to cause minimal growth inhibitory effects on normal cells, but showed significant reductions in cell viability in various human cancer cell lines. Chamomile exposure induced apoptosis in cancer cells but not in normal cells at similar doses ( 18). The efficacy of the novel agent TBS-101, a mixture of seven standardized botanical extracts including chamomile has been recently tested. The results confirm it to have a good safety profile with significant anticancer activities against androgen-refractory human prostrate cancer PC-3 cells, both in vitro and in vivo situation ( 44).

5.3 Common cold

Common cold (acute viral nasopharyngitis) is the most common human disease. It is a mild viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory system. Typically common cold is not life-threatening, although its complications (such as pneumonia) can lead to death, if not properly treated. Studies indicate that inhaling steam with chamomile extract has been helpful in common cold symptoms ( 45); however, further research is needed to confirm these findings.

5.4 Cardiovascular conditions

It has been suggested that regular use of flavonoids consumed in food may reduce the risk of death from coronary heart disease in elderly men ( 46). A study assessed the flavonoid intake of 805 men aged 65-84 years who were followed up for 5 years. Flavonoid intake (analyzed in tertiles) was significantly inversely associated with mortality from coronary heart disease and showed an inverse relation with incidence of myocardial infarction. In another study ( 47), on twelve patients with cardiac disease who underwent cardiac catheterization, hemodynamic measurements obtained prior to and 30 minutes after the oral ingestion of chamomile tea exhibited a small but significant increase in the mean brachial artery pressure. No other significant hemodynamic changes were observed after chamomile consumption. Ten of the twelve patients fell into a deep sleep shortly after drinking the beverage. A large, well-designed randomized controlled trial is needed to assess the potential value of chamomile in improving cardiac health.

5.5 Colic/Diarrhea conditions

An apple pectin-chamomile extract may help shorten the course of diarrhea in children as well as relieve symptoms associated with the condition ( 47). Two clinical trials have evaluated the efficacy of chamomile for the treatment of colic in children. Chamomile tea was combined with other herbs (German chamomile, vervain, licorice, fennel, balm mint) for administration. In a prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study, 68 healthy term infants who had colic (2 to 8 weeks old) received either herbal tea or placebo (glucose, flavoring). Each infant was offered treatment with every bout of colic, up to 150 mL/dose, no more than three times a day. After 7 days of treatment, parents reported that the tea eliminated the colic in 57% of the infants, whereas placebo was helpful in only 26% ( P<0.01). No adverse effects with regard to the number of nighttime awakenings were noted in either group ( 48). Another study examined the effects of a chamomile extract and apple pectin preparation in 79 children (age 0.5-5.5 y) with acute, non-complicated diarrhea who received either the chamomile/pectin preparation ( n = 39) or a placebo ( n = 40) for 3 days. Diarrhea ended sooner in children treated with chamomile and pectin (85%), than in the placebo group (58%) ( 49). These results provide evidence that chamomile can be used safely to treat infant colic disorders.

5.8 Hemorrhoids

Studies suggest that chamomile ointment may improve hemorrhoids. Tinctures of chamomile can also be used in a sitz bath format. Tincture of Roman chamomile may reduce inflammation associated with hemorrhoids ( 55, 56).

5.9 Health Promotion

It has been claimed that consumption of chamomile tea boosts the immune system and helps fight infections associated with colds. The health promoting benefits of chamomile was assessed in a study which involved fourteen volunteers who each drank five cups of the herbal tea daily for two consecutive weeks. Daily urine samples were taken and tested throughout the study, both before and after drinking chamomile tea. Drinking chamomile was associated with a significant increase in urinary levels of hippurate and glycine, which have been associated with increased antibacterial activity ( 57). In another study, chamomile relieved hypertensive symptoms and decreased the systolic blood pressure significantly, increasing urinary output ( 58). Additional studies are needed before a more definitive link between chamomile and its alleged health benefits can be established.

5.10 Inflammatory conditions

Inflammation is associated with many gastrointestinal disorders complaints, such as esophageal reflux, diverticular disease, and inflammatory disease ( 59- 61). Studies in preclinical models suggest that chamomile inhibits Helicobacter pylori, the bacteria that can contribute to stomach ulcers ( 60). Chamomile is believed to be helpful in reducing smooth muscle spasms associated with various gastrointestinal inflammatory disorders. Chamomile is often used to treat mild skin irritations, including sunburn, rashes, sores and even eye inflammations ( 62- 65) but its value in treating these conditions has not been shown with evidence-based research.

