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- Living conditions were overall very poor, disregarding the wealthy minority. Being in close contact with sewages, carcasses, and garbage was common. This, of course, resulted in a high death rate. Hygiene or sanitation was not a popular concept, either.
- Beliefs were that four types of bodily fluids ruled a person's body: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. Each one had a significant meaning, though it was not physiological. It was seen as a way to determine a person's nature or personality.
- Leeches were used to suck blood out of a person. It was believed that when someone was ill, their blood had gone bad. In that theory, bleeding out would be a cure.
- Herbs were used as medications, a concept first originating from parts of East and South Asia.
- Visiting a doctor was not a common thing as they usually did not have a cure and it was only affordable for the wealthy. Surgical procedures were done by barber-surgeons, an alternative to the costly medical surgeon of the time.

Sources:
1) https://www.bl.uk/georgian-britain/articles/health-hygiene-and-the-rise-of-mother-gin-in-the-18th-century
2) https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/health-17th-century

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-Cricket is as sport that came to be in the 16th century in south-east England.
-Cricket is a sport where you are thrown the ball and the batsmen is trying to protect the wickets by hitting the ball away.
-Cricket became England national sport in the 18th century.
-Cricket was played as a children’s game for many years until adults started to play it in the 17th century.
-The sport was originally played with a matted lump of sheep’s wool as the ball, some stick or or other farm tool as the bat, and a tree stump or stool as the wickets.
-Gamblers strengthened their bets by choosing and picking their own teams and teammates.
-Cricket was played a bit like hockey back then as the bowler would bowl the ball as in roll the ball to the batsmen and the batsmen would hit the ball like in hockey.
-Now, bowlers throw the ball and batsmen whack the ball with proper bats into the air.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_cricket

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Tanvitha Ravuri - Education in 1700s (Europe) 

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Tanvitha Ravuri - Education in 1700s (Europe) 

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The enlightenment was a very important time when it came to the expansion of education. Young boys in middle and high class could already get their education and now it was same for young girls. Although they weren’t taught the same things. They were only taught things that portrayed a womanly older figure at the time. In the enlightenment the theme for all kids to get an education was that progress and practice would some day lead to perfection. The things young girls were taught that enhanced a woman and good wife was music, singing, drawing, painting, cooking, raising kids, etc.

http://cdaworldhistory.wikidot.com/the-enlightenment-in-europe

https://sites.google.com/site/dailylifein1700s/home/education

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*Tennis was very popular in 1700s, in fact the sport gained most of its traction during this time.

*During this time period many men and women considered tennis to be a pastime like playing with cards, not until later on it became a full fledged sport

*Another major advancement in this game was the material the ball was made in change to consist of only cork. Essentially, this would help evolve the ball later on in time

*This game was very expensive in the 1700s considering you had to buy a racket, a ball, and a place to play. It was odd if a peasant played during that time

*A notorious grand slam in the tennis world is Wimbledon, and this tournament is played on grass. This idea came in 1767 A.C as lawn tennis.

*The racker during this time was made out of wood. The racket had a small head, a longer neck, and a handle without grip.

*Some rich players thought of the sport seriously and practiced frequently. Eventually, they are the ones who push the game forward. (Madam Bunell)

https://georgianera.wordpress.com/2018/02/20/anyone-for-18th-century-tennis/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_tennis#Birth_of_lawn_tennis

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- Women would wear cotton or silk gowns over their matching petticoats. Throughout the years, it wasn’t the silhouette that would change, but actually just the silk designs. The gowns were normally open in the front, but they could sometimes be closed.

- Men would wear three-piece wool or silk suits. These suits would change by the detail of the cut over time.

- The most expensive textiles would have been the brocaded silk since it was hand woven. Plain wool was the least expensive and the striped silk was in between the two.

- The panier, which was the hoop-petticoat, became the backbone of all the shapes of women’s dresses that would appear throughout the century.

- The main form of dress for women in the beginnings of the 1700s was the mantua. The mantua is the gown worn over the petticoat. It was introduced around the 1670s and stayed the main form of dressing for a while.

- Menswear remained similar throughout the years. They generally wore black leather shoes that had high heels and square toes. However, men would wear red heels at the French court.

- Children would wear clothes similar to the clothes from the previous century. Children would wear what people would call “short clothes.” These clothes allowed the children to have more mobility. Boy would start wearing menswear once the went through “breeching” which was their entrance into manhood. Girls would start wearing adult dresses when they entered their early teens.

https://fashionhistory.fitnyc.edu/1700-1709/

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Development, treatment and discovery of medicine:

-Common diseases in the 1700s were smallpox, cowpox, and measles

-Edward Jenner discovered the first ever effective vaccine to cure smallpox. He first tested it on a young boy and a dairymaid. The dairymaid had lesions on her and the young boy was completely fine. Jenner injected matter that he took from the lesions into the boy who didn’t have any disease. The boy felt uneasy for a few days but was fine after. A few months later, when the boy actually got smallpox, Jenner injected fresh matter into the boy and the boy was fine and was immune to smallpox.

-Another type of medicine was created through medical plants. Herbal medicine was practiced throughout Europe. Certain plants were used for specific disorders, while other plants were used to cure multiple diseases.

-There were also a lot of medical schools throughout Europe, and some even competed for students. Some of the schools were rivals to each other, and they attracted many students from abroad. Medical education was very big in Europe, and there were many teachers teaching various practices like anatomy, homeopathy, etc.

-During the Enlightenment people tried a more scientific approach to medicine and based upon observations, gained an understanding about how certain parts of the body functions. This led to multiple theories and more experimentation.

-Prescriptions were often lengthy and had a large quantity of dosage. Samuel Hahnmann or the founder of homeopathy developed minute doses that had positive effects in the relation to the disease being treated. Hahnmann came upon this concept after translating a work written by William Cullen in 1796.

-People studied characteristics and methods of Chinese medicine(such as the use of plants) and developed a risk signal mining technique. They based the safety of medicine off of adverse reactions from the patients treated, and from there developed more methods for cures.

-The life expectancy of people during the Enlightenment was low for the time period. Most people only made it up to their forties and babies were known to die at birth itself.

-Medicine was desirable but attainable to a sizable population. Most people used plant remedies in order to cure illness or infections. Wives often took the role of healers in a population.

Websites:

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26281610/

http://assets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/s10054.pdf

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264274952_Medicine_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment

https://www.britannica.com/science/history-of-medicine/Medicine-in-the-18th-century

https://eurohistorymed.weebly.com/1700s.html

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Women were only seen as objects during the time of the Enlightenment. Men always had control over women and women could not think for themselves. Up until the 1960’s, women were seen as the 2nd sex which meant they came second in importance compared to men. In society during this time, women were purely used for reproduction and nothing else. As time passed by, feminists started to arise in society and the idea of men being above women started to decline. However, men always found a way to degrade all women including women who wanted to get and education and improve their lives. Women in society could never escape these gender roles, but women’s rights have severely evolved since the 1800’s. Women can now be involved in politics, have their own opinions, and are able to get the same educational opportunities as men. Feminists of the 18th century were a very important stepping stone and have helped shape the way women are like and the things they are able to do today.

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Women's Transformation since the 18th Century http://search.proquest.com/docview/198635960?accountid=2578

Women were seen as nothing more than mere objects. They were to be controlled in the age of enlightenment. Men took the role of the puppeteer and women took the role of the puppets.The role of women was determined around the time philosophers and scientists, all males, were controlling society. For a long time up until the 1960's, women were seen as the "second sex", and deemed second in importance, biologically. The preconceived theory is that women's role is simply reproductive by nature. Nature's"supposed" law of men above women changed in society by the time feminists evolved.

The idea that there is a hierarchy of genders based on the men and women's natural differences, was very popular during the enlightenment. Women's difference in body parts and personality traits were seen as negative and placed them below men in this way. They were kept behind the limelight, and in private salons. The women who decided that their education and intelligence overpowered the fact that they were women, still were oppressed. They also tried to participate in 'under the radar' debating societies. No matter how much they wanted to improve their lives through education and self-empowerment, men during this time always wanted to find a way to downgrade the women. Because the idea of women as objects was an idea as old as time, and that's all men really knew about, it was hard for women to escape these traditional gender roles.

Feminism has now developed in such a way that women can use their experience and knowledge to join in on unions and political networks. Unlike in the 18 th century, when women were accustomed to hiding their sometimes brash opinions and thoughts, women can for the most part be respected enough to say and think what they feel. History has taught us that the way to respect isn't through a quick fix, but instead a long and complex set of revolutions and evolution. The women of the 18 th century were an important stepping stone in allowing women to evolve to how they are today.

Changed since the Renaissance

http://www.britannica.com/women/article-216006
Women were not able to start a revolution or movement during the time of the Renaissance. However, during the age of enlightenment, women started to demand to have the same educational opportunities as men and wanting to participate in higher societies. The legal status of women was left undetermined and men saw them as silly and subordinate.
http://search.proquest.com/docview/857845070/12F2F17AD676588DC5E/1?accountid=2578
Here are some more links:
http://search.proquest.com/docview/851268785/12F2F17AD676588DC5E/7?accountid=2578

A History of Women's Political Thought in Europe, 1400-1700 by Jacqueline Broad and Karen GreenPower, Piety and Patronage in Late Medieval Queenship: Maria de Luna by Nuria Silleras-FernandezEleanor of Aquitaine: Queen of France, Queen of England by Ralph V. Turner

Women and the Divine Literature before 1700

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Women's Transformation since the 18th Century http://search.proquest.com/docview/198635960?accountid=2578 Women were seen as nothing more than mere objects. They were to be controlled in the age of enlightenment. Men took the role of the puppeteer and women took the role of the puppets.The role of women was determined around the time philosophers and scientists, all males, were controlling society.

