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Description: A strategy teachers use as they verbalize aloud while reading a selection orally. Their verbalizations include describing things they're doing as they read to monitor their comprehension. The purpose of the think-aloud strategy is to model for students how skilled readers construct meaning from a text.
Advantages:

Improves students’ comprehension

It teaches students to re-read a sentence, read ahead to clarify, and/or look for context clues to make sense of what they read

It slows down the reading process and allows students to monitor their understanding of a text

Disadvantages:

Some students may not understand/follow along

The pace the teacher is going needs to just right or some students could get lost

ELLs:

Have students do think-alouds in large or small groups; teacher and other students monitor and help

Ask students do think-alouds individually, and then compare with others

Complete, or have students complete, think-alouds orally

***sources: “Think-Alouds | Classroom Strategy.” Reading Rockets, 12 Jan. 2018, www.readingrockets.org/strategies/think_alouds.
EXAMPLE

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Think Alouds: Modeling Ways to Think About Text (Virtual Tour)

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Description: Elkonin boxes build phonological awareness skills by segmenting words into individual sounds, or phonemes. The teacher shows an object or a picture of an object and draws a row of boxes, with one box for each sound in the name of the object. Then the teacher or child moves a marker into each box as the sound is pronounced.
Advantages:

In some cases different colored tokens may be used for consonants and vowels or just for each phoneme in the word

They teach students how to count the number of phonemes in the word (not always the number of letters)

They help students better understand the alphabetic principle in decoding and spelling.

Disadvantages:

Students may get confused when the number of phonemes in the word is not the same as the number of letters

A child may have difficulty sounding out/pronouncing words

ELLs:

use this strategy to meet each student's individualized needs (three boxes, four boxes, easier words, etc.)

***sources: “Elkonin Boxes | Classroom Strategy.” Reading Rockets, 12 Jan. 2018, www.readingrockets.org/strategies/—— Gunning, Thomas G. Creating Literacy Instruction: for All Students. Pearson, 2016.

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Description: A strategy used to help students understand and write a persuasive essay. O (opinion), R (reason), E (example), O (opinion),
Advantages:

Organized way to write/students can understand the structure

This strategy is something the kids can relate to and makes it fun

Provides the students with a way to transfer their thoughts on paper

Disadvantages:

Students just may not get the concept or structure

ELLs:

Put together a packet that is a step by step process so they can take their writing step by step

***sources: “Graphic Organizers for Opinion Writing.” Scholastic, www.scholastic.com/teachers/blog-posts/genia-connell/graphic-organizers-opinion-writing/.

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Description: Think-pair-share (TPS) is a collaborative learning strategy where students work together to solve a problem or answer a question about an assigned reading. First the students think on their own. Then, they pair up with a partner. Finally they share their thoughts with the partner they paired up with.
Advantage:

Students think individually before pairing up

Builds oral communication skills

It helps focus attention and engage students in comprehending the reading material

Disadvantage:

One student may be doing all of the talking

Some pairings may not be a good mix

Teacher could give too much or not enough time for sharing

ELLs:

Be sensitive to learners' needs when creating pairs

Allow students to choose who will share with the whole group

***sources: “Think-Pair-Share | Classroom Strategy.” Reading Rockets, 30 Oct. 2017, www.readingrockets.org/strategies/think-pair-share.

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Description: A child centered discussion about a certain story read that allows children to explore the big ideas, deepen their comprehension, and reflect on their feelings.
Advantages:

Child centered

students gain a deeper understanding as they discuss their feelings and thoughts

Whole group (feeling of community)

Disadvantages:

Some students may not participate in the conversation

Some students may not understand or feel comfortable enough with the story enough to join in

ELLs:

Teacher monitors conversation very closely and explains things as needed in different terms

***sources:  Gunning, Thomas G. Creating Literacy Instruction: for All Students. Pearson, 2016.

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Grand Conversation - Kelly Jones 4th Grade East Side Elementary

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Grand Conversation | Kelly Jones, Ed.S A whole class conversation after completing a read aloud with the teacher. http://youtu.be/7mIme1bl0Fk

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Description: RAFT is a writing strategy that stands for Role, Audience, Format, and Topic. This strategy helps students understand their roles as writers, the audience they will address, the varied formats for writing, and the topic they'll be writing about.
Advantages:

Teacher encourage students to be creative in their writing

Students get to practice writing for a different audience

Can be used for many subjects/content areas

Disadvantages:

Students aren’t able to explore other/possible perspectives

ELLs:

The student can explain each concept (role, audience, format, and topic) orally so you can check their understanding

Use role playing as a method for explaining the different aspects of RAFT writing

Students may decide on their own topic or the teacher may provide that element in advance

***sources: “RAFT | Classroo m Strategy.” Reading Rockets, 12 Jan. 2018, www.readingrockets.org/strategies/raft.

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Description: A strategy that uses a grid to help kids explore how sets of things are related to one another. By completing and analyzing the grid, students are able to see connections, make predictions and master important concepts.
Advantages:

enhances comprehension and vocabulary skills

illustrates how words are both similar and different

activates students' prior knowledge

Disadvantages:

Students may not know the vocabulary

Limited on focus

Students probably dont understand the connotative or figurative meaning of a word

ELLs:

Use concrete words and features

Begin with items that are fairly dissimilar and move toward using items where the differences are more subtle

Give follow up assignments

***sources: “Semantic Feature Analysis | Classroom Strategy.” Reading Rockets, 12 Jan. 2018, www.readingrockets.org/strategies/semantic_feature_analysis.

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Compare and Contrast: Promoting Conceptual Thinking in First Grade (Virtual Tour)

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Description: A strategy to help develop reading fluency. Each student in the class gets assigned a certain character role or some type of role in the readers theatre (character, prop person, etc.). The class as a whole practices over and over, each student orally reading their part in the script.
Advantages:

Reading fluency is improving

Helps students to practice reading with expression

Helps build reading confidence

Disadvantages:

Some students may not take their part seriously or may not want to participate at all

Could take too long (teacher would have to set aside a couple weeks to practice, get props, and perform)

Students might not be happy about the part they get

ELLs:

Provide script in both English and their native language

Use easier scripts with fewer words

When assigning roles, be sensitive to students' individual needs. Assign roles accordingly; provide extra, individual practice if needed.