5.11 Mucositis

Mouth ulcers are a common condition with a variety of etiologies ( 66). Stomatitis is a major dose-limiting toxicity from bolus 5-fluorouracil-based (5-FU) chemotherapy regimens. A double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial including 164 patients was conducted ( 22). Patients were entered into the study at the time of their first cycle of 5-FU-based chemotherapy and were randomized to receive a chamomile or placebo mouthwash thrice daily for 14 days. There was no suggestion of any stomatitis difference between patients randomized to either protocol arm. There was also no suggestion of toxicity. Similar results were obtained with another prospective trial on chamomile in this situation. Data obtained from these clinical trials did not support the pre study hypothesis that chamomile could decrease 5-FU-induced stomatitis. The results remain unclear if chamomile is helpful in this situation.

5.12 Osteoporosis

Osteoporosis is a metabolic bone disease resulting from low bone mass (osteopenia) due to excessive bone resorption. Sufferers are prone to bone fractures from relatively minor trauma. Agents which include selective estrogen receptor modulators or SERMs, biphosphonates, calcitonin are frequently used to prevent bone loss. To prevent bone loss that occurs with increasing age, chamomile extract was evaluated for its ability to stimulate the differentiation and mineralization of osteoblastic cells. Chamomile extract was shown to stimulate osteoblastic cell differentiation and to exhibit an anti-estrogenic effect, suggesting an estrogen receptor-related mechanism ( 67). However, further studies are needed before it can be considered for clinical use.

5.13 Sleep aid/sedation

Traditionally, chamomile preparations such as tea and essential oil aromatherapy have been used to treat insomnia and to induce sedation (calming effects). Chamomile is widely regarded as a mild tranquillizer and sleep-inducer. Sedative effects may be due to the flavonoid, apigenin that binds to benzodiazepine receptors in the brain ( 68). Studies in preclinical models have shown anticonvulsant and CNS depressant effects respectively. Clinical trials are notable for their absence, although ten cardiac patients are reported to have immediately fallen into a deep sleep lasting for 90 minutes after drinking chamomile tea ( 47). Chamomile extracts exhibit benzodiazepine-like hypnotic activity ( 69). In another study, inhalation of the vapor of chamomile oil reduced a stress-induced increase in plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) levels. Diazepam, co-administered with the chamomile oil vapor, further reduced ACTH levels, while flumazenile, a BDZ antagonist blocked the effect of chamomile oil vapor on ACTH. According to Paladini et al. ( 70), the separation index (ratio between the maximal anxiolytic dose and the minimal sedative dose) for diazepam is 3 while for apigenin it is 10. Compounds, other than apigenin, present in extracts of chamomile can also bind BDZ and GABA receptors in the brain and might be responsible for some sedative effect; however, many of these compounds are as yet unidentified.

5.14 Anxiety and seizure

Chamomile has been reported in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). But the reports seem contradictory as an earlier report suggests that German chamomile showed significant inhibition of GAD activity ( 71). The recent results from the controlled clinical trial on chamomile extract for GAD suggests that it may have modest anxiolytic activity in patients with mild to moderate GAD ( 72). Extracts of chamomile ( M. recutita) possess suitable effects on seizure induced by picrotoxin ( 73). Furthermore, apigenin has been shown to reduce the latency in the onset of picrotoxin-induced convulsions and reduction in locomotor activity but did not demonstrate any anxiolytic, myorelaxant, or anticonvulsant activities ( 16).

5.16 Sore throat/hoarseness

The efficacy of lubrication of the endo-tracheal tube cuff with chamomile before intubation on postoperative sore throat and hoarseness was determined in a randomized double-blind study. 161 patients whose American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) physical status was I or II, and undergoing elective surgical, orthopedic, gynecological or urological surgeries were divided in two groups. The study group received 10 puffs of chamomile extract (Kamillosan M spray, total 370 mg of Chamomile extract) at the site of the cuff of the endotracheal tube for lubrication, while the control group did not receive any lubrication before intubations. Standard general anesthesia with tracheal intubations was given in both groups. 41 out of 81 patients (50.6%) in the chamomile group reported no postoperative sore throat in the post-anesthesia care unit compared with 45 out of 80 patients (56.3%) in the control group. Postoperative sore throat and hoarseness both in the post-anesthesia care unit and at 24 h post-operation were not statistically different. Lubrication of endo-tracheal tube cuff with chamomile extract spray before intubations can not prevent post operative sore throat and hoarseness ( 77). Similar results were obtained in another double blind study ( 78).

