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There was not very much information on this particular topic, but this is what I did find.

In the Kingdom of Axum, like many other kingdoms of its time, there was a social structure or hierarchy level. The Kingdom of Axum had the king at the top of all the classes, the nobles and then the rest of the population. This was evident by the buildings discovered and the wealth found inside the buildings. Although the Axum people had a style of writing known as Ge'ez, there is not much known about their society from inscriptions that were discovered. It can be assumed, however, priests were a very important part of daily life as well as traders. Priests ensured that all aspects of spiritual life was maintained. Traders brought wealth in the form of importing and exporting goods into society. The poor people of the society were either crafters or farmers and maintained this status their whole lives.

The ruler of the Axum people is mostly described as 'King of Kings'. This does suggest that there could have possibly been junior kings that could have been ruling other parts of the empire which eventually would be taken over. There is some evidence that there were approximately 10 to 12 smaller towns within the Axum Kingdom, and suggest that it was an urban society. Very little is known about the status of women in society and family life.

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There was not very much information on this particular topic, but this is what I did find. In the Kingdom of Axum, like many other kingdoms of its time, there was a social structure or hierarchy level. The Kingdom of Axum had the king at the top of all the classes, the nobles and then the rest of the population.

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History for kids - Free history network for kids

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Egyptian Hierarchy

Ancient Egypt had three main social classes: Upper, Middle, and Lower.

Prisoners captured in foreign wars became slaves and formed a separate class.
The Egyptian Hierarchy was a complex social structure that placed the pharaoh at the top, followed by the nobles, priests, scribes, and commoners. Each level had its own responsibilities and privileges, with the pharaoh holding ultimate power and authority.
The hierarchy was reinforced by religious beliefs and customs, with the pharaoh being seen as a god on earth and the nobles and priests serving as intermediaries between the gods and the people.

Ancient Egypt had a flexible class system. Slaves had rights, too, like owning personal stuff, getting married, inheriting land, and becoming free.

Egyptian Social Pyramid

Egyptian society was structured like a pyramid, with the pharaoh at the top. There were several layers of social classes, with the lowest classes having fewer people but lower status.

The Pharaoh

The Pharaoh, at the apex of ancient Egyptian society, held an unparalleled position of power. As an embodiment of the gods, particularly Ra, the sun god, they were seen as divine intermediaries, their decisions considered divine will. This status granted them the authority to guide laws, the military, the economy, and religious practices.

They were not only political leaders but also spiritual guides, making them crucial to both the spiritual and temporal aspects of society. Their death was seen as a transformation, with rituals ensuring their journey to the afterlife. In essence, the Pharaoh was the cornerstone around which all life revolved in ancient Egypt.

The Vizier

There was a chief minister called a 'vizier' that watched over tax collection and monitored the government records that were kept by the scribes.

The Vizier, second only to the Pharaoh, was the chief advisor and held immense power within the ancient Egyptian hierarchy. Tasked with executing royal decrees, managing kingdom-wide administration, and supervising royal documents, the Vizier effectively ran the daily operations of the state.

In addition to these administrative duties, the Vizier also served as the highest judge in the kingdom, embodying Maat - the concept of truth, balance, and justice. In essence, the Vizier was the pivotal link between the divine Pharaoh and the earthly tasks of governance, ensuring the smooth operation of the ancient Egyptian state

The Nobles

Nobles, nestled below the Pharaoh and Vizier, held significant positions within the Egyptian hierarchy. Originating from privileged families, they occupied important roles in government, the military, and the priesthood, thereby exerting substantial influence. Their duties involved advising the Pharaoh, overseeing provincial lands, and leading military actions.

Despite their affluent lifestyle marked by large homes and fine clothing, they were expected to demonstrate loyalty to the Pharaoh and contribute to state governance. In essence, Nobles were a crucial cog in the ancient Egyptian hierarchy, helping enforce laws and policies, thereby facilitating a smooth connection between the high-ranking officials and the populace.

The Scribes

Scribes, despite not being at the top of the hierarchy, played a critical role in ancient Egypt due to their literacy and administrative skills. They were responsible for writing, record-keeping, and handling administrative duties, thereby serving as a vital conduit between the Pharaoh, his court, and the populace.

Their duties extended to documenting laws, recording historical events, and even drafting religious texts. Owing to these responsibilities, Scribes were respected and often exempted from manual labor and taxes. In essence, they were an integral part of the Egyptian hierarchy, ensuring smooth governance and societal function.