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Education during the Enlightenment was available to highly wealthy females and mostly all males. Females learned household duties and “wife-like” subjects such as cooking, singing, painting, drawing, music, etc. Males learned sciences, philosophy, etc. Enlightenment thinkers thought only men could learn these things. Females began their jobs as part of the family economy at the age of 6 or 7.  These jobs were usually light farm labor in agricultural families and taking part in business for artisan families. http://cdaworldhistory.wikidot.com/the-enlightenment-in-europe

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Education in the Age of Enlightenment was a little more expanded in the way that more people were offered education (mostly women).  Although they were offered, the things that they could learn were limited.  There were certain restrictions regarding your social caste and gender. Everyone was allowed to get an education but the quality of it varied on your social class. For example if you were rich, you would get a good education. If you were poor, you wouldn’t get an as well education.  The enlightenment thinkers started promoting the idea of reading and education for everyone.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment

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The Age of Enlightenment dominated advanced thought in Europe from about the 1650s to the 1780s. It developed from a number of sources of "new" ideas, such as challenges to the dogma and authority of the Catholic Church and by increasing interest in the ideas of science, in scientific methods. In philosophy, it called into question traditional ways of thinking. The Enlightenment thinkers wanted the educational system to be modernized and play a more central role in the transmission of those ideas and ideals. The development of educational systems in Europe continued throughout the period of the Enlightenment and into the French Revolution. The improvements in the educational systems produced a larger reading public which resulted in increased demand for printed material from readers across a broader span of social classes with a wider range of interests. After 1800, as the Enlightenment gave way to Romanticism, there was less emphasis on reason and challenge to authority and more support for emerging nationalism and compulsory school attendance.

Before the Enlightenment, European educational systems were principally geared for teaching a limited number of professions, e.g., religious orders such as priests, brothers, and sisters, health care workers such as physicians, and bureaucrats such as lawyers and scribes, and they were not yet greatly influenced by the scientific revolution. As the scientific revolution and religious upheaval broke traditional views and ways of thinking of that time, religion and superstition were supplanted by reasoning and scientific facts. Philosophers such as John Locke proposed the idea that knowledge is obtained through sensation and reflection. This proposition led to Locke's theory that everyone has the same capacity of sensation, and, therefore, education should not be restricted to a certain class or gender. Prior to the 17th and 18th centuries, education and literacy were generally restricted to males who belonged to the nobility and the mercantile and professional classes. In England and France, "idealized notions of domesticity, which emphasized the importance of preparing girls for motherhood and home duties, fuelled the expansion of schooling for girls."

John Locke in English and Jean Jacques Rousseau in French authored influential works on education. Both emphasized the importance of shaping young minds early. By the late Enlightenment, there was a rising demand for a more universal approach to education, particularly after the American and French Revolutions.

Enlightenment children were taught to memorize facts through oral and graphical methods that originated during the Renaissance. The predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward, especially in northern European countries was associationism; the notion that the mind associates or dissociates ideas through repeated routines. It offered a practical theory of the mind that allowed teachers to transform longstanding forms of print and manuscript culture into effective graphic tools of learning for the lower and middle orders of society.

Many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles were located in northern Europe, with the most renowned being the universities of Leiden, Göttingen, Halle, Montpellier, Uppsala and Edinburgh. These universities, especially Edinburgh, produced professors whose ideas had a significant impact on Britain's North American colonies and, later, the American Republic. Within the natural sciences Edinburgh's medical also led the way in chemistry, anatomy and pharmacology.

However, in general the universities and schools of France and most of Europe were bastions of traditionalism and were not hospitable to the Enlightenment. In France the major exception was the medical university at Montpellier.

Education was once considered a privilege for only the upper class. However, during the 17th and 18th centuries, "education, literacy and learning" were gradually provided to "rich and poor alike". The literacy rate in Europe from the 17th century to the 18th century grew significantly. The definition of the term "literacy" in the 17th and 18th centuries is different from our current definition of literacy. Historians measured the literacy rate during the 17th and 18th century centuries by people's ability to sign their names. However, this method of determining literacy did not reflect people's ability to read. This affected the women's apparent literacy rate prior to the Age of Enlightenment mainly because, while most women living between the Dark Ages and the Age of Enlightenment could not write or sign their names, many could read, at least to some extent.

The rate of illiteracy decreased more rapidly in more populated areas and areas where there was mixture of religious schools. The literacy rate in England in the 1640s was around 30 percent for males, rising to 60 percent in the mid-18th century. In France, the rate of literacy in 1686-90 was around 29 percent for men and 14 percent for women, before it increased to 48 percent for men and 27 percent for women.

The increase in literacy rate was more likely due, at least in part, to religious influence, since most of the schools and colleges were organized by clergy, missionaries, or other religious organizations. The reason that motivated religions to help to increase the literacy rate among the general public was that the Bible was being printed in more languages and literacy was thought to be the key to understanding the word of God. "By 1714 the proportion of women able to read had risen, very approximately, to 25%, and it rose again to 40% by 1750. This increase was part of a general trend, fostered by the Reformation emphasis on reading the Scripture and by the demand for literacy in an increasingly mercantile society. The group most affected was the growing professional and commercial class, and writing and arithmetic schools emerged to provide the training their sons required". The impact of the Reformation on literacy was, of course, far more dramatic in Protestant areas. Therefore, literacy rates in predominantly Protestant Northern Europe rose much more quickly than those in predominately Catholic southern Europe. The Jesuits, who were the product of the Catholic Reformation (Counter Reformation) contributed moderately to increased literacy in Catholic regions.

The Kingdom of Prussia introduced a modern public educational system designed to reach the entire population; it was widely copied across Europe and the United States in the 19th century. The basic foundations of the Prussian primary education system were laid out by Frederick the Great with his "Generallandschulreglement," a decree of 1763, drafted by Johann Julius Hecker. It mandated the schooling of all young Prussians, both girls and boys, to be educated by mainly municipality funded schools from age 5 until age 13 or 14. Prussia was among the first countries in the world to introduce a tax-funded and generally compulsory primary education. In comparison, compulsory schooling in France or Great Britain was not successfully enacted until the 1880s.

The Prussian system consisted of an eight-year course of primary education, called Volksschule. It provided not only basic technical skills needed in a modernizing world (as reading and writing), but also music (singing), religious (Christian) education in close corporation with the churches and tried to impose a strict ethos of duty, soberness and discipline. Mathematic and calculus were not compulsory in the start and taking such courses was requiring additional payment by parents. Frederick the Great also formalized further educational stages, such as the Realschule and the highest stage, the gymnasium (state funded secondary school), which was used as university-preparatory school. The final examination, , was introduced in 1788, implemented in all Prussian secondary schools by 1812, and extended to all of Germany in 1871 and is in place till the present. Passing the Abitur was a pre-requisite to entering the learned professions and higher echelons of civil service. Generations of Prussian and as well German teachers, which in the 18th century often had no formal education and in the very beginning often were former petty officers without pedagogic training, tried to gain more academic recognition, training and better pay and played an important role in various protest and reform movements.

The Prussian system, after its modest beginnings, succeeded in reaching compulsory attendance, specific training for teachers, national testing for all students (of all genders), national curriculum set for each grade and mandatory Kindergarten. In 1810, Prussia introduced state certification requirements for teachers, which significantly raised the standard of teaching.

In the 18th century, states were paying more attention to their educational systems because they recognized that their subjects are more useful to the state if they are well educated. The conflicts between the crown and the church helped the expansion of the educational systems. In the eyes of the church and the state, universities and colleges were institutions that existed to maintain the dominance of one over the other. The downside of this conflict was that the freedom of thought on the subjects taught in these institutions was restricted. An educational institution was either a supporter of the monarchy or the religion, never both.

Also, changes in educational criteria for higher income professions such as lawyers and physicians became stricter, e.g., requirements to have certain educational experience before being licensed, helped to promote increases in the numbers of students attending universities and colleges.

The explosion of the print culture, which started in the 15th century with Johannes Gutenberg's printing press, was both a result of and a cause of the increase in literacy. The number of books published in the period of the Enlightenment increased dramatically due to the increase in demand for books, which resulted from the increased literacy rates and the declining cost and easier availability of books made possible by the printing press. There was a shift in the percentages of books printed in various categories during the 17th century.

Religious books had comprised around 50% of all books published in Paris at that time. However, the percentage of religious books dropped to 10% by 1790 and there was an increase in the popularity of books such as almanacs. The scientific literature in French might have increased slightly but mostly it remained fairly constant throughout the 18th century. However, contemporary literature seems to have increased as the century progressed. Also, there was a change in the languages that books were printed in. Before the 18th century, a large percentage of the books were published in Latin. As time progressed, there was a decline in the percentage of books published in Latin. Concurrently, the percentage of books published in French, and other languages, increased throughout Europe.

Of course the importance of print culture to education is not simply about counting publication figures. Students had to use the books that were given to them and they had to use pen and paper to organise and make sense of the information that they were learning. In this sense print culture was closely tied to manuscript culture, particularly the skills and routines associated with note-taking. Perhaps one of the most notable accomplishments of Enlightenment educational systems is that they taught students how to efficiently manage information on paper, both in school and then in university.

During the Enlightenment period, there were changes in the public cultural institutions, such as libraries and museums. The system of public libraries was a product of the Enlightenment. The public libraries were funded by the state and were accessible to everyone for free.

Prior to the Enlightenment, libraries in Europe were restricted mostly to academies and the private collections of aristocrats and other wealthy individuals. With the beginning of state funded institutions, public libraries became places where the general public could study topics of interest and educate themselves. During the 18th century, the prices of books were generally too high for the average person, especially the most popular works such as encyclopedias. Therefore, the public libraries offered commoners a chance of reading literature and other works that previously could only be read by the wealthier classes.

During the 18th century, the increase in social gathering places such as coffeehouses, clubs, academies and Masonic Lodges provided alternative places where people could read, learn and exchange ideas. In England, coffeehouses became public spaces where political, philosophical and scientific ideas were being discussed. The first coffeehouse in Britain was established in Oxford in 1650 and the number of coffeehouses expanded around Oxford.