5.17 Vaginitis

Vaginal inflammation is common in women of all ages. Vaginitis is associated with itching, vaginal discharge, or pain with urination. Atrophic vaginitis most commonly occurs in menopausal and postmenopausal women, and its occurrence is often associated with reduced levels of estrogen. Chamomile douche may improve symptoms of vaginitis with few side effects ( 79). There is insufficient research data to allow conclusions concerning possible potential benefits of chamomile for this condition.

5.18 Wound healing

The efficacy of topical use of chamomile to enhance wound healing was evaluated in a double-blind trial on 14 patients who underwent dermabrasion of tattoos. The effects on drying and epithelialization were observed, and chamomile was judged to be statistically efficacious in producing wound drying and in speeding epithelialization ( 80). Antimicrobial activity of the extract against various microorganisms was also assessed. The test group, on day 15, exhibited a greater reduction in the wound area when compared with the controls (61 % versus 48%), faster epithelialization and a significantly higher wound-breaking strength. In addition, wet and dry granulation tissue weight and hydroxyproline content were significantly higher. The increased rate of wound contraction, together with the increased wound-breaking strength, hydroxyproline content and histological observations, support the use of M. recutita in wound management ( 81). Recent studies suggest that chamomile caused complete wound healing faster than corticosteroids ( 82). However, further studies are needed before it can be considered for clinical use.

6.0 CONTRAINDICATIONS AND SAFETY ISSUES WITH CHAMOMILE

A relatively low percentage of people are sensitive to chamomile and develop allergic reactions ( 87). People sensitive to ragweed and chrysanthemums or other members of the Compositae family are more prone to develop contact allergies to chamomile, especially if they take other drugs that help to trigger the sensitization. A large-scale clinical trial was conducted in Hamburg, Germany, between 1985 and 1991 to study the development of contact dermatitis secondary to exposure to a mixture of components derived from the Compositae family. Twelve species of the Compositae family, including German chamomile, were selected and tested individually when the mixture induced allergic reactions. During the study, 3,851 individuals were tested using a patch with the plant extract ( 88). Of these patients, 118 (3.1%) experienced an allergic reaction. Further tests revealed that feverfew elicited the most allergic reactions (70.1% of patients) followed by chrysanthemums (63.6%) and tansy (60.8%). Chamomile fell in the middle range (56.5%). A study involving 686 subjects exposed either to a sesquiterpene lactone mixture or a mixture of Compositae extracts led to allergic reactions in 4.5% of subjects ( 89). In another study it was shown that eye washing with chamomile tea in hay fever patients who have conjunctivitis exacerbates the eye inflammation, whereas no worsening of eye inflammation was noted when chamomile tea was ingested orally ( 90). Chamomile is listed on the FDA's GRAS (generally recognized as safe) list. It is possible that some reports of allergic reactions to chamomile may be due to contamination of chamomile by "dog chamomile," a highly allergenic and bad-tasting plant of similar appearance. Evidence of cross-reactivity of chamomile with other drugs is not well documented, and further study of this issue is needed prior to reaching conclusions. Safety in young children, pregnant or nursing women, or those with liver or kidney disease has not been established, although there have not been any credible reports of toxicity caused by this common beverage tea.

7.0 CONCLUSIONS

Chamomile has been used as an herbal medication since ancient times, is still popular today and probably will continue to be used in the future because it contains various bioactive phytochemicals that could provide therapeutic effects. Chamomile can help in improving cardiovascular conditions, stimulate immune system and provide some protection against cancer. Establishing whether or not therapeutic effects of chamomile are beneficial to patients will require research and generation of scientific evidence. There is a need for continued efforts that focuses on pre-clinical studies with chamomile involving animal models of various diseases. This may then be consequently validated in clinical trials that will help in developing chamomile as a promising therapeutic agent. Without such evidence, it will remain unclear whether these untested and unproven medical treatments are truly beneficial. It is advisable that the discriminate and proper use of chamomile preparations could be safe and provide therapeutic benefits however the indiscriminate or improper use can be unsafe and harmful.

Acknowledgements

The original work from author's laboratory outlined in this review was supported by United States Public Health Service Grants RO1 AT002709 and RO1 CA108512

Abbreviations

REFERENCES

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Chamomile: A herbal medicine of the past with bright future

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Chamomile is one of the most ancient medicinal herbs known to mankind. It is a member of Asteraceae/ Compositae family and represented by two common varieties viz. German Chamomile ( Chamomilla recutita) and Roman Chamomile ( Chamaemelum nobile). The dried flowers of chamomile contain many terpenoids and flavonoids contributing to its medicinal properties.