The Priests

Priests held a significant position in the ancient Egyptian hierarchy, central to religious and societal affairs. They performed essential rituals, maintained temples, and served as intermediaries between gods and people. With their perceived closeness to the divine, high-ranking priests often advised the Pharaoh on state matters. Some priests also held additional roles as scribes, astronomers, or healers. Despite strict purity rituals, priests enjoyed privileges such as a share in offerings and tax exemptions. Thus, priests played a vital role in upholding spiritual balance and social order within the Egyptian hierarchy.

The Soldiers

Soldiers held a vital position in the Egyptian hierarchy, serving as the protectors of the kingdom and enforcers of order. They operated under the command of the Pharaoh, defending borders, quelling rebellions, and countering external threats. Through rigorous training and discipline, soldiers honed their combat skills.

They were organized into ranks and divisions, with higher-ranking officers overseeing strategic planning and command. Loyalty to the Pharaoh was paramount, as soldiers believed in their duty to uphold Maat, the cosmic balance of the universe. Their valor and adherence to military discipline were deeply valued in Egyptian society, often earning them rewards such as land. Thus, soldiers played a crucial role in maintaining the stability and security of the kingdom within the Egyptian hierarchy.

The Merchants

Merchants occupied a significant position within the Egyptian hierarchy, driving the kingdom's economy and trade networks. They facilitated local and long-distance commerce, connecting regions and facilitating the exchange of diverse goods. Dealing with luxury items, raw materials, and foodstuffs, merchants played a vital role in generating wealth and fostering cultural exchange.

Their success allowed them to attain social status and enjoy a privileged lifestyle. Though not directly involved in politics, merchants wielded influence through their economic power. As the economic backbone of ancient Egypt, merchants linked various regions and contributed to the civilization's flourishing.

The Artisans

Artisans held a significant position in the Egyptian hierarchy, celebrated for their exceptional craftsmanship and artistic skills. Specializing in various fields such as carpentry, jewelry-making, painting, sculpture, and pottery, artisans produced exquisite works of art. Their creations adorned royal courts, temples, and the homes of the nobility.

Artisans enjoyed patronage from the Pharaoh and nobles, offering them protection and support. Their skills were passed down through apprenticeships, ensuring the preservation of their craft. The talent and dedication of artisans elevated their social status, granting them privileges and recognition. They played a vital role in enriching the cultural and aesthetic fabric of ancient Egypt, leaving behind a lasting artistic legacy.

The farmers

Farmers, despite their position near the bottom of the Egyptian hierarchy, were integral to the kingdom's economy and survival. They cultivated the fertile soils of the Nile River Valley, producing crops essential for the sustenance of all social classes and providing raw materials for artisans.

In addition to their agricultural duties, they participated in state-building projects during the inundation season. Their contributions, including taxes paid on harvested crops, supported the Pharaoh and the state economy. In essence, farmers were vital to the functioning of ancient Egyptian society, underscoring their indispensable role in the societal hierarchy.

The Slaves

Despite being at the lowest rung of the Egyptian hierarchy, slaves and servants played a critical role in the economy and societal functioning. Often prisoners of war or indebted Egyptians, they worked as manual laborers or household servants.

Their tasks ranged from fieldwork and construction to domestic chores in the households of the Pharaoh and nobles. While their life was challenging, Egyptian law granted them certain rights and protections, and some could earn their freedom or higher social status. Thus, slaves, despite their low status, were an essential part of ancient Egyptian society and its hierarchical structure.

Understanding the Egyptian Hierarchy

Understanding the Egyptian hierarchy is integral to appreciating the societal structure of ancient Egypt. At the top stood the Pharaoh, followed by the Vizier, Nobles, Priests, Soldiers, Scribes, Merchants, Artisans, Farmers, and Slaves at the bottom.

Each level played a distinct role in society - from the Pharaoh's divine rule to the Farmers' crop cultivation and the labor provided by Slaves. This structured hierarchy allowed for the smooth functioning and durability of the civilization. Thus, a grasp of the Egyptian hierarchy is crucial to understanding the dynamics and complexities of ancient Egypt.

Maat

Maat', the principle of truth, balance, and cosmic order, was crucial to the Egyptian hierarchy. The pharaoh, as a divine entity, was the principal enforcer of maat, maintaining the equilibrium between human and divine realms. The legitimacy of his rule hinged upon his successful preservation of maat.

Priests, officials, and nobles, too, upheld maat through religious rites, justice, and societal order. Maat thus influenced the hierarchical structure, intertwining power, and divine responsibility. Limited mobility within this structure was possible through merit and service, but the overarching principle of maat sustained a harmonious and orderly societal fabric.