The coffeehouse was a place for people to congregate, to read, to learn and to debate with each other. Another name for the coffeehouse is the Penny University, because the coffeehouse had a reputation as a place of informal learning. "The popularization of new ideas encouraged further changes in the habits and beliefs of many ordinary people. Reading clubs and coffeehouses allowed many urban artisans and businessmen to discuss the latest reform ideas." Even though the coffeehouses were generally accessible to everyone, most of the coffeehouses did not allow women to participate. Clubs, academies, and Lodges, although not entirely open to the public, established venues of intellectual exchange that functioned as de facto institutions of education.

During the 17th century, there were a number of schools dedicated to girls, but the cultural norm was for girls to be informally educated at home. During the 18th century, there was an increase in the number of girls being educated in schools. This was especially true for middle-class families whose rising financial status and social aspirations made providing an aristocratic style of education for their daughters both desirable and possible.

In France, one of the most famous schools for girls was the Saint-Cyr, which was founded by Madame de Maintenon. Although the school Saint-Cyr was meant to educate women, it did not dare to challenge the traditional views towards women. Therefore, the fact that there were schools for women did not bring about a social change because the schools themselves did not challenge the social status quo. Women were excluded from learning subjects such as science and politics. In October, 1795, France created "a National Institute and Normal Schools that excluded women from the professional study of Philosophy." In d'Épinay's recollection of her childhood education, she pointed out that girls were not taught much of anything and that a proper education was considered to be inappropriate for the female sex. The main issue about female education relates to the traditional view of women's weakness being due to nature. However, there were people, such as John Locke and d'Épinay, who argue that women's weakness was due to faulty education.

Catherine the Great of Russia was a patron of women's education in Russia throughout the 18th century. Heeding to the advice of Ivan Betskoy, an educational reformer and close adviser, the Empress created separate boarding schools for both boys and girls. The Smolny Institute for Noble Girls in 1764 became the first higher learning institute for women in Europe, an institution that Catherine helped establish; the following year the Queen of Russia established the Novodevichii Institute, an all-female institute for the daughters of Russian commoners. Just as Frederick the Great oversaw the establishment of compulsory education in Prussia, Catherine contributed to the evolution of women's education on the continent and enabled for the further modernization of the Russian state during the Enlightenment.

1. ^ Culture: Nine European historical sites now on the European Heritage Label list European Commission, February 8, 2016,

2. Encyclopædia Britannica, "Education," in "Encyclopædia Britannica Online" ^ http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/179408/education (accessed on April 3, 2009).

3. ^ Hotson, Howard (2007). Commonplace Learning: Ramism and Its German Ramifications 1543-1630. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

4. ^ Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2008). The Language of Mineralogy: John Walker, Chemistry and the Edinburgh Medical School, 1750-1800. Aldershot: Ashgate.

5. Ellwood Cubberley, ^ The History of Education: Educational Practice and Progress Considered as a Phase of the Development and Spread of Western Civilization (1920) online

6. ^ John Franklin Brown (1911). The Training of Teachers for Secondary Schools in Germany and the United States. Macmillan. pp. 21-25.

7. ^ Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2010). "Tools for Reordering: Commonplacing and the Space of Words in Linnaeus's Philosophia Botanica". Intellectual History Review. 20: 227-52. doi:10.1080/17496971003783773.

8. ^ http://history-world.org/age_of_enlightenment.htm Archived 2008-01-10 at the Wayback Machine.

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Cremin, Lawrence A. American Education: The Colonial Experience, 1607-1783 (1970)

Cubberley, Ellwood Patterson. The History of Education: Educational Practice and Progress Considered as a Phase of the Development and Spread of Western Civilization (1920) online

Lawson, John, and Harold Silver. A social history of education in England (Routledge, 2013)

Palmer, Joy A. et al. eds. Fifty Major Thinkers on Education: From Confucius to Dewey (2001) online

Ringer, Fritz. Education and Society in Modern Europe (1979); focus on Germany and France with comparisons to US and Britain

Wardle, David. English popular education 1780-1970 (Cambridge UP, 1970)

Whitehead, Barbara J., ed. Women's education in early modern Europe: a history, 1500-1800 (1999) online specialized topics

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Cowan, Brian, 2005. Social life of Coffee: The Emergence of the British Coffeehouse New Haven:Yale University Press.

de Bellaigue, Christina. 2007. Educating Women - Schooling and Identity in England and France, 1800-1867 Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Darnton, Robert, 1982. The Literary Underground of the Old Regime. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

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Greenhalgh, Liz, Worpole, Ken, & Landry, Charles. 1995. "libraries in a world of cultural change London: UCL Press.

Hesse, Calra, 2001. "The Other Enlightenment: how French women became modern". Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Melton, James Van Horn. 2001. "The Rise of the Public in Enlightenment Europe". Cambridge: Cambridge university Press.

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Education in the Age of Enlightenment - Wikipedia

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The Age of Enlightenment dominated advanced thought in Europe from about the 1650s to the 1780s. It developed from a number of sources of "new" ideas, such as challenges to the dogma and authority of the Catholic Church and by increasing interest in the ideas of science, in scientific methods.

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Nishmitha and Sreehasa

Education was considered a privilege for only the upper class.

The rich and poor were both provided an education.

Education varies depending on your social class and gender.

The Enlightenment thinkers influenced more and more people to read which made the demand for more printed material increase.

They memorized topics through oral instructions.

There was an increased production of religious texts.

Girls were also educated either through schools that were dedicated for girls or they were educated at home.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment

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What people ate in the enlightenment. Shifa

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What people ate in the enlightenment. Shifa

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-They ate more lean foods like beans and grains
-they mainly drank coffee and liquor for digestion and diet
-They ate more vegetables such as corn
-They ate less meat but poor people usually ate fish because it was inexpensive.
-Most poor people ate stew and gruel
-The rich ate way more meat than the poor such as beef and other expensive meats
-They had exotic spices and more fruits but a scarce amount.
https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwiZ1cWNpLTzAhXBJt8KHV2SDyEQFnoECAYQAw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fche.umbc.edu%2Flondontown%2Fcookbook%2Fwhat.html&usg=AOvVaw3DY0MASjmNDsLd8tsPDnJQ

https://reviews.history.ac.uk/review/1442

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Education during the Age of Enlightenment was very “enlightened,” thanks to the surplus of new ideas, but it was still quite different than how it is today.
- Before the enlightenment, education was only given to the wealthy, males of the nobility. Commoners and girls were not educated. However, as the enlightenment started, slowly the poor were also given a chance to be educated.
- Major enlightenment thinkers John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau had good ideas about education. They both believed that everyone should be education, since everyone has the ability to be successful. However, Rousseau didn’t want to give education to women and girls, since he believed they should be household work.
- As more people were being educated, the rate of illiteracy decreased. This was especially found in religious schools, because they taught students how to read and write so they can understand the Bible.
- The Kingdom of Prussia introduced a system of public education with different grades along with different things taught in each grade. This idea of public education was so amazing, that it is used around the world today.
- As more kids were being educated, more books were being printed. Plus, public libraries were being built, so commoners have a chance to read expensive books.
- More social gathering areas like coffeehouse, salons, and academies were being created so students can work together and exchange ideas.
- In the 17th century, more and more schools were being built for girls. However, the cultural norm was still for them to just educated by their mothers at home. Slowly, more girls both wealthy and poor got the chance to become educated.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Age of Enlightenment dominated advanced thought in Europe from about the 1650s to the 1780s. It developed from a number of sources of "new" ideas, such as challenges to the dogma and authority of the Catholic Church and by increasing interest in the ideas of science, in scientific methods. In philosophy, it called into question traditional ways of thinking. The Enlightenment thinkers wanted the educational system to be modernized and play a more central role in the transmission of those ideas and ideals. The development of educational systems in Europe continued throughout the period of the Enlightenment and into the French Revolution. The improvements in the educational systems produced a larger reading public which resulted in increased demand for printed material from readers across a broader span of social classes with a wider range of interests. After 1800, as the Enlightenment gave way to Romanticism, there was less emphasis on reason and challenge to authority and more support for emerging nationalism and compulsory school attendance.

Before the Enlightenment, European educational systems were principally geared for teaching a limited number of professions, e.g., religious orders such as priests, brothers, and sisters, health care workers such as physicians, and bureaucrats such as lawyers and scribes, and they were not yet greatly influenced by the scientific revolution. As the scientific revolution and religious upheaval broke traditional views and ways of thinking of that time, religion and superstition were supplanted by reasoning and scientific facts. Philosophers such as John Locke proposed the idea that knowledge is obtained through sensation and reflection. This proposition led to Locke's theory that everyone has the same capacity of sensation, and, therefore, education should not be restricted to a certain class or gender. Prior to the 17th and 18th centuries, education and literacy were generally restricted to males who belonged to the nobility and the mercantile and professional classes. In England and France, "idealized notions of domesticity, which emphasized the importance of preparing girls for motherhood and home duties, fuelled the expansion of schooling for girls."

John Locke in English and Jean Jacques Rousseau in French authored influential works on education. Both emphasized the importance of shaping young minds early. By the late Enlightenment, there was a rising demand for a more universal approach to education, particularly after the American and French Revolutions.

Enlightenment children were taught to memorize facts through oral and graphical methods that originated during the Renaissance. The predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward, especially in northern European countries was associationism; the notion that the mind associates or dissociates ideas through repeated routines. It offered a practical theory of the mind that allowed teachers to transform longstanding forms of print and manuscript culture into effective graphic tools of learning for the lower and middle orders of society.

Many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles were located in northern Europe, with the most renowned being the universities of Leiden, Göttingen, Halle, Montpellier, Uppsala and Edinburgh. These universities, especially Edinburgh, produced professors whose ideas had a significant impact on Britain's North American colonies and, later, the American Republic. Within the natural sciences Edinburgh's medical also led the way in chemistry, anatomy and pharmacology.