***sources: “Reader's Theater | Classroom Strategy.” Reading Rockets, 20 Dec. 2017, www.readingrockets.org/strategies/readers_theater.

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Description: A mini lesson can also be called a short lesson. It is a a short, focused lesson and something that will later be taught in a larger lesson. Mini lessons can be over any topic, but usually happen before a writing or reading workshop.
Advantages:

Explicit/direct instruction

One objective is taught

Scaffolding

Disadvantages:

Direct instruction can sometimes hinder the creativity of children

The lesson could be so quick/brief students do not understand it

ELLs:

Use pictures or manipulatives

Direct/explicit instruction

***sources: “Instruction: Mini-Lesson.” Learn, Children’s Literacy Initiative , learn.cli.org/best-practices/reading-workshop/instruction/mini-lesson.

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Description: A reading comprehension strategy where certain words in a passage or any text are left out and have to be filled in.
Advantages:

Great for comprehension as the students think about what would fit in the blank

Can activate scheme (background knowledge)

Requires critical thinking skills

Disadvantages:

Students may not understand of the context of the passage to text to fill in the blank

Students may not have that background knowledge of the certain passage

ELLs:

Orally read the passage with the blanks to the child

***sources: Gunning, Thomas G. Creating Literacy Instruction: for All Students. Pearson, 2016.

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Description: This is an interactive way of reading as the teacher stands/sits in front of the class with a book (usually a “big” book). The class, or in small groups, listens/reads along with the teacher. The teacher models fluency and points as he or she reads so the students can follow.
Advantages:

Teacher models how the book should be read

It can be done as a whole class, or in small groups

Helps those struggling readers

Disadvantages:

Some students may not focus or pay attention

Some students may get frustrated if it is being read to fast and they can not keep up

**sources: Literacy  in the Early Grades Gail E. Tompkins (EL316 Textbook)
Example:

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Shared reading is an interactive read aloud where the students join in or share the reading of a book while guided by a teacher. The shared reading model often uses oversized books (referred to as big books) with enlarged print and illustrations.

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Description: Teachers choose a book to read aloud to their class. They activate prior knowledge and then dive into the book, engaging the children and asking them questions as they go. There is interaction between the students and the teacher. The teachers are scaffolding the children’s understanding of the book being read.
Advantages:

Children listen and also participate by answering questions

Enhances literacy development

Children can learn new vocab

Teachers have an objective for reading the book (vocabulary, context clues, compound words, etc.)

Disadvantages:

Students may not focus

Students may not listen

Some students may struggle with the objective (whatever the focus of the lesson is for the book)

**sources: Literacy  in the Early Grades Gail E. Tompkins (EL316 Textbook)

Example:

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Print out the samples below and try them out in your own classroom.
Planning Tools
Depending on your classroom need on any given day, you may choose to access an interactive read-aloud lesson in one of two primary ways: by standard or by title.

Lesson Matrix: When you have a particular standard that must be addressed for your curriculum or because children are developmentally ready for it, locate the standard on the following Lesson Matrix chart. Next to the standard you'll see the title of the mentor text that the lesson in this guide is based on as well as suggested Booklinks for extending learning with the same standard.

Title List: When you have a particular book that fits into your ongoing classroom activities, into your children's interests, or even into your mood on a given day, take a look at the Title List in the Teacher's Guide. Here, the mentor texts on which the interactive read-aloud lessons are based are listed alphabetically by title for ease of location. Find your book to see the standards and lessons it matches.
Lessons
A concise Lesson Plan models an interactive read aloud and then offers an end of story reflection and strategies for extending and assessing the learning.
Shared Reading Overhead Masters
The shared reading text in each lesson oftentimes introduces another genre (nonfiction, poetry) for strategy practice. It provides an opportunity for you and the children to read aloud together, building oral fluency while using strategies with a variety of texts. This full-size page may be made into an overhead transparency for group sharing and copied for children's literacy notebooks.
Reader's Theater Scripts
Each lesson includes a Readers Theater script that provides an opportunity to develop oral fluency. The script may recap or use the same language structure as the mentor test, introduce a new genre (e.g. nonfiction), or extend the story context. Readers Theater fluency practice focuses on reading expressively, matching the reading to the purpose and type of text, and should be joyous and engaging. Students should revel in the opportunity to show off their reading in a lively way.

The Interactive Read-Alouds lessons are grouped into six standards-based strands: comprehension, story elements, vocabulary/literary language, literary elements and devices, genre, and writing traits. Each of these strands was selected with great care after an extensive review of standards across the country to determine which standards show up as common threads across multiple states.

Comprehension. This strand-from utilizing prior knowledge and asking questions to summarizing and distinguishing real from make-believe-focuses on strategies that help learners negotiate the meaning of texts. Within this strand, you will find familiar terms such as main idea, cause and effect, analyze, and evaluate that commonly appear in lists of standards for comprehension.

Story Elements. The story elements strand includes identifying events in a plot sequence, discerning author's purpose, tracking character development, developing a statement of theme for a text, and so on. There is also support for examining structural elements such as climax, setting, problem/solution, and the role of the narrator.

Vocabulary/Literary Language. Standards in this strand encourage learners to observe the power of precise vocabulary; to identify and appreciate rhythm, rhyme, onomatopoeia, alliteration and literary language; and to discern the meanings of unfamiliar words through context clues. Transition words and words with multiple meanings are also highlighted in this strand.

Literary Elements and Devices. Literary elements and devices, such as point of view, foreshadowing, repetition, and exaggeration, get at the heart of the way an author structures a text to effectively tell a story. Standards in this strand involve readers in more complex story structures and more sophisticated language devices such as simile/ metaphor, and personification.

Genre. Genre categories-fiction, nonfiction, fairy tale, drama, and so on-each have a particular kind of content or structure. Exploring the standards in this strand, learners begin to understand the distinguishing features of various genres and learn what to expect from each.

Writing Traits. Engaging, well-written texts provide outstanding models for beginning writers. Standards in this strand explore ideas, organization, voice, conventions and so on, so learners can begin to emulate that writer's work and incorporate those traits into their own writing.

To review the Lesson Matrix that organizes the Mentor Texts and alternative Booklinks by strategy strand review the pdf files below:

(Excerpted from Interactive Read-Alouds Teacher's Guide)
The interactive read-aloud lessons in this collection bring together children and classic picture books to promote accelerated learning on multiple fronts. Several principles or beliefs about read-aloud practice guided their development.