Ancient Egyptian Society

Ancient Egyptian society was highly structured, with a pharaoh at the top of the social hierarchy and slaves at the bottom. The society was divided into classes based on occupation, with priests and nobles holding the most power and influence. Women had more rights in Ancient Egypt than in many other ancient societies, and education was highly valued. The society was also known for its impressive architecture, art, and religious beliefs.

Ancient Egypt was a successful culture for over 3,000 years. In the early years, there were two' kingdoms' that operated like two different countries. Each had a ruler and its own religious beliefs and ways of doing things.

After the two kingdoms were united, they became a lot more organized and, over the years, developed a system of what is called a 'hierarchy.'

This was a class system, and each person living in ancient Egypt knew where they existed in the system and had specific rights of that class.

Egyptian Social Classes

The Egyptian Hierarchy was a lot like the pyramids that they built.

At the very top of this social structure were the pharaoh and their gods.

Since the pharaoh was thought to be a god, he took his place next to all of the others.

The gods were thought to be in control of the flooding of the Nile each year, as well as death and famine.

The pharaoh was also in charge of the armies, and any laws that were decided upon were the responsibility of the pharaoh.

All farmers paid taxes every year. Instead of money, they paid in amounts of grain that was stored in warehouses that belonged to the pharaoh.

In case of drought and famine, this was the grain that would be used to feed everyone.

Ancient Egypt Social Structure

In Egypt, the nobility provided jobs and food for the lower classes to live comfortable life, and the king received goods and services through taxation.

The king gave his vizier responsibility, who then chose the best people for the job.

Doctors, dentists, astrologers, and exorcists dealt directly with clients and their needs, while priests looked after the temple and gods' statues.

A deben was a universally accepted unit of value for goods. A quart of beer could be traded for a woven mat for the same value.

The Egyptians felt pride in their work and were willing to work hard to make a living.

Everyone in Egypt understood their place and the rules to follow for success. This structure worked well throughout most of Egypt's history, but it began to break down at the end of the New Kingdom.

Egyptian Culture Moving Up in the Hierarchy

A son or daughter took on the social class or 'hierarchy' of their parents. There were slight possibilities of moving into the next higher class.

Some farmers and peasants saved money to send their children to trade and village schools for better education and to learn a specific trade.

The schools were run by artisans and priests. If a boy did well in school, he could be raised into the scribe class and possibly go on to better government jobs.

It was not a common practice to send the girls to school, but some that attended did well and even became physicians.

Moving into the next class meant an increase in money, and they could help themselves and their families.

The social structure of ancient Egypt may not have sounded fair when we think of our lives today, but during those days, it was a requirement for survival and the success of society.

Influence on the Egyptian Hierarchy

The Egyptian hierarchy was shaped by religious and societal norms, notably 'maat' - a principle of order, truth, and cosmic balance. The pharaoh considered divine, stood at the hierarchy's apex, tasked with maintaining maat and harmonizing divine and human realms.

The lower tiers comprised nobles, priests, officials, and the military, each crucial to state functions like law enforcement, religious observances, and defense. While social mobility was limited, achievements and skills sometimes allowed for movement within this hierarchy. However, the divine pharaoh's influence and the foundational principle of maat persisted, providing enduring stability.

Changes in the Egyptian Hierarchy

Changes in the Egyptian hierarchy were influenced by external conquests, internal changes, and religious evolution. Foreign rules, such as during the Hyksos or Persian periods, led to adaptations in the hierarchy. Internally, shifts in religious belief, like Akhenaten's monotheism, caused temporary restructuring.

As society expanded, the hierarchy grew more complex, with the rise of a professional bureaucracy and the increasing importance of local governors. However, the pharaoh's supreme position and the principle of maat remained constant. Thus, while the hierarchy evolved, it retained a core consistency echoing the enduring values of Egyptian society."

Understanding the Egyptian Hierarchy

Understanding the Egyptian hierarchy is shaped by archaeology, Egyptology, and anthropology. Archaeological discoveries like tombs and inscriptions give insight into the societal structure. Egyptologists decipher hieroglyphs and study artifacts to construct a nuanced view of the hierarchy.

Anthropological perspectives help interpret the societal effects of this hierarchy, such as power dynamics and cultural practices. While these fields have enhanced our understanding of the hierarchy, the vast span of ancient Egypt means that aspects of its structure remain subjects of ongoing research, underlining our evolving comprehension of the past."