However, in general the universities and schools of France and most of Europe were bastions of traditionalism and were not hospitable to the Enlightenment. In France the major exception was the medical university at Montpellier.

Education was once considered a privilege for only the upper class. However, during the 17th and 18th centuries, "education, literacy and learning" were gradually provided to "rich and poor alike". The literacy rate in Europe from the 17th century to the 18th century grew significantly. The definition of the term "literacy" in the 17th and 18th centuries is different from our current definition of literacy. Historians measured the literacy rate during the 17th and 18th century centuries by people's ability to sign their names. However, this method of determining literacy did not reflect people's ability to read. This affected the women's apparent literacy rate prior to the Age of Enlightenment mainly because, while most women living between the Dark Ages and the Age of Enlightenment could not write or sign their names, many could read, at least to some extent.

The rate of illiteracy decreased more rapidly in more populated areas and areas where there was mixture of religious schools. The literacy rate in England in the 1640s was around 30 percent for males, rising to 60 percent in the mid-18th century. In France, the rate of literacy in 1686-90 was around 29 percent for men and 14 percent for women, before it increased to 48 percent for men and 27 percent for women.

The increase in literacy rate was more likely due, at least in part, to religious influence, since most of the schools and colleges were organized by clergy, missionaries, or other religious organizations. The reason that motivated religions to help to increase the literacy rate among the general public was that the Bible was being printed in more languages and literacy was thought to be the key to understanding the word of God. "By 1714 the proportion of women able to read had risen, very approximately, to 25%, and it rose again to 40% by 1750. This increase was part of a general trend, fostered by the Reformation emphasis on reading the Scripture and by the demand for literacy in an increasingly mercantile society. The group most affected was the growing professional and commercial class, and writing and arithmetic schools emerged to provide the training their sons required". The impact of the Reformation on literacy was, of course, far more dramatic in Protestant areas. Therefore, literacy rates in predominantly Protestant Northern Europe rose much more quickly than those in predominately Catholic southern Europe. The Jesuits, who were the product of the Catholic Reformation (Counter Reformation) contributed moderately to increased literacy in Catholic regions.

The Kingdom of Prussia introduced a modern public educational system designed to reach the entire population; it was widely copied across Europe and the United States in the 19th century. The basic foundations of the Prussian primary education system were laid out by Frederick the Great with his "Generallandschulreglement," a decree of 1763, drafted by Johann Julius Hecker. It mandated the schooling of all young Prussians, both girls and boys, to be educated by mainly municipality funded schools from age 5 until age 13 or 14. Prussia was among the first countries in the world to introduce a tax-funded and generally compulsory primary education. In comparison, compulsory schooling in France or Great Britain was not successfully enacted until the 1880s.

The Prussian system consisted of an eight-year course of primary education, called Volksschule. It provided not only basic technical skills needed in a modernizing world (as reading and writing), but also music (singing), religious (Christian) education in close corporation with the churches and tried to impose a strict ethos of duty, soberness and discipline. Mathematic and calculus were not compulsory in the start and taking such courses was requiring additional payment by parents. Frederick the Great also formalized further educational stages, such as the Realschule and the highest stage, the gymnasium (state funded secondary school), which was used as university-preparatory school. The final examination, , was introduced in 1788, implemented in all Prussian secondary schools by 1812, and extended to all of Germany in 1871 and is in place till the present. Passing the Abitur was a pre-requisite to entering the learned professions and higher echelons of civil service. Generations of Prussian and as well German teachers, which in the 18th century often had no formal education and in the very beginning often were former petty officers without pedagogic training, tried to gain more academic recognition, training and better pay and played an important role in various protest and reform movements.

The Prussian system, after its modest beginnings, succeeded in reaching compulsory attendance, specific training for teachers, national testing for all students (of all genders), national curriculum set for each grade and mandatory Kindergarten. In 1810, Prussia introduced state certification requirements for teachers, which significantly raised the standard of teaching.

In the 18th century, states were paying more attention to their educational systems because they recognized that their subjects are more useful to the state if they are well educated. The conflicts between the crown and the church helped the expansion of the educational systems. In the eyes of the church and the state, universities and colleges were institutions that existed to maintain the dominance of one over the other. The downside of this conflict was that the freedom of thought on the subjects taught in these institutions was restricted. An educational institution was either a supporter of the monarchy or the religion, never both.

Also, changes in educational criteria for higher income professions such as lawyers and physicians became stricter, e.g., requirements to have certain educational experience before being licensed, helped to promote increases in the numbers of students attending universities and colleges.

The explosion of the print culture, which started in the 15th century with Johannes Gutenberg's printing press, was both a result of and a cause of the increase in literacy. The number of books published in the period of the Enlightenment increased dramatically due to the increase in demand for books, which resulted from the increased literacy rates and the declining cost and easier availability of books made possible by the printing press. There was a shift in the percentages of books printed in various categories during the 17th century.

Religious books had comprised around 50% of all books published in Paris at that time. However, the percentage of religious books dropped to 10% by 1790 and there was an increase in the popularity of books such as almanacs. The scientific literature in French might have increased slightly but mostly it remained fairly constant throughout the 18th century. However, contemporary literature seems to have increased as the century progressed. Also, there was a change in the languages that books were printed in. Before the 18th century, a large percentage of the books were published in Latin. As time progressed, there was a decline in the percentage of books published in Latin. Concurrently, the percentage of books published in French, and other languages, increased throughout Europe.

Of course the importance of print culture to education is not simply about counting publication figures. Students had to use the books that were given to them and they had to use pen and paper to organise and make sense of the information that they were learning. In this sense print culture was closely tied to manuscript culture, particularly the skills and routines associated with note-taking. Perhaps one of the most notable accomplishments of Enlightenment educational systems is that they taught students how to efficiently manage information on paper, both in school and then in university.

During the Enlightenment period, there were changes in the public cultural institutions, such as libraries and museums. The system of public libraries was a product of the Enlightenment. The public libraries were funded by the state and were accessible to everyone for free.

Prior to the Enlightenment, libraries in Europe were restricted mostly to academies and the private collections of aristocrats and other wealthy individuals. With the beginning of state funded institutions, public libraries became places where the general public could study topics of interest and educate themselves. During the 18th century, the prices of books were generally too high for the average person, especially the most popular works such as encyclopedias. Therefore, the public libraries offered commoners a chance of reading literature and other works that previously could only be read by the wealthier classes.

During the 18th century, the increase in social gathering places such as coffeehouses, clubs, academies and Masonic Lodges provided alternative places where people could read, learn and exchange ideas. In England, coffeehouses became public spaces where political, philosophical and scientific ideas were being discussed. The first coffeehouse in Britain was established in Oxford in 1650 and the number of coffeehouses expanded around Oxford.

The coffeehouse was a place for people to congregate, to read, to learn and to debate with each other. Another name for the coffeehouse is the Penny University, because the coffeehouse had a reputation as a place of informal learning. "The popularization of new ideas encouraged further changes in the habits and beliefs of many ordinary people. Reading clubs and coffeehouses allowed many urban artisans and businessmen to discuss the latest reform ideas." Even though the coffeehouses were generally accessible to everyone, most of the coffeehouses did not allow women to participate. Clubs, academies, and Lodges, although not entirely open to the public, established venues of intellectual exchange that functioned as de facto institutions of education.

During the 17th century, there were a number of schools dedicated to girls, but the cultural norm was for girls to be informally educated at home. During the 18th century, there was an increase in the number of girls being educated in schools. This was especially true for middle-class families whose rising financial status and social aspirations made providing an aristocratic style of education for their daughters both desirable and possible.

In France, one of the most famous schools for girls was the Saint-Cyr, which was founded by Madame de Maintenon. Although the school Saint-Cyr was meant to educate women, it did not dare to challenge the traditional views towards women. Therefore, the fact that there were schools for women did not bring about a social change because the schools themselves did not challenge the social status quo. Women were excluded from learning subjects such as science and politics. In October, 1795, France created "a National Institute and Normal Schools that excluded women from the professional study of Philosophy." In d'Épinay's recollection of her childhood education, she pointed out that girls were not taught much of anything and that a proper education was considered to be inappropriate for the female sex. The main issue about female education relates to the traditional view of women's weakness being due to nature. However, there were people, such as John Locke and d'Épinay, who argue that women's weakness was due to faulty education.

Catherine the Great of Russia was a patron of women's education in Russia throughout the 18th century. Heeding to the advice of Ivan Betskoy, an educational reformer and close adviser, the Empress created separate boarding schools for both boys and girls. The Smolny Institute for Noble Girls in 1764 became the first higher learning institute for women in Europe, an institution that Catherine helped establish; the following year the Queen of Russia established the Novodevichii Institute, an all-female institute for the daughters of Russian commoners. Just as Frederick the Great oversaw the establishment of compulsory education in Prussia, Catherine contributed to the evolution of women's education on the continent and enabled for the further modernization of the Russian state during the Enlightenment.

1. ^ Culture: Nine European historical sites now on the European Heritage Label list European Commission, February 8, 2016,

2. Encyclopædia Britannica, "Education," in "Encyclopædia Britannica Online" ^ http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/179408/education (accessed on April 3, 2009).

3. ^ Hotson, Howard (2007). Commonplace Learning: Ramism and Its German Ramifications 1543-1630. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

4. ^ Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2008). The Language of Mineralogy: John Walker, Chemistry and the Edinburgh Medical School, 1750-1800. Aldershot: Ashgate.

5. Ellwood Cubberley, ^ The History of Education: Educational Practice and Progress Considered as a Phase of the Development and Spread of Western Civilization (1920) online

6. ^ John Franklin Brown (1911). The Training of Teachers for Secondary Schools in Germany and the United States. Macmillan. pp. 21-25.

7. ^ Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2010). "Tools for Reordering: Commonplacing and the Space of Words in Linnaeus's Philosophia Botanica". Intellectual History Review. 20: 227-52. doi:10.1080/17496971003783773.