Powerful Mentor Texts-Exemplary Children's Classics and Strong Nonfiction Texts-Are the Centerpiece of any Read-aloud.

Children deserve opportunities to interact with the richest language, most beautiful art and enticing storylines that we can offer. In selecting mentor texts, books that could serve as exemplary models for readers and writers, we turned to the gorgeous art and enticing storylines of Caldecott Medal winners as well as treasured favorites. These books offer characters and plots that enthrall our learners, texts that you want to revisit over and over again, and topics that will expand children's knowledge of the world.

Mentor Texts
The concept of a mentor text is important. A mentor is one who models, coaches, and lifts another to higher levels. With that in mind, a mentor text must be chosen carefully to ensure that it can establish a model of quality writing that is worthy of guiding our learners. With the help of a beautifully crafted mentor text, we can wonder together about the imagery, the possible themes, and the elements that have come together to create the literary magic that resides in these much-loved books. With a mentor text in hand, we can gently open children's eyes to the inner workings of the selection, savor its beauty, and create powerful links to the standards we want our children to understand.

The mentor texts profiled in these lessons were chosen for their ability to:

boost language development

promote active listening

encourage deeper thinking

provide outstanding models of fluency

feature beautiful art

support learning more about the world around us

serve as models of great writing, and

are time tested and easily available "classics"

Booklinks
The lessons in this book, all based on powerful mentor texts, are springboards to an in-depth look at a standard, a literary element, or a comprehension strategy in action. We know that true learning requires a sustained focus. We need to give children opportunities to apply new learning in many contexts over time if we want them to truly own the target understanding. Each of these lessons then is a beginning, a chance to open the window of possibility and help children begin a journey of deep learning.

After the initial lesson with the mentor text, turn to the Booklinks. You will notice that these additional Caldecott winners and familiar favorites exemplify the target standard, literary element, or comprehension strategy. They were chosen because they are particularly well matched to the target standard. The Lesson Matrix will guide you through the Booklinks as you continue to focus on the target learning begun in the mentor text.

What is vital is to extend the focus on a standard across many texts and multiple subject areas so the children can synthesize and apply their learning. Just because there is one mentor text doesn't mean you stop working on the standard or strategy. Booklinks are important extensions to long term understanding. Note that many of the Booklink titles appear as mentor texts for multiple standards. This is deliberate. Children need to understand the power of rereading with new purposes, to revisit with new eyes and discover the wealth of learning that resides in each of these wonderful books. Read it again and again and again!

Nonfiction
The lessons in Interactive Read-Aloud s were built around mentor texts that are the easiest for you to find in schools, public libraries, and book stores. These books are time-tested favorites and award winners that are least likely to go out of print. There is, however, a sad feature to the convenience of selecting books that are readily available. Caldecott books and treasured favorites with easy availability are primarily fiction. While fiction is, of course, wonderful... it isn't enough. Our learners deserve to have the same in-depth experience and knowledge of nonfiction titles that they have with fiction. They deserve to have rich interactions with nonfiction read-alouds that not only capture kid-delightful, eye-popping information but also sing with exquisite language. They deserve to see that nonfiction texts can capture their interest, pique a sense of wonder, and bring the world alive with striking visuals and colorful language.

Because there is not an established body of familiar nonfiction books readily available in all libraries, broadening your children's experience with the target standards and comprehension strategies of these lessons will depend on you. I highly encourage you to go to your library and gather books by Seymour Simon, Gail Gibbons, Stephen Kramer, Michael Tunnell, and the many other amazing writers of nonfiction that are guaranteed to delight and intrigue your children. Then, using these books as additional Booklinks, model for your students how you can apply comprehension strategies and standards, such as main idea or word choice, as a reader of these delightful selections. This will help your students in a myriad of ways. They will be learning about the world. They will again realize that these standards and strategies will help them in any book they read. They will feel empowered because they will have meaning-seeking tools that they have practiced so well, they can apply them in all the texts they encounter.

I am an enthusiastic promoter of the power of nonfiction read-alouds and have developed several resources to that end, including Make It Real: Strategies for Success with Informational Texts (Heinemann, 2002); Exploring Informational Texts (Heinemann 2003); and Navigating Informational Texts video collection (Heinemann, 2004). I believe that learners of all ages need to understand the structure and features of informational text, learn the wonder and excitement of learning something fascinating about our world, and develop a sense of passion for nonfiction that will show in their eyes and voices when you bring out a new nonfiction book to share. I encourage and challenge you to gather wonderful magazines, books, and resources that allow you to extend your children's focus on a strategy into nonfiction. (See the Printable Resources CD-ROM for a lesson template to help you structure your own interactive read-aloud lesson using nonfiction selections.)

An Interactive Read-aloud with a Clear Instructional Focus Lifts Student Achievement.

Standards that are commonly held across many states are the driving force throughout these lessons. Each lesson, with its accompanying mentor text and Booklinks, is designed to help children see a standard in action within the supportive and safe context of a readaloud. Teacher think-aloud language and questions to stimulate quality partner conversations are all focused on the target standard so that children can listen to the teacher applying the standard, then share their thinking with a partner. This process is repeated with each mentor text as teacher modeling and guided practice are central support systems across the many books in which children apply the target standard.

You'll notice that in the lessons I use the language of the standards when talking to the children. I believe that all learners, from kindergarten on, can and should use the "real" language that describes our thinking about comprehension, literary elements and genre- point of view, characterization, alliteration, voice -call it like it is! Children then become comfortable using that language, as they converse with Thinking Partners. This explicit language enables children to label the cognitive processes they are using and to accurately categorize the story elements that build the rich infrastructure that holds a good story together.

Bull's-eye Concept
Each of the Interactive Read-Alouds lessons represents a Bull's-eye session and its extensions. During a Bull's-eye instructional session, I hone in on one particular strategy or idea in a piece of text. For this one lesson, instruction focuses on a single standard. This is not to say that this is the only direction a reading might take; a text might be the focal point for both point. of view and transition words, for example. Every book is rich with possibilities for instruction. The trick is to target one standard per lesson so it becomes transparent for the children.

To address additional standards, read the book again on another day and focus on a new teaching point. Children often make really charming comments and observations during a read-aloud-fine for a listen-for-pleasure experience-but the Think-Aloud and Turn & Talk for an interactive read-aloud lesson should be directed to one specific standard to help the learners keep track of the target learning.