Position within the Egyptian Hierarchy

In ancient Egypt, one's position within the hierarchy was determined by birth and occupation. At the top were the pharaohs, followed by the nobles, priests, and scribes. The majority of the population were farmers and laborers, while slaves were at the bottom. Women had limited opportunities for advancement, but some were able to rise to positions of power as queens or priestesses. The hierarchy was deeply ingrained in Egyptian society and played a significant role in shaping daily life and beliefs.

Evolution of the Egyptian Hierarchy

The Egyptian Hierarchy evolved over time, with the pharaohs at the top and the peasants at the bottom. The pharaohs were considered divine and had absolute power, while the nobles and priests held significant influence. Slaves and foreigners were at the bottom of the social ladder, and their status was often determined by their occupation or ethnicity.

The Egyptian Hierarchy during the Old Kingdom

The Old Kingdom era, known as the "Age of the Pyramids", showcases a hierarchy where pharaohs were seen as living gods with absolute power. This period witnessed the centralization of power, with the pharaoh managing economic, political, and religious activities via a vizier and provincial governors.

Monumental constructions like pyramids displayed the pharaoh's vast resources and manpower. The divine kingship model influenced not only state administration but also cultural and religious life. The priesthood, nobles, artisans, farmers, and slaves each had distinct roles within this structure.

This Old Kingdom hierarchy became a blueprint for subsequent periods, its principle of divine kingship and socio-political structure exerting enduring influence."

The Egyptian Hierarchy and its social implications

The Egyptian hierarchy had substantial social implications. The pharaoh, a god-king, guided cultural, religious, and economic life. Roles within the hierarchy, ranging from priests and nobles to merchants and slaves, carried specific societal obligations and privileges, creating social inequality. Despite some upward mobility based on merit, privileges varied by status. The principle of 'maat', or cosmic balance, imbued every individual with a role in societal harmony, regardless of their hierarchical position. Thus, the hierarchy influenced the societal structure, norms, and values of ancient Egypt.

Impact of Religion on the Egyptian Hierarchy

Religion greatly influenced the Egyptian hierarchy, shaping its structure and defining roles. The pharaoh, viewed as a divine link between gods and humans, was at the hierarchy's pinnacle, lending his rule absolute authority. Priests, responsible for maintaining divine relationships through rituals, held considerable power, sometimes rivaling the pharaohs.

Religion also legitimized the roles of officials, soldiers, scribes, and laborers, as each was seen as contributing to the cosmic balance, or 'maat'. Thus, religion's influence was integral to the Egyptian hierarchy, providing divine validation to the societal structure.

What were the six social classes in ancient Egypt?

In ancient Egypt, there were six social classes: the pharaoh, the nobles, the priests, the scribes, the artisans, and the peasants. The pharaoh was at the top of the social hierarchy and had absolute power, while the peasants (slaves) were at the bottom and had little to no social mobility. The other classes fell somewhere in between, with varying levels of wealth and influence.

Who was at the top of the Egyptian hierarchy?

The Pharaoh considered a living deity, was at the top of the Egyptian hierarchy. They held supreme power and were both political and religious leaders, responsible for maintaining 'maat', or cosmic balance. The Pharaoh was the commander-in-chief of the army, chief lawgiver, and landowner.

They also commissioned monumental constructions like temples and pyramids. Despite various dynasties, the Pharaoh's pinnacle position in the Egyptian hierarchy remained consistent throughout ancient Egypt.

What were the responsibilities of the government officials in ancient Egypt?

Government officials in ancient Egypt had diverse responsibilities. The Vizier, the top official, supervised state administration, judiciary, treasury, agriculture, and construction. Other officials included the treasurer, managing the kingdom's wealth, and the army general, leading the military.

Provincial governors or nomarchs oversaw local administration and tax collection. Scribes maintained records and managed correspondence. Priests conducted religious rituals in temples. These officials ensured the kingdom functioned smoothly, supporting the pharaoh in maintaining societal order and prosperity.

What were the responsibilities of the nobles and priests in ancient Egypt?

Nobles in ancient Egypt, often relatives or close acquaintances of the Pharaoh, held high government or military positions, managed estates and workshops, and served as judges. Priests were responsible for religious rites, conducting daily temple rituals, ceremonies, and festivals, and maintaining 'maat', or cosmic balance.

High priests, especially the High Priest of Amun, often wielded immense power. Priests also acted as teachers in temple schools. These roles of nobles and priests were crucial to the administration, judiciary, and religious life of ancient Egypt."

What were the responsibilities of the scribes and soldiers in ancient Egypt?

Scribes in ancient Egypt, adept in hieroglyphic and hieratic writing, were responsible for maintaining administrative and financial records and writing official correspondences and legal documents. They worked in government offices, temples, and courts, maintaining the bureaucracy.