8. ^ http://history-world.org/age_of_enlightenment.htm Archived 2008-01-10 at the Wayback Machine.

Brockliss, L.W.B. 1987. French Higher Education in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Butts, R. Freeman. A Cultural History of Western Education: Its Social and Intellectual Foundations (2nd ed. 1955) online

Cook, T. G. The History of Education in Europe (1974)

Cremin, Lawrence A. American Education: The Colonial Experience, 1607-1783 (1970)

Cubberley, Ellwood Patterson. The History of Education: Educational Practice and Progress Considered as a Phase of the Development and Spread of Western Civilization (1920) online

Lawson, John, and Harold Silver. A social history of education in England (Routledge, 2013)

Palmer, Joy A. et al. eds. Fifty Major Thinkers on Education: From Confucius to Dewey (2001) online

Ringer, Fritz. Education and Society in Modern Europe (1979); focus on Germany and France with comparisons to US and Britain

Wardle, David. English popular education 1780-1970 (Cambridge UP, 1970)

Whitehead, Barbara J., ed. Women's education in early modern Europe: a history, 1500-1800 (1999) online specialized topics

Cubberley, Ellwood Patterson, ed. Readings in the History of Education (1920)

Cowan, Brian, 2005. Social life of Coffee: The Emergence of the British Coffeehouse New Haven:Yale University Press.

de Bellaigue, Christina. 2007. Educating Women - Schooling and Identity in England and France, 1800-1867 Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Darnton, Robert, 1982. The Literary Underground of the Old Regime. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

"Education Overview (1754-1783)." American Eras. 8 vols. Gale Research, 1997-1998. Reproduced in History Resource Center. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale.

Education. (2009). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved April 5, 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/179408/education

Graff, Harvey J. (1987) The Legacies of Literacy: Continuities and Contradictions in Western Culture and Society (1987) from Middle Ages to present

Greenhalgh, Liz, Worpole, Ken, & Landry, Charles. 1995. "libraries in a world of cultural change London: UCL Press.

Hesse, Calra, 2001. "The Other Enlightenment: how French women became modern". Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Melton, James Van Horn. 2001. "The Rise of the Public in Enlightenment Europe". Cambridge: Cambridge university Press.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Education in the Age of Enlightenment - Wikipedia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Age of Enlightenment dominated advanced thought in Europe from about the 1650s to the 1780s. It developed from a number of sources of "new" ideas, such as challenges to the dogma and authority of the Catholic Church and by increasing interest in the ideas of science, in scientific methods.

# data[].attributes.body
https://sites.google.com/site/dailylifein1700s/home/cooking
http://che.umbc.edu/londontown/cookbook/what.html
-People during the 1700s ate and drank meat (pigeon, beef, deer, mutton, turkey and duck), potatoes, gruel(boiled oatmeal and butter), vegetables, cheese, sugar, bread, milk, tea, coffee and pudding.
-Fish was a very popular dish because it was inexpensive.
-People could cook things very similarly to us. They baked and fried and roasted and boiled.
-During the enlightenment cookbooks were gaining momentum. Regular people could make their own food instead of having a profesional chef do it.
-Women had to dress up for dinner and could spend hours preparing. They had to look their best in order to attract the attention of their future husband.
-An upper class dinner party could have 5 to 25 courses
-At an upper class dinner there would be a butler who waited on the guests. The butler would be responsible for wine, the meals, plates and silverware, and for supervising the head cook and footmen (ordered the food).

# data[].attributes.body
During the enlightenment period education expanded and improved overtime.
The enlightenment thinkers wanted the educational systems to play a better role at transferring ideas and ideals.
One way education expanded was for middle and higher class women were offered schooling.
Women were limited in what they could study.
Education wanted to disprove everything that came before it.
The Enlightenment thinkers wanted the education to be perfect.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Age of Enlightenment dominated advanced thought in Europe from about the 1650s to the 1780s. It developed from a number of sources of "new" ideas, such as challenges to the dogma and authority of the Catholic Church and by increasing interest in the ideas of science, in scientific methods. In philosophy, it called into question traditional ways of thinking. The Enlightenment thinkers wanted the educational system to be modernized and play a more central role in the transmission of those ideas and ideals. The development of educational systems in Europe continued throughout the period of the Enlightenment and into the French Revolution. The improvements in the educational systems produced a larger reading public which resulted in increased demand for printed material from readers across a broader span of social classes with a wider range of interests. After 1800, as the Enlightenment gave way to Romanticism, there was less emphasis on reason and challenge to authority and more support for emerging nationalism and compulsory school attendance.

Before the Enlightenment, European educational systems were principally geared for teaching a limited number of professions, e.g., religious orders such as priests, brothers, and sisters, health care workers such as physicians, and bureaucrats such as lawyers and scribes, and they were not yet greatly influenced by the scientific revolution. As the scientific revolution and religious upheaval broke traditional views and ways of thinking of that time, religion and superstition were supplanted by reasoning and scientific facts. Philosophers such as John Locke proposed the idea that knowledge is obtained through sensation and reflection. This proposition led to Locke's theory that everyone has the same capacity of sensation, and, therefore, education should not be restricted to a certain class or gender. Prior to the 17th and 18th centuries, education and literacy were generally restricted to males who belonged to the nobility and the mercantile and professional classes. In England and France, "idealized notions of domesticity, which emphasized the importance of preparing girls for motherhood and home duties, fuelled the expansion of schooling for girls."

John Locke in English and Jean Jacques Rousseau in French authored influential works on education. Both emphasized the importance of shaping young minds early. By the late Enlightenment, there was a rising demand for a more universal approach to education, particularly after the American and French Revolutions.

Enlightenment children were taught to memorize facts through oral and graphical methods that originated during the Renaissance. The predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward, especially in northern European countries was associationism; the notion that the mind associates or dissociates ideas through repeated routines. It offered a practical theory of the mind that allowed teachers to transform longstanding forms of print and manuscript culture into effective graphic tools of learning for the lower and middle orders of society.

Many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles were located in northern Europe, with the most renowned being the universities of Leiden, Göttingen, Halle, Montpellier, Uppsala and Edinburgh. These universities, especially Edinburgh, produced professors whose ideas had a significant impact on Britain's North American colonies and, later, the American Republic. Within the natural sciences Edinburgh's medical also led the way in chemistry, anatomy and pharmacology.

However, in general the universities and schools of France and most of Europe were bastions of traditionalism and were not hospitable to the Enlightenment. In France the major exception was the medical university at Montpellier.

Education was once considered a privilege for only the upper class. However, during the 17th and 18th centuries, "education, literacy and learning" were gradually provided to "rich and poor alike". The literacy rate in Europe from the 17th century to the 18th century grew significantly. The definition of the term "literacy" in the 17th and 18th centuries is different from our current definition of literacy. Historians measured the literacy rate during the 17th and 18th century centuries by people's ability to sign their names. However, this method of determining literacy did not reflect people's ability to read. This affected the women's apparent literacy rate prior to the Age of Enlightenment mainly because, while most women living between the Dark Ages and the Age of Enlightenment could not write or sign their names, many could read, at least to some extent.

The rate of illiteracy decreased more rapidly in more populated areas and areas where there was mixture of religious schools. The literacy rate in England in the 1640s was around 30 percent for males, rising to 60 percent in the mid-18th century. In France, the rate of literacy in 1686-90 was around 29 percent for men and 14 percent for women, before it increased to 48 percent for men and 27 percent for women.

The increase in literacy rate was more likely due, at least in part, to religious influence, since most of the schools and colleges were organized by clergy, missionaries, or other religious organizations. The reason that motivated religions to help to increase the literacy rate among the general public was that the Bible was being printed in more languages and literacy was thought to be the key to understanding the word of God. "By 1714 the proportion of women able to read had risen, very approximately, to 25%, and it rose again to 40% by 1750. This increase was part of a general trend, fostered by the Reformation emphasis on reading the Scripture and by the demand for literacy in an increasingly mercantile society. The group most affected was the growing professional and commercial class, and writing and arithmetic schools emerged to provide the training their sons required". The impact of the Reformation on literacy was, of course, far more dramatic in Protestant areas. Therefore, literacy rates in predominantly Protestant Northern Europe rose much more quickly than those in predominately Catholic southern Europe. The Jesuits, who were the product of the Catholic Reformation (Counter Reformation) contributed moderately to increased literacy in Catholic regions.

The Kingdom of Prussia introduced a modern public educational system designed to reach the entire population; it was widely copied across Europe and the United States in the 19th century. The basic foundations of the Prussian primary education system were laid out by Frederick the Great with his "Generallandschulreglement," a decree of 1763, drafted by Johann Julius Hecker. It mandated the schooling of all young Prussians, both girls and boys, to be educated by mainly municipality funded schools from age 5 until age 13 or 14. Prussia was among the first countries in the world to introduce a tax-funded and generally compulsory primary education. In comparison, compulsory schooling in France or Great Britain was not successfully enacted until the 1880s.

The Prussian system consisted of an eight-year course of primary education, called Volksschule. It provided not only basic technical skills needed in a modernizing world (as reading and writing), but also music (singing), religious (Christian) education in close corporation with the churches and tried to impose a strict ethos of duty, soberness and discipline. Mathematic and calculus were not compulsory in the start and taking such courses was requiring additional payment by parents. Frederick the Great also formalized further educational stages, such as the Realschule and the highest stage, the gymnasium (state funded secondary school), which was used as university-preparatory school. The final examination, , was introduced in 1788, implemented in all Prussian secondary schools by 1812, and extended to all of Germany in 1871 and is in place till the present. Passing the Abitur was a pre-requisite to entering the learned professions and higher echelons of civil service. Generations of Prussian and as well German teachers, which in the 18th century often had no formal education and in the very beginning often were former petty officers without pedagogic training, tried to gain more academic recognition, training and better pay and played an important role in various protest and reform movements.