Well-structured Interactive Read-aloud Lessons Create Environments in Which Children Are Strong Participants in their Own Learning.

Pearson and Gallagher (1983) coined the phrase "gradual release of responsibility" to describe the idea that instruction should begin with explicit modeling by the teacher followed with guided practice and then move on to activities that position students to become independent learners. The interactive read-aloud lessons you find here are built on just such a model. During "Interactive Read-Aloud," students see an expert at work.

The teacher models think-alouds to provide children with a window into a reading strategy and show how an accomplished thinker uses that strategy. Next, the teacher provides scaffolds for students as they stretch their new learning into another context. Carefully constructed learning activities in "Share the Reading" provide guided practice with the teacher actively supporting the learning. During the "Readers Theater" experience, children get further guided practice as they work with peers. Finally children attempt the strategy in an independent way, depending on themselves in "Extend the Learning."

Like the gradual release model that underpins Interactive Read-Alouds lesson design, the sample test items in each lesson's "Infusion of Formal Language" feature provide a gentle way to accustom children to the language of tests and, ultimately, to strengthen learners' responsibility for their own performance. The test questions that characterize standardized tests, end of unit tests, and so on are often written in a formal register that is very different from that of oral speech, and certainly different from most of the literature we read to our students (Hoyt, 2006). Embedding test-style language into your daily interactions with students and weaving this formal register into your conversations about books will help learners to become comfortable with these often unfamiliar structures. The "Infusion of Formal Language" section in each lesson will give you sample language to offer your students. The idea is to get them used to hearing these language structures, to think about what the question is really asking of them... and then to use these forms to wonder together about the mentor text. The objective isn't necessarily to answer the question correctly. It is to develop a sense of confidence with formal test style language and begin to think of it as "just another way we talk about our books."

The samples provided are springboards for you. You may want to post a list of common test-style stems and then deliberately use them as you talk with students about the books and stories you share.

Interactive Read-Alouds Open Up Opportunities to Develop Oral Language.

An analysis of traditional interactions between students and teachers reveals that teachers do the majority of the talking while children sit passively. Those students who do talk are often the predictable few who raise their hands quickly and love to be heard. Just as predictably, teachers know which students have learned to keep their hands down with their eyes averted in hopes that they will not be called upon. This interaction results in a very small number of learners who share their thoughts. Meanwhile, the struggling learners quickly figure out that if they are quiet long enough, a more verbal peer will speak and let them off the hook. Interactive read-aloud lessons recast this unproductive interaction and raise the level of responsibility for all learners.

Turn & Talk (Float the learning on a sea of talk)
"Turn & Talk," an integral part of every Interactive Read-Alouds lesson, takes the traditional whole-class literacy experience and turns that experience into interactive thinking. Into every lesson I build regular, prompted turn-and-talk moments during which children and their Thinking Partners engage in sharing ideas about the text and the target standard. To set this up, I model my thinking, ask a question or prompt a discussion, and then direct students to talk to their Thinking Partners. Students are not allowed to raise their hands!

The expectation is for quality conversation on the topic in a short burst of 20-30 seconds so students stay focused and don't have enough time to stray off topic. (Jensen, 2000) Careful timing of Turn & Talk moments-approximately once in every five minutes of read-aloud time-ensures full engagement for all students, that the learning is full of meaningful talk, and that the students have immediate opportunities use the content vocabulary of the story.

Thinking Partners
I am often asked about how Thinking Partners are chosen. I find that with some groups of learners I can ask them to find a Thinking Partner on their way to our story time area and it works beautifully. They sit with their partner and expect to have responsible conversations together. With some classes, I need to provide extra behavioral support by pre-selecting Thinking Partners for students. In this case, I would want to ensure that I do not match my highest and lowest achieving students as the higher achiever may have a tendency to take over and do all of the thinking. This is a good time to be sensitive to the needs of ELL learners who may need first language support and consider matching them with another child who speaks their native language.

In all cases, it is important to model Thinking Partner conversations. It is important that children understand that I place high value on quality talk and taking responsibility for thinking together. To help them understand, I often ask another teacher or a student in class to be my Thinking Partner. We sit facing each other while the students fishbowl around us to listen to our conversation and notice the way we look directly at our partners, practice active listening, and are careful to take turns talking. As they catch on, then

I bring two students to the center of the fishbowl to model quality Thinking Partner interactions. Once the Turn & Talk reflection is complete, you return to the read-aloud or-occasionally-celebrate children's thinking by asking partners to share their discoveries and wonderings out loud so others can hear the collaborative reflections.

Share the Reading
One of the best ways to immerse children in rich language and extended learning is through shared reading. While shared reading was traditionally accomplished with big books, in these lessons overhead transparencies present text in a way that is highly visible to all. During "Share the Reading," a transparency is placed on the overhead using the master provided in the lesson. The teacher reads the selection aloud and invites children to again think together about the target standard. In this new context, the children will need to stretch their understanding of the standard to apply it in a different situation. This supports the transfer of the learning and increases the likelihood that students will take personal and independent control of the thinking that is targeted in the lesson.

Another added benefit is that we have now created a reading experience for the children. The shift from listening to the read-aloud to observing a text on the overhead increases time with text, provides additional exposure to print, and invites accelerated fluency development as the lesson encourages multiple readings of the selection for fluency and expression. You will find suggestions for modeling the reading, reading in unison, reading in teams that alternate lines of text and so on.

In some lessons, "Share the Reading" becomes an opportunity to model writing for the children. This is a wonderful chance for learners to see a proficient writer craft text while they watch the punctuation, spelling, grammar and word choice unfold on the overhead projector.

Readers Theater
The Readers Theater scripts that are provided with each lesson bring an exciting element to the read-aloud-expressive oral reading and drama! The Readers Theater scripts are each based on a retelling of the read-aloud selection or designed to offer a related experience with a different genre or topic. They are designed to give children an authentic purpose for oral reading and are specifically crafted to support the target standard. Best of all, they are terrific vehicles for joyful, expressive oral reading that will build fluency in a way that makes it clear to children that fluency isn't just about FAST. It is about interpreting a selection and matching your rate, your intonation, and your phrasing to match the meaning and the kind of text you are sharing.