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Endangered plant species
Chamomile
Chamomile was supposedly dedicated to the sun by the Egyptians because of its curative value in the treatment of ague. It is used in various parts of the world as a table tea. It was used to regulate monthly periods. It is splendid for kidneys, spleen, colds, bronchitis, bladder troubles, to expel worms, for argue, dropsy, and jaundice. The tea was believed to make an excellent wash for sore and weak eyes and also for other open sores and wounds.

KEY THREATS :
The clearance of heaths, drainage of winter-wet grasslands, loss of pastures to arable fields, and decline of grazing on commons.

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Theophrastus.
The Enquiry into Plants is arranged into a system whereby plants are classified according to their modes of generation, their localities, their sizes, and according to their practical uses such as foods, juices, herbs, etc. On the Causes of Plants deals with the growth of plants, the influences on their fecundity, the proper times they should be sown and reaped, the methods of preparing the soil, manuring it, and the use of tools. Also, Theophrastus described the smells, tastes, and properties of many types of plants. The scientist was able to detect the process of germination and realized the importance of climate and soil to plants. Much of the information on the Greek plants may have come from his own observations, as he is known to have travelled throughout Greece, and to have had a botanical garden of his own.

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Cretan Spices : Rosemary

Rosemary is a very versatile herb that seems to complement and enhance a wide range of foods, particularly roasted meats. Rosemary is also used widely in marinades and breads, cooked greens and soups.

Ancient civilizations used Rosemary as both a medicine and cooking herb. As a medicine, various preparations and extracts made from rosemary were used to treat all manor of ailments including abdominal pain, mouth ulcers, and sore throats. It was also said to lessen the pains of arthritic joints, to promote healing of wounds and to treat eczema.

Rosemary is called "the herb of remembrance" and students in ancient Greece wore garlands of it around their necks, or braided into their hair to improve their memory during exams. Rosemary tea is said to act as a stimulant for study and concentration.

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Cretan Spices
Oregano :It is a flowering plant in the mint family (Lamiaceae). It is native to temperate Western and Southwestern Eurasia and the Mediterranean region.Oregano is related to the herb marjoram, sometimes being referred to as wild marjoram. Oregano has purple flowers and spade-shaped, olive-green leaves. It is a perennial, although it is grown as an annual in colder climates, as it often does not survive the winter.Oregano is planted in early spring, the plants being spaced 30 cm (12 in) apart in fairly dry soil, with full sun. Oregano will grow in a pH range between 6.0 (mildly acidic) and 9.0 (strongly alkaline), with a preferred range between 6.0 and 8.0. It prefers a hot, relatively dry climate, but does well in other environments.

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Plants as source for the future 
Group of Food Plants

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Plants as source for the future 
Group of Food Plants

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Green plants

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αρχείο λήψης (1)

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Group of Food Plants
Vegetables

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Pine Tree
A pine is any conifer in the genus Pinus  of the family Pinaceae. Pinus is the sole genus in the subfamily Pinoideae.
Pines are gymnosperms. The genus is divided into two subgenera, which can be distinguished by cone, seed, and leaf characters.

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Fir Tree

Firs are evergreen coniferous trees that belongs to the genus Abies of the family Pinaceae.
Firs are long-lived, on average achieving reproductive maturity at 20 years, with an average life-span of 60 years. Fir trees in excess of 400 years old have been recorded in several species, and noble firs 600 to 700 years old are known.

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Alcoholic Drinks- Cretan Liqueurs
Are made from orange, myrtle, promegranate and chili, rose geranium, sage, citrus chili and honey.

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αρχείο λήψης

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Alcoholic Drinks- Tsikoudia
It is grape vodka or rustic moonshine which is called the “Spirit of Crete”
.Tsikoudia is made by distilling of pomace, i.e., the pieces of grapes (sometimes including the stems and seeds) that were pressed for the winemaking process. The pomace is kept for about six weeks after the grapes have been pressed, in a tightly-sealed barrel, and then the fermented mush is distilled.
It can be flavored using lemon rind, rosemary, or honey (rakomelo).

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The threat of climate change and the knowledge that it is related to CO₂ emissions from fossil fuels has led scientists to look for alternatives for our energy needs, that is in the cultivation of biofuel crops.

ANSWER :

Replacing fossil fuels with biofuels is highly controversial since it solves one problem but creates new ones.