The Prussian system, after its modest beginnings, succeeded in reaching compulsory attendance, specific training for teachers, national testing for all students (of all genders), national curriculum set for each grade and mandatory Kindergarten. In 1810, Prussia introduced state certification requirements for teachers, which significantly raised the standard of teaching.

In the 18th century, states were paying more attention to their educational systems because they recognized that their subjects are more useful to the state if they are well educated. The conflicts between the crown and the church helped the expansion of the educational systems. In the eyes of the church and the state, universities and colleges were institutions that existed to maintain the dominance of one over the other. The downside of this conflict was that the freedom of thought on the subjects taught in these institutions was restricted. An educational institution was either a supporter of the monarchy or the religion, never both.

Also, changes in educational criteria for higher income professions such as lawyers and physicians became stricter, e.g., requirements to have certain educational experience before being licensed, helped to promote increases in the numbers of students attending universities and colleges.

The explosion of the print culture, which started in the 15th century with Johannes Gutenberg's printing press, was both a result of and a cause of the increase in literacy. The number of books published in the period of the Enlightenment increased dramatically due to the increase in demand for books, which resulted from the increased literacy rates and the declining cost and easier availability of books made possible by the printing press. There was a shift in the percentages of books printed in various categories during the 17th century.

Religious books had comprised around 50% of all books published in Paris at that time. However, the percentage of religious books dropped to 10% by 1790 and there was an increase in the popularity of books such as almanacs. The scientific literature in French might have increased slightly but mostly it remained fairly constant throughout the 18th century. However, contemporary literature seems to have increased as the century progressed. Also, there was a change in the languages that books were printed in. Before the 18th century, a large percentage of the books were published in Latin. As time progressed, there was a decline in the percentage of books published in Latin. Concurrently, the percentage of books published in French, and other languages, increased throughout Europe.

Of course the importance of print culture to education is not simply about counting publication figures. Students had to use the books that were given to them and they had to use pen and paper to organise and make sense of the information that they were learning. In this sense print culture was closely tied to manuscript culture, particularly the skills and routines associated with note-taking. Perhaps one of the most notable accomplishments of Enlightenment educational systems is that they taught students how to efficiently manage information on paper, both in school and then in university.

During the Enlightenment period, there were changes in the public cultural institutions, such as libraries and museums. The system of public libraries was a product of the Enlightenment. The public libraries were funded by the state and were accessible to everyone for free.

Prior to the Enlightenment, libraries in Europe were restricted mostly to academies and the private collections of aristocrats and other wealthy individuals. With the beginning of state funded institutions, public libraries became places where the general public could study topics of interest and educate themselves. During the 18th century, the prices of books were generally too high for the average person, especially the most popular works such as encyclopedias. Therefore, the public libraries offered commoners a chance of reading literature and other works that previously could only be read by the wealthier classes.

During the 18th century, the increase in social gathering places such as coffeehouses, clubs, academies and Masonic Lodges provided alternative places where people could read, learn and exchange ideas. In England, coffeehouses became public spaces where political, philosophical and scientific ideas were being discussed. The first coffeehouse in Britain was established in Oxford in 1650 and the number of coffeehouses expanded around Oxford.

The coffeehouse was a place for people to congregate, to read, to learn and to debate with each other. Another name for the coffeehouse is the Penny University, because the coffeehouse had a reputation as a place of informal learning. "The popularization of new ideas encouraged further changes in the habits and beliefs of many ordinary people. Reading clubs and coffeehouses allowed many urban artisans and businessmen to discuss the latest reform ideas." Even though the coffeehouses were generally accessible to everyone, most of the coffeehouses did not allow women to participate. Clubs, academies, and Lodges, although not entirely open to the public, established venues of intellectual exchange that functioned as de facto institutions of education.

During the 17th century, there were a number of schools dedicated to girls, but the cultural norm was for girls to be informally educated at home. During the 18th century, there was an increase in the number of girls being educated in schools. This was especially true for middle-class families whose rising financial status and social aspirations made providing an aristocratic style of education for their daughters both desirable and possible.

In France, one of the most famous schools for girls was the Saint-Cyr, which was founded by Madame de Maintenon. Although the school Saint-Cyr was meant to educate women, it did not dare to challenge the traditional views towards women. Therefore, the fact that there were schools for women did not bring about a social change because the schools themselves did not challenge the social status quo. Women were excluded from learning subjects such as science and politics. In October, 1795, France created "a National Institute and Normal Schools that excluded women from the professional study of Philosophy." In d'Épinay's recollection of her childhood education, she pointed out that girls were not taught much of anything and that a proper education was considered to be inappropriate for the female sex. The main issue about female education relates to the traditional view of women's weakness being due to nature. However, there were people, such as John Locke and d'Épinay, who argue that women's weakness was due to faulty education.

Catherine the Great of Russia was a patron of women's education in Russia throughout the 18th century. Heeding to the advice of Ivan Betskoy, an educational reformer and close adviser, the Empress created separate boarding schools for both boys and girls. The Smolny Institute for Noble Girls in 1764 became the first higher learning institute for women in Europe, an institution that Catherine helped establish; the following year the Queen of Russia established the Novodevichii Institute, an all-female institute for the daughters of Russian commoners. Just as Frederick the Great oversaw the establishment of compulsory education in Prussia, Catherine contributed to the evolution of women's education on the continent and enabled for the further modernization of the Russian state during the Enlightenment.

1. ^ Culture: Nine European historical sites now on the European Heritage Label list European Commission, February 8, 2016,

2. Encyclopædia Britannica, "Education," in "Encyclopædia Britannica Online" ^ http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/179408/education (accessed on April 3, 2009).

3. ^ Hotson, Howard (2007). Commonplace Learning: Ramism and Its German Ramifications 1543-1630. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

4. ^ Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2008). The Language of Mineralogy: John Walker, Chemistry and the Edinburgh Medical School, 1750-1800. Aldershot: Ashgate.

5. Ellwood Cubberley, ^ The History of Education: Educational Practice and Progress Considered as a Phase of the Development and Spread of Western Civilization (1920) online

6. ^ John Franklin Brown (1911). The Training of Teachers for Secondary Schools in Germany and the United States. Macmillan. pp. 21-25.

7. ^ Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2010). "Tools for Reordering: Commonplacing and the Space of Words in Linnaeus's Philosophia Botanica". Intellectual History Review. 20: 227-52. doi:10.1080/17496971003783773.

8. ^ http://history-world.org/age_of_enlightenment.htm Archived 2008-01-10 at the Wayback Machine.

Brockliss, L.W.B. 1987. French Higher Education in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Butts, R. Freeman. A Cultural History of Western Education: Its Social and Intellectual Foundations (2nd ed. 1955) online

Cook, T. G. The History of Education in Europe (1974)

Cremin, Lawrence A. American Education: The Colonial Experience, 1607-1783 (1970)

Cubberley, Ellwood Patterson. The History of Education: Educational Practice and Progress Considered as a Phase of the Development and Spread of Western Civilization (1920) online

Lawson, John, and Harold Silver. A social history of education in England (Routledge, 2013)

Palmer, Joy A. et al. eds. Fifty Major Thinkers on Education: From Confucius to Dewey (2001) online

Ringer, Fritz. Education and Society in Modern Europe (1979); focus on Germany and France with comparisons to US and Britain

Wardle, David. English popular education 1780-1970 (Cambridge UP, 1970)

Whitehead, Barbara J., ed. Women's education in early modern Europe: a history, 1500-1800 (1999) online specialized topics

Cubberley, Ellwood Patterson, ed. Readings in the History of Education (1920)

Cowan, Brian, 2005. Social life of Coffee: The Emergence of the British Coffeehouse New Haven:Yale University Press.

de Bellaigue, Christina. 2007. Educating Women - Schooling and Identity in England and France, 1800-1867 Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Darnton, Robert, 1982. The Literary Underground of the Old Regime. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

"Education Overview (1754-1783)." American Eras. 8 vols. Gale Research, 1997-1998. Reproduced in History Resource Center. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale.

Education. (2009). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved April 5, 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/179408/education

Graff, Harvey J. (1987) The Legacies of Literacy: Continuities and Contradictions in Western Culture and Society (1987) from Middle Ages to present

Greenhalgh, Liz, Worpole, Ken, & Landry, Charles. 1995. "libraries in a world of cultural change London: UCL Press.

Hesse, Calra, 2001. "The Other Enlightenment: how French women became modern". Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Melton, James Van Horn. 2001. "The Rise of the Public in Enlightenment Europe". Cambridge: Cambridge university Press.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Education in the Age of Enlightenment - Wikipedia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Age of Enlightenment dominated advanced thought in Europe from about the 1650s to the 1780s. It developed from a number of sources of "new" ideas, such as challenges to the dogma and authority of the Catholic Church and by increasing interest in the ideas of science, in scientific methods.

# data[].attributes.body
Cooking In the Enlightenment:

Sandra Sherman wrote cookbooks (which were very unique at the time if you could read) in the late seventh and eighteenth centuries. Before this time period there wasn’t much step by step cookbooks unless you were a professional chef. The cookbook was revolutionary idea because before that people would have a professional and apprentice learning.

Food:

Food in the Enlightenment was harder to obtain and different form today.

Fruits were available more for the rich and less common for the poor to have access to.

Meat was apart of every meal for the rich and poor.

Chocolate was considered a novelty.

Dinner:

Rich women dressed up for hours for dinner.

Meals had two courses and a dessert.