The scripts are flexible enough for emergent and developing readers but include concepts and ideas that are engaging for all readers. The scripts afford children opportunities to read different types of text (including nonfiction and poetry) and to become more fluent readers. Be sure to notice the Tips for Reader Theater in each lesson as you will find ideas for differentiating interactions with the scripts so they are fun for all learners.

Unlike a typical play, Readers Theater doesn't require props, staging, costumes, or even memorizing lines. The point of Readers Theater is to make readers the stars! As they take "center stage," children interact with the text in a deeper way. While Readers Theater gives students opportunities for increasing fluency and vocabulary, improving their comprehension, and communicating in a meaningful way, it's also a lot of fun! Teamwork is enhanced, too. Students of different abilities have the chance to read together and work together to transform written words into spoken ones-fluent and flowing language that excites students as they become more proficient readers.

To view all of the Grade K-1 titles (Mentor Texts and Booklinks) organized by strand and standard click on Grades K-1 Lesson Matrix
To view all of the K-1 Mentor Texts and Booklinks in alphabetical order click on Grades K-1 Title List
In Grades K-1 there are 60+ interactive read-aloud lessons built around the following Mentor Texts.

The Art Lesson by Tomie de Paola

Blueberries for Sal by Robert McCloskey

The Bremen-Town Musicians by Ilse Plume

Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See? by Eric Carle

A Chair for My Mother by Vera B. Williams

Chicken Little by Steven Kellogg

Click, Clack, Moo: Cows that Type by Doreen Cronin

Diary of a Worm by Doreen Cronin

Don't Let the Pigeon Drive the Bus by Mo Willems

Farmer Duck by Martin Waddell

Frederick by Leo Lionni

Frog and Toad Are Friends, "The Lost Button" by Arnold Lobel

Frog and Toad Are Friends, "The Swim" by Arnold Lobel

Galimoto by Karen Lynn Williams

The Ghost-Eye Thee by Bill Martin Jr. and John Archambault

Goldilocks and the Three Bears by James Marshall

Good Dog, Carl by Alexandra Day

Goodnight Moon by Margaret Wise Brown

The Grouchy Ladybug by Eric Carle

Hattie and the Fox by Mem Fox

Have You Seen My Duckling? by Nancy Tafuri

If You Give a Mouse a Cookie by Laura Romanoff

Inch by Inch by Leo Lionni

Joseph Had a Little Overcoat by Simms Taback

King Bidgood's in the Bathtub by Audrey Wood

Kitten's First Full Moon by Kevin Henkes

Mike Mulligan and His Steam Shovel by Virginia Lee Burton

Miss Nelson is Missing by Harry Allard

No David! by David Shannon

Noisy Nora by Rosemary Wells

Olivia by Ian Falconer

Owen by Kevin Henkes

Owl Moon by Jane Yolen

A Pocket for Corduroy by Don Freeman

Q is for Duck by Mary Elting and Michael Folsom

Quick as a Cricket by Audrey Wood

Rosie's Walk by Pat Hutchins

Rotten Ralph by Jack Gantos

Rumpelstiltskin by Paul O. Zelinsky

The Snowy Day by Ezra Jack Keats

Stellaluna by Janell Cannon

Strega Nona by Tomie dePaola

Ten, Nine, Eight by Molly Bank

The Art Lesson by Tommie dePaola

The Ghost-Eye Tree by Bill Martin and John Archambault

Tomorrow's Alphabet by George Shannon

Tops & Bottoms by Janet Stevens

The Very Hungry Caterpillar by Eric Carle

We're Going On a Bear Hunt by Michael Rosen

The Wednesday Surprise by Eve Bunting

When Sophie Gets Angry-Really, Really Angry by Molly Bang

Where the Wild Things Are by Maurice Sendak

Where's Spot? by Eric Hill

Wilfred Gordon McDonald Partridge by Mem Fox

To view all of the Grade 2-3 titles (Mentor Texts and Booklinks) organized by strand and standard click on Grades 2-3 Lesson Matrix
To view all of the Grade 2-3 Mentor Texts and Booklinks in alphabetical order click on Grades 2-3 Title List
In Grades 2-3 there are 60+ interactive read-aloud lessons built around the following Mentor Texts.

The Art Lesson by Tommie dePaola

Ashanti to Zulu: African Traditions by Margaret Musgrove

The Biggest Bear by Lynd Ward

Casey at the Bat by Ernest Thayer

Cheyenne Again by Eve Bunting

A Chocolate Moose for Dinner by Fred Gwynne

Cloudy With a Chance of Meatballs by Judy Barrett

Crow Boy by Taro Yashima

The Dinosaurs of Waterhouse Hawkins by Barbara Kerley

Dogteam by Gary Paulson

Dr. De Soto by William Steig

Fredrick by Leo Lioni

The Frog Prince Continued by Jon Scieszka

The Ghost-Eye Tree by Bill Martin and John Archambault

Goggles! by Ezra Jack Keats

Goldilocks and the Three Bears by James Marshall

Grandfather's Journey by Allen Say

Hansel and Gretel by Rika Lesser

Heartland by Diane Siebert

The Important Book by Margaret Wise Brown

It Could Always Be Worse by Margot Zemach

Jumanjii by Chris Van Allsburg

Kitten's First Full Moon by Kevin Henkes

Little Bear's Visit by Else H. Minarik

Little Red Riding Hood by Trina Schart Hyman

Lon Po Po: A Red-Riding Hood Story from China by Ed Young

Make Way for Ducklings by Robert McCloskey

The Man Who Walked Between the Towers by Mordicai Gerstein

Martin's Big Words: the Life of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. by Doreen Rapport

Mirandy and Brother Wind by Patricia C. McKissack

Mufaro's Beautiful Daughters: An African Tale by John Steptoe

Officer Buckle and Gloria by Peggy Rathmann

Owen by Kevin Henkes

Owl Moon by Jane Yolen

Puss in Boots by Malcolm Arthur

The Relatives Came by Cynthia Rylant

Rumpelstiltskin by Paul O. Zelinsky

Seven Blind Mice by Ed Young

Shrek! by William Steig

Sleeping Ugly by Jand Yolen

Snow by Uri Shulevitz

Snowflake Bentley by Jacqueline Briggs Martin

Some Smug Slug by Pamela Duncan Edwards

Stellaluna by Janell Cannon

The Stray Dog by Marc Simont

Strega Nona by Tomie dePaola

Sylvester and the Magic Pebble by William Steig

Tomorrow's Alphabet by George Shannon

The True Story of the Three Little Pigs! by Jon Scieszka

Tuesday by David Wiesner

The Ugly Duckling by Jerry Pinkney

What Do You Do with a Tail Like This? by Steve Jenkins and Robin Page

When I Was Young in the Mountains by Cynthia Rylant

When Sophie Gets Angry-Really, Really Angry by Molly Bang

Where the Wild Things Are by Maurice Sendak

Yo! Yes? by Richard Jackson

To view all of the Grade 4-5 titles (Mentor Texts and Booklinks) organized by strand and standard click on Grades 4-5 Lesson Matrix
To view all of the 4-5 Mentor Texts and Booklinks in alphabetical order click on Grades 4-5 Title List

In Grades 4-5 there are 60+ interactive read-aloud lessons built around the following Mentor Texts.

Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day by Judith Viorst

All the Places to Love by Patricia MacLachlan

Annie and the Old One by Miska Miles

Barefoot by Pamela Duncan Edwards

Black and White by David Macaulay

The Butterfly by Patricia Polacco

Casey at the Bat by Ernest L. Thayer

Caves by Stephen P. Kramer

Cheyenne Again by Eve Bunting

Chicken Sunday by Patricia Polacco

Dakota Dugout by Ann Turner

Diary of a Worm by Doreen Cronin

Dogteam by Gary Paulsen

Dandelions by Eve Bunting

A Drop of Water by Walter Wick

The Frog Prince Continued by Jon Scieszka

The Gardener by Sarah Stewart

The Girl Who Loved Wild Horses by Paul Goble

Gleam and Glow by Eve Bunting

The Heart by Seymour Simon

Heartland by Diane Siebert

Home Run by Robert Burleigh

If I Were in Charge of the World by Judith Viorst

The Important Book by Margaret Wise Brown

Joyful Noise by Paul Fleischman

Jumanji by Chris Van Allsburg

Lincoln: A Photobiography by Russell Freedman

Martin's Big Words by Doreen Rapport

More Than Anything Else by Marie Bradby

Mufaro's Beautiful Daughters by John Steptoe

Nettie's Trip South by Ann Turner

The Mysteries of Harris Burdick by Chris Van Allsburg

Miss Alaineus by Debra Frasier

The Other Side by Jacqueline Woodson

Owl Moon by Jane Yolen

Pink and Say by Patricia Polacco

Punctuation Takes a Vacation by Robin Pulver

Piggy Pie! by Margie Palatini

Rumpelstiltskin by Paul O. Zelinsky

Sector 7 by David Wiesner

Smoky Night by Eve Bunting

Snowflake Bentley by Jacqueline Briggs Martin

So Far from the Sea by Eve Bunting

So You Want to Be President? by Judith St. George

Tar Beach by Faith Ringgold

Tough Cookie by David Wisniewski

The True Story of the Three Little Pigs by Jon Scieszka

Under the Quilt of Night by Deborah Hopkinson

Two Bad Ants by Chris Van Allsburg

The Ugly Duckling by Jerry Pinkney

When I Was Young in the Mountains by Cynthia Rylant

The Widow's Broom by Chris Van Allsburg

Wilma Unlimited by Kathleen Krull

The Wreck of the Zephyr by Chris Van Allsburg

The Yellow Star by Carmen Agra Deedy

The Z Was Zapped by Chris Van Allsburg

To view all of the Grade 6-7 titles (Mentor Texts and Booklinks) organized by strand and standard click on Grades 6-7 Lesson Matrix
To view all of the 6-7 Mentor Texts and Booklinks in alphabetical order click on Grades 6-7 Title List

In Grades 6-7 there are 60+ interactive read-aloud lessons built around the following Mentor Texts.

Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day by Judith Viorst

"All Summer in a Day" by Ray Bradbury

"The All-American Slurp" by Lensey Namioka

Almost to Freedom by Vaunda Micheaux Nelson

"America the Not-so-Beautiful" by Andy Rooney

American Plague, An: The True and Terrifying Story of the Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1793 by Jim Murphy

Angel for Solomon Singer, An by Cynthia Rylant

Animal Farm by George Orwell

Animals Nobody Loves by Seymour Simon

"Annabel Lee" by Edgar Allan Poe

Anne Frank: The Diary of a Young Girl by Anne Frank

Appalachia: The Voices of Sleeping Birds by Cynthia Rylant

Annie and the Old One by Miska Miles

"April Rain Song" by Langston Hughes

Avalanche by Stephen Kramer

Because of Winn-Dixie by Kate DiCamillo

Belinda and the Glass Slipper by Amy Young

Black and White by David Macaulay

Bad Boy: A Memoir by Walter Dean Meyers

Black Whiteness by Robert Burleigh

Boy Called Slow, A by Joseph Bruchac

Boy of the Painted Cave, The by Justin Denzel

Bud, Not Buddy by Christopher Paul Curtis

Bridge to Terabithia by Katherine Paterson

Call of the Wild, The by Jack London

Carver: A Life in Poems by Marilyn Nelson

Cay, The by Theodore Taylor

"Charles" by Shirley Jackson

Cheyenne Again by Eve Bunting

"Casey at the Bat" by Ernest L. Thayer

Children of Topaz, The: The Story of a Japanese-American Internment Camp by Michael O. Tunnell and George W. Chilcoat

City of Ember, The by Jeanne DuPrau

Come On, Rain! by Karen Hesse

Crash by Jerry Spinelli

Dogteam by Gary Paulsen

Devil's Arithmetic, The by Jane Yolen

Drop of Water, A by Walter Wick

Encounter by Jane Yolen

Even More Parts by Tedd Arnold

Facing the Lion: Growing Up Maasai on the African Savannah by Joseph Lemasolai Lekuton