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Comparison :

Comparing how climate changes affect my BioArea and the ones from my co-learners was a very interesting task to deal with. Many similarities comparing to the precipitation rates especially from the places that are located at the Meditteranean Basin and also same data concernig droughts. On the other hand, the effects are different to each area, as each environement has its own mechanisms in controling and surviving through these changes. Excellent work from all the participants.

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Precipitation Rates

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Climate Change in Crete

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Climate Change in Crete

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Summary

An assessment of the impact of global climate change on the water resources status of the island of Crete, for a range of 24 different scenarios of projected hydro-climatological regime is presented. Three "state of the art" Global Climate Models (GCMs) and an ensemble of Regional Climate Models (RCMs) under emission scenarios B1, A2 and A1B provide future precipitation ( P) and temperature ( T) estimates that are bias adjusted against observations. The ensemble of RCMs for the A1B scenario project a higher P reduction compared to GCMs projections under A2 and B1 scenarios. Among GCMs model results, the ECHAM model projects a higher P reduction compared to IPSL and CNCM. Water availability for the whole island at basin scale until 2100 is estimated using the SAC-SMA rainfall-runoff model And a set of demand and infrastructure scenarios are adopted to simulate potential water use. While predicted reduction of water availability under the B1 emission scenario can be handled with water demand stabilized at present values and full implementation of planned infrastructure, other scenarios require additional measures and a robust signal of water insufficiency is projected. Despite inherent uncertainties, the quantitative impact of the projected changes on water availability indicates that climate change plays an important role to water use and management in controlling future water status in a Mediterranean island like Crete. The results of the study reinforce the necessity to improve and update local water management planning and adaptation strategies in order to attain future water security.

Highlights

► Analysis and assessment of water resources availability, during the 21st century. ► 24 Scenarios of projected hydro-climatological regime, demand and supply potential. ► A robust signal of water scarcity is projected for all scenarios. ► Climate change plays an equally important role to water use and management. ► Necessity of improving and updating local strategic water management planning.

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Impact of climate change on water resources status: A case study for Crete Island, Greece

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JavaScript is disabled on your browser. Please enable JavaScript to use all the features on this page. An assessment of the impact of global climate change on the water resources status of the island of Crete, for a range of 24 different scenarios of projected hydro-climatological regime is presented.

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Climate Change in Crete

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Climate Change in Crete

The island of Crete and especially the coastal region to the north are expected to be among areas in Greece that will be hardest hit by climate change and flooding resulting from extreme wave action in coming years.
Due to the northerly winds, the most problems will be on Crete, in the northern section of Crete and also in the Peloponnese, though there will be differences in all areas concerning problems with flooding and erosion.

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Climate Change in crete

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Climate Change in Crete

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Impact of climate change on water resources status: a case study for Crete Island, Greece - Ιδρυματικό Αποθετήριο

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An assessment of the impact of global climate change on the water resources status of the island of Crete, for a range of 24 different scenarios of projected hydro-climatological regime is presented.

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In the Andes, the longest continental mountain range in the world, located in south America, tree species are ‘on the run’, trying to move to ground of higher altitude. They are shifting roughly 2.5 to 3.5 vertical meters a year on average, but in fact they need to migrate more than 20 vertical feet a year!

My Answer :

2. Tropical Andean trees migrate to higher altitudes where the air is cool enough to support their existence. Due to the fast climatic change they have to move faster in order to remain in equilibrium with their preferred temperatures.

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Alexander Von Humboldt

He was a notable Prussian geographer, explorer, and naturalist. He is widely recognized for his works on botanical geography which laid the foundation for biogeography. His research was published in a large series of volumes over 21 years. Fosterer of a holistic vision of the universe, Von Humboldt unified diverse branches of scientific knowledge and culture by collecting his research in a series of five volumes under the name of Kosmos, (1845–62), a publication extensively translated all over the world.The writing was based on a series of lectures that Von Humboldt gave at the University of Berlin. The first volume conveys a “portrait of nature”, the second a general history of science. The theoretical framework was based on the view of the orderliness of the cosmos, directly borrowed from ancient Greek philosophy, by which the laws of the Universe apply also on the apparent chaos of the Earth. The general harmony of the cosmos offers to the person who contemplates it, personal inspiration and a beneficial awareness about life.