There was completion between factories for silver and goldsmiths to provide service to courts.

https://enfilade18thc.files.wordpress.com/2019/09/ba-obj-179-0001-pub-large.jpg?w=700&h=604

# data[].attributes.body
In the 1700s Europe played many sports some where
Cricket, quoits, horse racing, and cotswold games.
In cricket they used and a wooden bat and based on the hits who ever got the most points based on the hits and runs win.
In quoits you throw metal rings on to a little pole and whoever got the most metal around the pole by throwing it wins.
In horde racing contestants get on a horse and have to guide the horses to the finish line, the horse who gets there first wins. The cotswold games is an annual public celebration of games and sports. They are held after the Friday of spring bank holiday.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1601_to_1700_in_sports

# data[].attributes.body
Hygiene in the 1700s
-Louis XIV of France reportedly had only taken 2 showers in his adult life
-People kept themselves clean by changing the white linens under their clothing.
-Bathing was seen as a luxury among the wealthy, and grew more popular with women in a pathway to be clean.
-Starched white collars and cuffs from the inner layer often extended from the outer clothing, signifying the cleanliness of the body underneath
-They occasionally washed their faces
-They believed white linen garments they wore below their outer clothes absorbed the body’s impurities, cleaning the skin in the process.
-Gradually ideas concerning hygiene spread to middle class
https://www.voanews.com/a/science-health_historian-explores-evolution-personal-hygiene/6187950.html

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Frequent hand-washing with soap and water for at least 20 seconds is recommended by health experts to help prevent exposure to COVID-19. That is exactly what many people do these days. But while washing hands and bathing signifies personal hygiene in our time, it was not always the case.

Louis XIV of France, for example, is said to have taken only two baths in his adult lifetime - both times recommended by his doctors. The king had headaches, and his doctors thought bathing would help cure the condition. It did not, and he never bathed again.

The hygiene rituals of Louis XIV and other historical figures are recounted in the new book "The Clean Body: A Modern History" by Peter Ward. The history professor emeritus at the University of British Colombia explores the transformation of body care habits in the West over the past four centuries.

Cleanliness now and then

According to Ward, Louis XIV was not unique in his body care habits.

In the 1700s, most people in the upper class seldom, if ever, bathed. They occasionally washed their faces and hands, and kept themselves "clean" by changing the white linens under their clothing.

"The idea about cleanliness focused on their clothing, especially the clothes worn next to the skin," Ward said. "The common view was that the white linen garments they wore below their outer clothes absorbed the body's impurities, cleaning the skin in the process."

Starched white collars and cuffs from the inner layer often extended beyond the outer clothes, signifying the cleanliness of the body underneath. They also implied the social superiority of those who wore such clothes, because most people in western societies lacked the wealth to dress this way.

Gradually, the concept of cleanliness changed, beginning with the upper class, and spreading to the emerging middle class.

"By the close of the 18th century, bathing was gaining acceptance among the wealthy as a new form of personal care. In upper-class circles everywhere, men and women began to see a new value in being clean, and bathing as a new pathway to cleanliness," Ward explained.

What changed in the 19th century?

In the 19th century, body care became something people thought distinguished them from the lower classes. By the middle of the century, periodic bathing had become common.

Advancements in industry, plumbing, architecture and science helped spread the practice of bathing and hand-washing.

"The manufacturing of new bathing equipment and the appearance of the bathroom in the homes of the wealthy, and then over the course of about a century, down to the mass housing," according to Ward.

The manufacture and promotion of soap played a huge role in promoting cleanliness as a desirable, appealing lifestyle. Clean bodies and hands came to represent social inclusion. In the late-19th century, people began to realize the relationship between cleanliness and good health.
Wash your hands
In the 1880s, French scientist Louis Pasteur discovered the link between microbes and the transmission of diseases.

"Pasteur's ideas had profoundly influenced western medical thinking," Ward said. "They had also permeated the public health movement, which became the most energetic promoter of clean hands for the masses. I suspect that washing hands was common in most western countries by the 1920s and 1930s, though generally speaking, the personal cleanliness 'revolution' came later in rural than in urban environments. And in those countries where rural ways persisted longer, hand-washing and other cleansing routines were adopted more slowly."

These days, as frequent hand-washing has become a widespread practice against the spread of COVID-19, Ward hopes people will develop new personal hygiene practices.

But he is not optimistic.

History shows that people tend to care less about washing their hands once the pandemic ends, Ward said.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Historian Explores the Evolution of Personal Hygiene

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Frequent hand-washing with soap and water for at least 20 seconds is recommended by health experts to help prevent exposure to COVID-19. That is exactly what many people do these days. But while washing hands and bathing signifies personal hygiene in our time, it was not always the case.

# data[].attributes.headline
Cooking during the Enlightenment - Tejas and Krish

# data[].attributes.subject
Cooking during the Enlightenment - Tejas and Krish

# data[].attributes.body
Cooking was very different during the enlightenment. During the enlightenment, convenient cookbooks became more accessible to the public. This helped people make a larger variety of foods even if their family did not have a history of passing down recipes. Anyone could cook if they could read. At the time it was normal to have a professional who would work many years in the field, but after cookbooks became popular they took the place of teachers. This outraged many teachers in the field. Food itself was also very different during the enlightenment. Many ingredients were unavailable due to the fact that they could be only accessed by the rich. The poor had to live off oatmeal with a little bit of butter called gruel. During this time, people of the upper class would dress elegantly just for an evening meal. Exotic foods and spices were also being discovered as explorers travelled the world. This opened up the cooking world to new recipes and tastes. The cooking world was ever-changing and constantly broadening during the enlightenment.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The whole art and mystery of cooking: What cookbooks taught readers in the eighteenth century, written by Sandra Sherman, is a book that is ab out pretty much what the title says. She writes extensively about home cooking and cookbooks in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Before this period there were almost no mass produced amounts of step by step instructional cookbooks available for the general public to use at home and the field was dominated my professional chefs. By the time the late seventeenth century rolled around some of these convenient books became accessible and made it much easier for people to have a very large variety of well cooked meals even if their family did not have an extensive history of passing recipes down from generation to generation. The books were also very unique for the time because o

f their ability to instruct anyone who wanted to make a meal, regardless of their education, where they lived, or their profession, in an easy to fallow way (assuming they could read). The idea of a book showing people how to cook specialized cuisine was a more revolutionary idea then many people may think. The social norm of the time was to have a professional who had worked many years in the field and an apprentice who would learn along side until deemed more than competent. This newfangled cookbook changed all of that, in terms of cooking at least. This 180° turn put a "silent teacher" in place of the professional-apprentice relationship. The argument against this change was that it lacked real and "dynamic" instruction, and impeded the pupil's ability to develop his skills properly. Needless to say, it is thought that many chefs were against the idea at first and took a very long while for them to to warm up to the very new idea, hence the examination of the years between the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Over all, this excerpt of the book felt like a very complete and well thought out examination of the surprisingly interesting topic of the then modern personal use gourmet cookbook and I may even read the whole book.

Food in the enlightenment period was very different then we know today. Fruits for instance, was very sparse for the conman man and only very rich and powerful people had regular access to them. Vegetables were a very secondary part of meals and were never really as popular as meat or potato. Meat was apart of almost every meal for rich as well as poor. Desserts such as c hocolate were considered a novelty during the 1700s in England. Gruel was a common eighteenth-century British dish that was composed of boiled oatmeal...with a little butter. This dish was popular (especially as an evening meal) because it helped compensate for the lack of central heating in cold houses.

http://www.umich.edu/~ece/student_projects/food/foods.htm

Places in society, and at the dinner table

Upper-class women could spend over an hour dressing for dinner because it was customary for women to change their entire outfit for the evening meal. Dressing for dinner was important because young men and women looking for a companion used dinner parties as a way to meet and court potential mates. Every meal consisted of two courses and a dessert. However, a course in eighteenth-century upper-class society consisted of between five and twenty-five dishes. it can be seen that the cultural customs of dining required considerable effort. These customs established upper-class standards which set the upper class apart from the lower class.

In the 18th century, the pleasures of the table reached new gastronomic heights with the discovery of different and exotic foods and spices, and the creation of new recipes. In Europe, new porcelain factories competed with silver and goldsmiths to supply large and elaborate dinner and dessert services to the courts of Europe. Louis XIV's Court at Versailles established the formal customs of dining throughout 18th century Europe via le service à la française (the French method of serving), which became universally accepted as the only civilized fashion of dining. servants crucial for the success of a grand dinner were the butler, responsible for the wine cellar, all the silver and plates, serving the meal and supervising the conduct and efficiency of the footmen; the clerk of the kitchen, responsible for ordering all the provisions; and the head cook. The rules and customs associated with dining have changed over the years, but Anthelme Brillat Savarin's maxims for dining published in the early 19th century still hold true: "When you invite a man to dinner, never forget, that during the short time he is under your roof his happiness is in your hands."
http://www.umich.edu/~ece/student_projects/food/rules.htm
Some more links about Cooking:
http://www.foodtimeline.org/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_modern_European_cuisine
http://www.atasteofhistory.com/

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The whole art and mystery of cooking: What cookbooks taught readers in the eighteenth century, written by Sandra Sherman, is a book that is ab out pretty much what the title says. She writes extensively about home cooking and cookbooks in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

# data[].attributes.body
Women in Society - Women were used as reproduction and were looked to be 2nd in society. The idea of male dominance over women were a popular idea in the Enlightenment. Women’s body parts were viewed as negative along with their personality. Due to them being lower then men, they were in private salons, seperated from men. Women who stood up for education were oppressed. Women couldn’t escape the idea of gender roles. Compared to women rights for 1800’s, women can be involved in debates in politics, share their own thoughts/opinions, etc. Women’s rights in 1800’s changed the our evolution happened.

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Women's Transformation since the 18th Century http://search.proquest.com/docview/198635960?accountid=2578

Women were seen as nothing more than mere objects. They were to be controlled in the age of enlightenment. Men took the role of the puppeteer and women took the role of the puppets.The role of women was determined around the time philosophers and scientists, all males, were controlling society. For a long time up until the 1960's, women were seen as the "second sex", and deemed second in importance, biologically. The preconceived theory is that women's role is simply reproductive by nature. Nature's"supposed" law of men above women changed in society by the time feminists evolved.