"Ellis Island" by Joseph Bruchac

Faithful Elephants by Yukio Tsuchiya

Faithful Friend, The by Robert D. San Souci

Feathers and Fools by Mem Fox

Flying Solo by Ralph Fletcher

Firebird by Demi

"Fog" by Carl Sandburg

Frenchtown Summer by Robert Cormier

"From Mother to Son" by Langston Hughes

"The Fun They Had" by Isaac Asimov

"The Future Doesn't Belong to the Fainthearted" by Ronald Reagan

Frog Prince Continued, The by Jon Scieszka

Gardener, The by Sarah Stewart

"Gettysburg Address" by Abraham Lincoln

Giver, The by Lois Lowry

Gleam and Glow by Eve Bunting

Golem by David Wisniewski

Gold Cadillac, The by Mildred D. Taylor

Good Masters! Sweet Ladies! Voices from a Medieval Village by Laura Amy Schlitz

Grandfather's Journey by Allen Say

Great Kapok Tree, The by Lynne Cherry

Greatest, The: Mohammad Ali by Walter Dean Myers

Growing Up in Coal Country by Susan Campbell Bartoletti

Great Fire, The by Jim Murphy

Guts by Gary Paulsen

Harlem by Walter Dean Myers

Harris and Me by Gary Paulsen

Harry Potter series by J. K. Rowling

Hattie Big Sky by Kirby Larson

Hatchet by Gary Paulsen

Heart, The: Our Circulatory System by Seymour Simon

Henry's Freedom Box: A True Story from the Underground Railroad by Ellen Levine

Holes by Louis Sachar

Home Run by Robert Burleigh

Homeless Bird by Gloria Whelan

Hitler Youth: Growing Up in Hitler's Shadow by Susan Campbell Bartoletti

House of the Scorpion, The by Nancy Farmer

How Many Days to America? by Eve Bunting

I Have a Dream by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.

"I Have a Dream" by Martin Luther King, Jr.

"I, Too" by Langston Hughes

In Flanders Fields by Norman Jorgensen and Brian Harrison-Lever

"In Flanders Fields" by John McCrae

"In Response to Executive Order 9066: All Americans of Japanese Descent Must Report to Relocation Centers" by Dwight Okita

Inconvenient Truth, An: The Crisis of Global Warming (teen/YA edition) by Al Gore

Inkheart by Cornelia Funke

Invention of Hugo Cabret, The by Brian Selznick

Inaugural Speech (1961) by John F. Kennedy

"Jabberwocky" by Lewis Carroll

Jazz: An American Saga by James Lincoln Collier

Joey Pigza Loses Control by Jack Gantos

John, Paul, George, and Ben by Lane Smith

Joyful Noise: Poems for Two Voices by Paul Fleischman

Journey to Topaz: A Story of the American Evacuation by Yoshiko Uchida

Julie of the Wolves by Jean Craighead George

Kira-Kira by Cynthia Kadohata

"Lean on Me" by Bill Withers

Leon's Story by Leon Walter Tillage

Langston's Train Ride by Robert Burleigh

Lincoln: A Photobiography by Russell Freedman

Long Way from Chicago, A by Richard Peck

Lotus Seed, The by Sherry Garland

Lyddie by Katherine Paterson

Malcolm X: A Fire Burning Brightly by Walter Dean Meyers

Macaroni Boy by Katherine Ayres

Man Who Walked Between the Towers, The by Mordicai Gerstein

Maniac Magee by Jerry Spinelli

Martin's Big Words by Doreen Rapport

Mary Celeste, The: An Unsolved Mystery from History by Jane Yolen and Heidi Elisabet Yolen Stemple

Math Curse by Jon Scieszka

Martian Chronicles, The by Ray Bradbury

Midnight Ride of Paul Revere, The by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

Mirandy and Brother Wind by Patricia C. McKissack

Miss Alaineus by Debra Frasier

Mufaro's Beautiful Daughters by John Steptoe

"The Mouse's Tale" by Lewis Carroll

My Brother Sam Is Dead by James and Chris Collier

Mysteries of Harris Burdick, The by Chris Van Allsburg

Night by Elie Wiesel

"Nothing Gold Can Stay" by Robert Frost

Number the Stars by Lois Lowry

Nettie's Trip South by Ann Turner

Olive's Ocean by Kevin Henkes

"Oranges" by Gary Soto

Orphans of Normandy: A True Story of World War II Told Through Children by Nancy Amis

Out of the Dust by Karen Hesse

Owl Moon by Jane Yolen

Outsiders, The by S. E. Hinton

Passage to Freedom: The Sugihara Story by Ken Mochizuki

Patrol: An American Soldier in Vietnam by Walter Dean Myers

People Could Fly, The by Virginia Hamilton

Pictures of Hollis Woods by Patricia Reilly Giff

Place to Grow, A by Soyung Pak

Peace Crane by Sheila Hamanaka

Princess Bride, The by William Goldman

Punctuation Takes a Vacation by Robin Pulver

"The Railway Train" by Emily Dickinson

"The Raven" by Edgar Allan Poe

"The Ransom of Red Chief" by O. Henry

Red Flower Goes West by Ann Turner

"Rikki-Tikki-Tavi" by Rudyard Kipling

"The Road Less Traveled" by Robert Frost

Roll of Thunder, Hear My Cry by Mildred D. Taylor

Scholastic Dictionary of Idioms by Marvin Terban

River Ran Wild, A by Lynne Cherry

Seedfolks by Paul Fleischman

Shiloh by Phyllis Reynolds Naylor

Show Way by Jacqueline Woodson

Shrek! by William Steig

Silent Boy, The by Lois Lowry

Sign of the Beaver, The by Elizabeth George Speare

Single Shard, A by Linda Sue Park

Snowflake Bentley by Jacqueline Briggs Martin

Song of the Trees by Mildred D. Taylor

"The Star-Spangled Banner" by Francis Scott Key

Stone Fox by John Reynolds Gardiner

So Far from the Sea by Eve Bunting

"Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening" by Robert Frost

Storms by Seymour Simon

"Summer Grass" by Carl Sandburg

Table Where Rich People Sit, The by Byrd Baylor

Tar Beach by Faith Ringgold

Tale of Despereaux, The by Kate DiCamillo

Teammates by Peter Golenbock

Terrible Things by Eve Bunting

Thanksgiving Story, The by Alice Dalgliesh

Things Not Seen by Andrew Clements

Through My Eyes by Ruby Bridges

Thank You, Mr. Falker by Patricia Polacco

Tough Cookie by David Wisniewski

Tracking Trash: Flotsam, Jetsam, and the Science of Ocean Motion by Loree Griffin Burns

Train to Somewhere by Eve Bunting

True Story of the Three Little Pigs, The by Jon Scieszka

"Two Sunflowers Move in the Yellow Room" by William Blake

Turnabout by Margaret Peterson Haddix

Under the Quilt of Night by Deborah Hopkinson

Voice That Challenged a Nation, The: Marian Anderson and the Struggle for Equal Rights by Russell Freedman