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Forest wildfires are the most direct and dramatic consequence of climate change. Dry weather conditions, extended periods of high temperatures and extreme meteorological phenomena, mostly observed in the northern parts of the Mediterranean, contribute to the increase in wildfire frequency, intensity and extent.The number of days of extreme heat will be 5 times as high until 2100, and the number of high wildfire risk days will have increased by 30. The impact of climate change is further evident in the massive drying of pines (e.g., in Ilia) and firs (e.g., in Chelmos and Giona). After examining dry pines in the general area of Ilia, the National Agricultural Research Foundation determined the cause to be an insect invasion brought on by the stress that many of them had undergone as a result of various factors related to climate change.

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Complexity of Biogeography

Stress factors affecting plant growth 

Drought 

The island of Crete has been suffering from  difficult droughts. Dry winters make it hard for farmers to prepare for the season, and irrigation needs to be started early. Although the plants and the crops of the island have adapted to the very dry climate admirably well, this unusual lack of moisture is testing their limits.

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Complexity of Biogeography

Stress factors affecting plant growth 

Drought 

The island of Crete has been suffering from  difficult droughts. Dry winters make it hard for farmers to prepare for the season, and irrigation needs to be started early. Although the plants and the crops of the island have adapted to the very dry climate admirably well, this unusual lack of moisture is testing their limits.

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Crete belongs to Mediterranean Biogeographic region.

The floristic regions of Greece (from Dimopoulos & al. 2013)

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Marjoram: Marjoram, (Origanum majorana), perennial plant of the mint family (Lamiaceae), grown as a culinary herb. Its fresh or dried leaves and flowering tops are used to season many foods, imparting a warm, aromatic, slightly sharp, and bitterish flavour. Marjoram is particularly appreciated for the taste

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Marjoram is a culinary herb in the mint family. It needs a hot climate to develop its full aroma, but it loses some of its flavor when it is dried. Marjoram goes well with thyme, bay leaves, black pepper, and juniper berries. Marjoram is a Greek word meaning "Joy of the Mountain". According to Greek myth, Aphrodite said that the smell of marjoram was the smell of impending good luck. Greeks also believed that if it was growing on a grave, it was a sign that the departed soul had found happiness. Throughout the middle ages it was worn by bridal couples to signify love, honor, and happiness

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Medicinal Traits

Sweet marjoram is mainly used as a culinary herb, but is also medicinally valuable due to its stimulant and antispasmodic properties. It is a good general tonic, treating various disorders of the digestive and respiratory systems. It has a stronger affect on the nervous system than the related oregano (O. vulgare) and is also thought to lower the sex drive. Because it can promote menstruation, it should not be used medicinally by pregnant women though small quantities used for culinary purposes are safe. The herb is antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative, cholagogue, diaphoretic, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, stimulant, stomachic and mildly tonic. It is taken internally in the treatment of bronchial complaints, tension headaches, insomnia, anxiety, minor digestive upsets and painful menstruation. It should not be prescribed for pregnant women. Externally, it is used to treat muscular pain, bronchial complaints, arthritis, sprains and stiff joints. The plant is harvested as flowering begins and can be used fresh or dried. Marjoram is often used medicinally in the form of the essential oil, about 400 grams being obtained from 70 kilos of the fresh herb. The oil is used as an external application for sprains, bruises etc. The essential oil is used in aromatherapy. Its keyword is "Muscle relaxant".

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Kingdom: | Plantae
Clade: | Angiosperms
Clade: | Eudicots
Clade: | Asterids
Order: | Lamiales
Family: | Lamiaceae
Genus: | Origanum
Species: | O. majorana

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I visited an ex-colleague in Athens, Greece some 20 years ago. He offered me tea of a plant I didn't know. He called it mountain tea from the Greek τσάι του βουνού...He told me it was one of the two most popular herbal teas in Greece, used both for pleasure and to prevent colds. Looking it up in a book on the flowers of Crete, where he was from, it turned out to be Sideritis syriaca. At the time I'd never heard of it and was puzzled as to why one of Greece's most prized herb teas wasn't known in Northern Europe. After all, most of our herbs originate in the Mediterranean countries. I searched for seed and in the early days of the Internet I traded some with someone in Italy.

To my surprise, the resultant aromatic plants thrived in my garden in a dry well drained spot. Not that surprising as I found out that the plant was usually wild harvested high up in the White Mountains of Crete (ssp. syriaca, despite its name), an area with not that dissimilar a climate to where I live. I concluded that perhaps this herb was easier for me to grow than further south in Europe, not liking wet winter conditions. This theory was strengthened when my first plants died one w inter after I had removed a tree which had kept the place I was growing it dry....and subsequent replants also died . However, I have seen it in botanical gardens in recent years (Wisley and Hilliers in England) as well as Copenhagen and Århus (Denmark) and Gøteborg (Gothenburg). I alslo saw it growing in the Tromsø Botanical Garden at close to 70 deg. N in Norway. The herb also started to become available particularly in Germany (the German wiki page is particularly informative: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrisches_Gliedkraut) and elsewhere where there are Greek markets such as in New York.