The idea that there is a hierarchy of genders based on the men and women's natural differences, was very popular during the enlightenment. Women's difference in body parts and personality traits were seen as negative and placed them below men in this way. They were kept behind the limelight, and in private salons. The women who decided that their education and intelligence overpowered the fact that they were women, still were oppressed. They also tried to participate in 'under the radar' debating societies. No matter how much they wanted to improve their lives through education and self-empowerment, men during this time always wanted to find a way to downgrade the women. Because the idea of women as objects was an idea as old as time, and that's all men really knew about, it was hard for women to escape these traditional gender roles.

Feminism has now developed in such a way that women can use their experience and knowledge to join in on unions and political networks. Unlike in the 18 th century, when women were accustomed to hiding their sometimes brash opinions and thoughts, women can for the most part be respected enough to say and think what they feel. History has taught us that the way to respect isn't through a quick fix, but instead a long and complex set of revolutions and evolution. The women of the 18 th century were an important stepping stone in allowing women to evolve to how they are today.

Changed since the Renaissance

http://www.britannica.com/women/article-216006
Women were not able to start a revolution or movement during the time of the Renaissance. However, during the age of enlightenment, women started to demand to have the same educational opportunities as men and wanting to participate in higher societies. The legal status of women was left undetermined and men saw them as silly and subordinate.
http://search.proquest.com/docview/857845070/12F2F17AD676588DC5E/1?accountid=2578
Here are some more links:
http://search.proquest.com/docview/851268785/12F2F17AD676588DC5E/7?accountid=2578

A History of Women's Political Thought in Europe, 1400-1700 by Jacqueline Broad and Karen GreenPower, Piety and Patronage in Late Medieval Queenship: Maria de Luna by Nuria Silleras-FernandezEleanor of Aquitaine: Queen of France, Queen of England by Ralph V. Turner

Women and the Divine Literature before 1700

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Women's Transformation since the 18th Century http://search.proquest.com/docview/198635960?accountid=2578 Women were seen as nothing more than mere objects. They were to be controlled in the age of enlightenment. Men took the role of the puppeteer and women took the role of the puppets.The role of women was determined around the time philosophers and scientists, all males, were controlling society.

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Sriram Kaluri - Life During the Enlightenment (Religious Influences on Science in Europe)

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Sriram Kaluri - Life During the Enlightenment (Religious Influences on Science in Europe)

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During the Enlightenment, science threatened the prevalence and validity of many religious beliefs. Interestingly, as churches and popes were closely related to European governments at the time, they were able to “regulate” the spread of scientific beliefs, but not for long. Soon, the same churches and popes were under widespread scrutiny, and when people stopped blindly believing in superstition, scientific and medical progression skyrocketed. The effects of the Enlightenment continue to greatly influence lives, even today!

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
This website is useful when researching daily life in the Enlightenment. It gives information concerning the development of feminist thinking and the things that they did daily in correspondence with the way of thinking. It also gives information on the French Revolution.
http://www.s tockton.edu/~fergusoc/romantic/romantic.htm

Religion vs. Science

Concerning religion in the enlightenment era, this website gives a wide variety of information. It goes into what the enlightenment did to religions and what they stood for. Science was big during this time period, and as we all know science is the enemy of most religions. T

his is where the enlightenment philosophers and thinkers made a name for themselves. They argued what the church preached, thus getting their name out there.

http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/enlightenment/
Isaac Newton was someone who questioned the churches core beliefs.
http://history-world.org/enlightenment_throughout_europe.htm
In this source, the idea of reason is brought into religion. Once a higher thought of science came to be, people who weren't firm believers in the church, wanted answers to their questions. Reason made people think of religion in a different spectrum, thus forcing a revolution in the enlightenment. These thoughts soon turned into a new movement, Romanticism.
http://europeanhistory.about.com/od/thenineteenthcentury/a/enlightenment_2.htm
Enlightenment thinkers wanted to promote freedom of religion and religious tolerance. Before this, people all seemed to have the same beliefs, and if they didn't, they were forbidden to speak out. The enlightenment era changed that, and people were coming up with new scientific and mathematical theories, political dynamics, and religious views. The Catholic Church took the biggest hit during all this. Priests and popes came into severe and public criticism.

Historians have long enjoyed the relationship between religion and medicine in the enlightenment era, more specifically the Christian religion. The gospel is filled with many accounts of miraculous healings and truly shows the power of god's strength. There was a large clash between folk healers and believers of Christianity. Many of these people were set up on witch-hunts and killed. Overall, the book discusses the importance of religion, reason and medicine. It was the enlightenment philosophers and thinks that questioned how we brought people back from a sickness and found that religion was a big part of that. We could not solve the miraculous cures we read in the bible with actual scientific and medical reasoning. These questioned materialism in many ways. The text soon changes into the evolution of the enlightenment and how medicine, which was driven by religion, forced people to think differently. The idea that a midwives and magical healers were what should be used to heal the sick and assist births was completely abandoned. People tried to run this people out of business so that men were the ones who tool the reigns, even though back then it was seen as weird to have a man assist in the birth of a child. The experience and knowledge of the men largely outweighed the indecency of a woman giving birth. The written source was a great source of information and was, for the most part, easy to understand and read. I found it interesting that it took people so long to figure out that magical healers actually possessed no magic, and therefore no healing ability.

http://search.proquest.com/docview/861353789/12F241A7CB8E53CE4A/4?accountid=2578

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Politics and Religion - Daily Life in 1700's

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This website is useful when researching daily life in the Enlightenment. It gives information concerning the development of feminist thinking and the things that they did daily in correspondence with the way of thinking. It also gives information on the French Revolution. http://www.s tockton.edu/~fergusoc/romantic/romantic.htm Religion vs.

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Cooking During the 1700’s
Ingredients:
-fruits were scarce and mostly for the rich
-vegetables were used but not as much as meat and potatoes
-both meat and potatoes were part of every meal for both rich and poor
-desserts included chocolate
-gruel (oatmeal with butter) was common to help with cold
Society and dinner table:
-Rich women spend over an hour getting ready for dinner
-dressing for dinner was important because you didn’t women and men searched for companions and to court
-every meal consisted of 2 courses and a dessert
Dining Customs:
-Servants were responsible for wine cellar, all the silver and plates, serving the meal
-Footmen were responsible for ordering all provisions, and head cook
-One rule was that if a man comes to your house for dinner it is your responsibility for their happiness.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The whole art and mystery of cooking: What cookbooks taught readers in the eighteenth century, written by Sandra Sherman, is a book that is ab out pretty much what the title says. She writes extensively about home cooking and cookbooks in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Before this period there were almost no mass produced amounts of step by step instructional cookbooks available for the general public to use at home and the field was dominated my professional chefs. By the time the late seventeenth century rolled around some of these convenient books became accessible and made it much easier for people to have a very large variety of well cooked meals even if their family did not have an extensive history of passing recipes down from generation to generation. The books were also very unique for the time because o

f their ability to instruct anyone who wanted to make a meal, regardless of their education, where they lived, or their profession, in an easy to fallow way (assuming they could read). The idea of a book showing people how to cook specialized cuisine was a more revolutionary idea then many people may think. The social norm of the time was to have a professional who had worked many years in the field and an apprentice who would learn along side until deemed more than competent. This newfangled cookbook changed all of that, in terms of cooking at least. This 180° turn put a "silent teacher" in place of the professional-apprentice relationship. The argument against this change was that it lacked real and "dynamic" instruction, and impeded the pupil's ability to develop his skills properly. Needless to say, it is thought that many chefs were against the idea at first and took a very long while for them to to warm up to the very new idea, hence the examination of the years between the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Over all, this excerpt of the book felt like a very complete and well thought out examination of the surprisingly interesting topic of the then modern personal use gourmet cookbook and I may even read the whole book.

Food in the enlightenment period was very different then we know today. Fruits for instance, was very sparse for the conman man and only very rich and powerful people had regular access to them. Vegetables were a very secondary part of meals and were never really as popular as meat or potato. Meat was apart of almost every meal for rich as well as poor. Desserts such as c hocolate were considered a novelty during the 1700s in England. Gruel was a common eighteenth-century British dish that was composed of boiled oatmeal...with a little butter. This dish was popular (especially as an evening meal) because it helped compensate for the lack of central heating in cold houses.

http://www.umich.edu/~ece/student_projects/food/foods.htm

Places in society, and at the dinner table

Upper-class women could spend over an hour dressing for dinner because it was customary for women to change their entire outfit for the evening meal. Dressing for dinner was important because young men and women looking for a companion used dinner parties as a way to meet and court potential mates. Every meal consisted of two courses and a dessert. However, a course in eighteenth-century upper-class society consisted of between five and twenty-five dishes. it can be seen that the cultural customs of dining required considerable effort. These customs established upper-class standards which set the upper class apart from the lower class.

In the 18th century, the pleasures of the table reached new gastronomic heights with the discovery of different and exotic foods and spices, and the creation of new recipes. In Europe, new porcelain factories competed with silver and goldsmiths to supply large and elaborate dinner and dessert services to the courts of Europe. Louis XIV's Court at Versailles established the formal customs of dining throughout 18th century Europe via le service à la française (the French method of serving), which became universally accepted as the only civilized fashion of dining. servants crucial for the success of a grand dinner were the butler, responsible for the wine cellar, all the silver and plates, serving the meal and supervising the conduct and efficiency of the footmen; the clerk of the kitchen, responsible for ordering all the provisions; and the head cook. The rules and customs associated with dining have changed over the years, but Anthelme Brillat Savarin's maxims for dining published in the early 19th century still hold true: "When you invite a man to dinner, never forget, that during the short time he is under your roof his happiness is in your hands."
http://www.umich.edu/~ece/student_projects/food/rules.htm
Some more links about Cooking:
http://www.foodtimeline.org/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_modern_European_cuisine
http://www.atasteofhistory.com/

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The whole art and mystery of cooking: What cookbooks taught readers in the eighteenth century, written by Sandra Sherman, is a book that is ab out pretty much what the title says. She writes extensively about home cooking and cookbooks in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.