Watsons Go to Birmingham - 1963, The by Christopher Paul Curtis

Wednesday Wars, The by Gary D. Schmidt

When I Was Young in the Mountains by Cynthia Rylant

Wall, The: Growing Up Behind the Iron Curtain by Peter Sís

When Marian Sang: The True Recital of Marian Anderson, the Voice of a Century by Pam Muñoz Ryan

Where the Red Fern Grows by Wilson Rawls

Whittington by Alan Armstrong

"Willow and Ginkgo" by Eve Merriam

Witness by Karen Hesse

Wilma Unlimited by Kathleen Krull

Wolves by Seymour Simon

Wonderful Wizard of Oz, The by L. Frank Baum

"A Word Is Dead" by Emily Dickinson

Wrinkle in Time, A by Madeleine L'Engle

Year Down Yonder, A by Richard Peck

Woodsong by Gary Paulsen

Z Was Zapped, The by Chris Van Allsburg

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Print out the samples below and try them out in your own classroom. Planning Tools Depending on your classroom need on any given day, you may choose to access an interactive read-aloud lesson in one of two primary ways: by standard or by title.

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Description: These are cards on which the illustrations and text from a picture book have been attached. The students are then able to arrange the cards in the order they go in.
Advantages:

Children can visualize the story and closely examine the illustrations

Can be used in a variety of ways (recognize the beginning, middle, and end of a story, compare different stories, identify sequences, etc.)

Very helpful to English language students (they can use them to preview the story and review the story)

Story boards can be drawn by the students, or already have the printed illustrations on them

Disadvantages:

Some kids may want to be more elaborate with it

Student may be discouraged if they can not draw

Students may not understand the point of a story board and will just draw random parts (rather than main points) from the story

**sources: Literacy  in the Early Grades Gail E. Tompkins (EL316 Textbook)
Example:

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Description: A  teacher directed spelling activity in which children arrange letter cards to spell words. Teachers choose a 5 to 8 letter word and prepare sets of letter cards. The children can then use the cards to practice spelling words and review spelling patterns and rules. They can then rearrange the cards they have to make smaller words inside the bigger word.
Advantages:

ELs collaborate with classmates

Hands-on activity

Promotes development of phonological awarenesses

Disadvantages:

Some students may not know word patterns

Some students may not be as familiar with the alphabet

Teacher may not choose a variety (little/big, easy/hard, etc.) of words for kids to work with

**sources: Literacy  in the Early Grades Gail E. Tompkins (EL316 Textbook)
Example:

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Description: This chart is used by teachers to allow kids to expand on their background knowledge, and introduce new information. In an organized manner. This is a scaffolding method. The K stands for “What I Know”, the W stands for “What I Wonder”, and the L stands for “What I Learned”.
Advantages:

Very helpful for English learners

Informs teachers on the students’ background knowledge

Can be used for any subject or topic

Can be used for individual students or for the class as a whole

Disadvantages:

Used often (overused)

Students may not have that prior knowledge to build off of

Example:

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Description: These are a way for children to examine text factors of stories they read. Children can write and/or draw their thoughts or feelings based off what they read in a reading log. These are meant for students to express how they feel and explore the story in a deeper way. Students can write or draw freely in the entry, or it can be teacher directed and there can be prompts or certain questions to answer. This can also be a way to make sure kids are reading. A reading log can track what kids read and how long they are reading for.
Advantages:

Allows the child to explore the story and express their reaction to it

Diagrams can be added

They can write any misunderstandings they have from the story (teacher can check it to give feedback)

Disadvantages:

Some students may not find it productive

Students/parents may look at it as a “chore”

**sources: Literacy  in the Early Grades Gail E. Tompkins (EL316 Textbook)

Example:

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Uploaded by Rebecca Rodgers on 2013-10-06.

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Description: A role playing activity where a kid acts a character from the story and sits in the “hot seat” in front of the class. The classmates then ask questions and the one sitting has to quickly think of an answer.
Advantages:

Deepens children’s understanding of the book they are reasing

Children can get creative (wear costumes)

Children can take turns being different characters from the story in the “hot seat”

Disadvantages:

A child may feel intimidated or be shy if they are in the “hot seat”

Some students may not want to participate in asking questions

A student may not know how to answer the questions being asked

**sources: Literacy  in the Early Grades Gail E. Tompkins (EL316 Textbook)

Example:

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Audrey in the Hot Seat as Goldilocks after a Read Aloud

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Description: A list of words that students create using phonograms that is hung up for kids to refer to. Teachers use the words on the word wall for various activities. There are two different types of words walls teachers can utilize: important (words from books children are reading or from thematic units) and high-frequency (most commonly used words, represents more than 50% of all the words children and adults wrote).
Advantages:

Kids can refer to them during class

Can keep adding words

Expands vocabulary

Can be used for multiple subjects

Disadvantages:

If not explained well...could be a waste of wall space

Not all students will need/want that certain word

Used often (overused)

**sources: Literacy  in the Early Grades Gail E. Tompkins (EL316 Textbook)

Example:

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Description:
Also called a scoring guide, a rubric is used to evaluate children’s performance according to specific criteria. They outline what students need to do for an assignment. Some show how many points a student can earn for their score in that category, while others may have a an emoji such as a smiley face or frowny face. Teachers, as well as students can use rubrics.
Advantages:

Students can score other classmates

Students can assess themselves

Students can get feedback on assignments and see what area they need to work on

Emphasizes importance of material

Disadvantages:

Can take away from the creativity of the student

Students can get overwhelmed by looking at it

Could be time consuming for the teacher

**sources: Literacy  in the Early Grades Gail E. Tompkins (EL316 Textbook)

Example:

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Description:
A type of interactive reading that is usually done in small groups or as a class. Children use choral reading to orally share poems and other brief texts. There are many different arrangements for choral reading, but everyone participates and at times reads in unison.
Advantages:

Provides children with valuable oral reading practice

Increases reading fluency

Classmates have support from each other

Could go along with the I do, we do, you do

Disadvantages:

Some students may not participate because they think the teacher won’t notice their voice over other classmates voices

Book may be too long (students lose interest)

**sources: Literacy  in the Early Grades Gail E. Tompkins (EL316 Textbook)

Example:

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Choral reading is reading aloud in unison with a whole class or group of students. Choral reading helps build students' fluency, self-confidence, and motivation.