If you've succeeded with this herb, please let me know!!

In 2010 I found that another gardener here in Malvik had managed to keep one of the original plants I'd given her alive:

Here in the Tromsø Botanical Gardens in 2009:

It turns out that there are a number of other closely related species also used as herbal tea including S. scardica (Mursalski or Olympus Tea), S. cretica (Crete Mountain Tea, actually from Tenerife!) and (below) S. trojana seen in the Mediterranean garden at Kew Gardens:

Sideritis syriaca

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I visited an ex-colleague in Athens, Greece some 20 years ago. He offered me tea of a plant I didn't know. He called it mountain tea from the Greek τσάι του βουνού...He told me it was one of the two most popular herbal teas in Greece, used both for pleasure and to prevent colds.

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It is found on rocky slopes  at the mountains where it grows. That’s why it is also known as ‘ cretan mountain tea’ . Sideritis species grow as herbs or small shrubs . The corolla is mostly yellow, rarely white or red and shorter than the calyx. Sideritis species grow optimally in full sun and are well suited to drought conditions.

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Medicinal Traits :
A native of Greece and a selective few countries in Europe, Sideritis Syriaca – this is a very popular medicinal tea mostly known as “mountain tea”. It has a long list of beneficial properties, such as detoxifier, anti-anaemic, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, disinfectant, bacteoriostatic, stimulant, and diuretic.

The essential oil of Sideritis Syriaca is a very potent microbicidal and at the same time recognised for its ability to enhance bone strength and prevent osteoporosis. In order to provide these benefits, the administration of the herb should be on daily basis.

Its anti-oxidant properties are put to good use in anti-aging herbal creams and lotions. It is also known to be able preserve the natural colour of the hair (preventing whitening) if used regularly. Sideritis Syriaca is also known to protect from sunburn, UV and generally skin diseases caused by over-exposure to the daylight/ sun UV radiation.

A tea made out of this herb drank on regular basis would help keep the digestive system working perfectly well. It is also potent in treatment of a wide array of respiratory diseases, anxiety and symptoms of cold – sore throat, body ache and headache.

Sideritis Syriaca has a special and very attractive smell for which reason it is used in many perfumes as well.

Botanical Name: Sideritis Syriaca Common Name: Cretan Mountain Tea - Antiviral, Antibacterial, Diuretic, Tonic, Antioxidant, Antifungal, Anti-inflammatory, Immune System, Colds.

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The Cretan Mountain Tea (Malotira) is being known since the age of Dioskourides (1st Century A.D), and took its name (Sideritis) from its ability to heal wounds made from iron pieces (sidiros means iron in Greek language). According to greek tradition, it was used as a panacea for any illness, while recent studies have proved the special attributes of the plant. It will kill all kind of microbes, it will strengthen the bodys immune systen, it will give the body a boost, it is very good for colds in the winter and it is even good for eye problems if one rinses the eyes regularly with the tea.

There has been some main research the last years which has uncovered many it its drastic ingredients and this has been proved by experiments. Around 99 different active ingredients has been idientified and one of the most interesting finds is that it can bee drunk in big doses and continually without negative effects. This means that it is an ideal herb to use in order to strenghten you bodys immune system and generally well feeling.

Recent medical studies has also showed that this herb will fight cancer and will also help to cure and delay osteoporosis. The last finds about the positive effects as to osteporosis has been studied by a group of scientists at the University of Athens.

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Kingdom: | Plantae
(unranked): | Angiosperms
(unranked): | Eudicots
(unranked): | Asterids
Order: | Lamiales
Family: | Lamiaceae
Genus: | Sideritis

Vernacular Name : I ronwort

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THE MOST CHARACTERISTIC PLANTS OF THE ISLAND ARE THE AROMATIC HERBS THAT THRIVE HERE.

To get an idea of how rich the biodiversity of Crete is, just consider that Crete has almost as many species and subspecies of plants (about 1750) as the whole Britain (1450), even if it is 35 times smaller. This diversity is not only reflected in the total number of species but also in the number of endemic species, which grow only in Crete and nowhere else in the world. In Crete, there are about 160 endemic species and subspecies, which means that 9% of the plant species of Crete do not exist anywhere else in the world.

The Cretan flora has adapted itself so as to resist human interventions and especially the free grazing, which has been a traditional practice in Crete for thousands of years. The plants have developed ways to resist grazing, like thorns or bad taste. There no large forest areas, like for example in Macedonia or Epirus. This is partly because of the grazing and the climatic conditions. However, Crete has some of the rarest biotopes in Europe, like, for example, those of the palm trees (Phoenix theophrasti).

There are some biotopes, which, despite being very small - like, for example, the seasonal lake of Omalos - have amazing biodiversity. The forest species that prevail on the island are the pine tree (Pinus spp) and the cypress (Cupressus sempervirens), which are coniferous species with large adaptability to extreme conditions, and the evergreen maple-trees (Acer sempervirens). There are also other species, like the Zelkova abeliceae, which is one of the rarest trees in the world and grows almost exclusively in the White Mountains in small populations. The Cretan flora includes the Cretan ebony (Ebenus cretica), an impressive bush that is found only in Crete, the crocus of the Cretan mountains (Crocus oreocreticus), the ladania (Cistus creticus), the bush from which the rockrose is collected, the Cretan bell (Campanula cretica), a rare and very beautiful plant that is found only in the prefecture of Chania, the oleander (Nerium oleander), a very beautiful and impressive bush that often grows on street sides, many species of very beautiful orchids and a lot more.

The most characteristic plants of the island are the aromatic herbs that thrive here. Because of the essential oils that they contain, they are used as ingredients in cooking, in the preparation of teas and as medicines. The thyme (Corridothymus capitatus), the sage (Salvia futicosa), the mountain tea (Sideritis syriaca spp. syriaca), the wild marjoram (Origanum microphyllum), the dittany (Origanum dictamnus) are only some of the herbs that one can see and smell on the island.

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Cretan Flora - Cretan Herbals | The Island of Crete

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THE MOST CHARACTERISTIC PLANTS OF THE ISLAND ARE THE AROMATIC HERBS THAT THRIVE HERE. To get an idea of how rich the biodiversity of Crete is, just consider that Crete has almost as many species and subspecies of plants (about 1750) as the whole Britain (1450), even if it is 35 times smaller.

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To get an idea of how rich the biodiversity of Crete is, just consider that Crete has almost as many species and subspecies of plants (about 1750) as the whole Britain (1450), even if it is 35 times smaller. This diversity is not only reflected in the total number of species but also in the number of endemic species, which grow only in Crete and nowhere else in the world. In Crete, there are about 160 endemic species and subspecies, which means that 9% of the plant species of Crete do not exist anywhere else in the world.

The Cretan flora has adapted itself so as to resist human interventions and especially the free grazing, which has been a traditional practice in Crete for thousands of years. The plants have developed ways to resist grazing, like thorns or bad taste. There no large forest areas, like for example in Macedonia or Epirus. This is partly because of the grazing and the climatic conditions. However, Crete has some of the rarest biotopes in Europe, like, for example, those of the palm trees (Phoenix theophrasti).

There are some biotopes, which, despite being very small – like, for example, the seasonal lake of Omalos – have amazing biodiversity. The forest species that prevail on the island are the pine tree (Pinus spp) and the cypress (Cupressus sempervirens), which are coniferous species with large adaptability to extreme conditions, and the evergreen maple-trees (Acer sempervirens). There are also other species, like the Zelkova abeliceae, which is one of the rarest trees in the world and grows almost exclusively in the White Mountains in small populations. The Cretan flora includes the Cretan ebony (Ebenus cretica), an impressive bush that is found only in Crete, the crocus of the Cretan mountains (Crocus oreocreticus), the ladania (Cistus creticus), the bush from which the rockrose is collected, the Cretan bell (Campanula cretica), a rare and very beautiful plant that is found only in the prefecture of Chania, the oleander (Nerium oleander), a very beautiful and impressive bush that often grows on street sides, many species of very beautiful orchids and a lot more.

The most characteristic plants of the island are the aromatic herbs that thrive here. Because of the essential oils that they contain, they are used as ingredients in cooking, in the preparation of teas and as medicines. The thyme (Corridothymus capitatus), the sage (Salvia futicosa), the mountain tea (Sideritis syriaca spp. syriaca), the wild marjoram (Origanum microphyllum), the dittany (Origanum dictamnus) are only some of the herbs that one can see and smell on the island.

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Flora And Fauna of Kissamos

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SAMARIA GORGE

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The mountainous region of Agios Dikaios (Meterizia, Agios Dikaios, Tsounara and Vitsilia of the White Mountains)