Soldiers, responsible for defense, protected borders, maintained internal security, enforced laws, and helped in building projects and foreign expeditions. While scribes managed administrative processes, soldiers ensured security and territorial integrity, both roles crucial to ancient Egypt's stability.

What were the responsibilities of the artisans and merchants in ancient Egypt?

Artisans in ancient Egypt, including carpenters, jewelers, painters, sculptors, and potters, played vital roles in creating furniture, jewelry, murals, statues, and pottery for temples, palaces, and tombs. Their works provide insights into Egyptian society and culture.

Merchants facilitated trade within Egypt and beyond, dealing in goods like grain, cloth, pottery, and luxury items such as spices and perfumes. Their activities contributed to economic growth, cultural expression, and international trade in ancient Egypt.

What were the responsibilities of the peasants and slaves in ancient Egypt?

Peasants in ancient Egypt were responsible for farming, irrigation, and maintaining the land. They were required to pay taxes and provide labor for public works projects. Slaves were responsible for a variety of tasks, including domestic work, construction, and mining. They were considered property and had no rights or freedoms.

How did the Egyptian hierarchy help to ensure that Egypt was a well-organized and prosperous society?

The Egyptian hierarchy was a key factor in maintaining a well-organized and prosperous society. The pharaoh, at the top of the hierarchy, was responsible for ensuring the smooth functioning of the government and the economy.

The nobles, priests, and scribes below the pharaoh helped to manage the day-to-day affairs of the kingdom, while the farmers and laborers provided the necessary resources for the society to thrive. This system of organization allowed for the efficient allocation of resources and ensured that everyone had a role to play in the success of the kingdom.

How did the pharaoh maintain his power?

The pharaoh maintained his power through a combination of religious authority, military might, and economic control. He was seen as a divine ruler, with the ability to communicate with the gods and ensure the prosperity of Egypt. The pharaoh also had a powerful army to defend the kingdom and expand its territory, as well as control the country's resources and trade.

What were the benefits of being a member of the upper class in ancient Egypt?

Being a member of the upper class in ancient Egypt provided access to wealth, luxury goods, and a higher social status. They had access to education, which allowed them to become scribes, priests, or government officials. They also had access to better healthcare and were able to live longer healthier lives. However, with great power came great responsibility, as they were expected to maintain the stability and prosperity of the kingdom.

What were the challenges of being a member of the lower class in ancient Egypt?

Being a member of the lower class in ancient Egypt meant facing numerous challenges, including limited access to education, healthcare, and job opportunities. They were often subjected to heavy taxation and forced labor, which made it difficult to improve their social status. Additionally, they had little to no political power and were at the mercy of the ruling elite. Despite these obstacles, many lower-class Egyptians found ways to survive and even thrive through community support and resourcefulness.

How did the Egyptian hierarchy change over time?

The Egyptian hierarchy underwent significant changes over time. In the New Kingdom, the pharaoh's role evolved from divine to political and military leadership, leading to the decentralization of power and increased autonomy for regional governors.

The Amun priesthood gained influence, amassing wealth and political clout. Social mobility allowed talented individuals to rise through military achievements, administrative prowess, or marriage alliances. The Late Period saw further changes due to foreign influences, altering the administrative structure. Nevertheless, core beliefs in divine kingship and 'maat' provided continuity throughout Egyptian history.

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Ancient Egypt had three main social classes: Upper, Middle, and Lower. Prisoners captured in foreign wars became slaves and formed a separate class. The Egyptian Hierarchy was a complex social structure that placed the pharaoh at the top, followed by the nobles, priests, scribes, and commoners.

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Ancient Greece was an ardent civilization that belongs to ancient Greek history. The ancient Greek was also a part of nations where people were divided on the basis of socialism - means the classes. Some classes were superior to other while some inferior. Superior classes enjoyed some special rights and benefits over the inferior ones. These social classes have been described below in a pattern starting with the highest class and ending with the lowest one in Ancient Greek Social Hierarchy:

Athens - The Upper Class

The topmost class in the Ancient Greek Government Hierarchy was the Upper Class. The people of this class possessed the uppermost power and position in the society. One has to be born in Athens to be a part of the Upper Class as the rights for this class could only be inherited on the hereditary basis. The upper class symbolized a good civil character, good artistic taste, and highly socialized individuals.

The people from this class handled all the government work, philosophy as well as the literature department, and also the war. Athens people always got slaves so as to perform their materialistic works so as to save their precious time which they had to use for administrative purposes. The Upper Class can also be symbolized as the Leisure Class. They kept their time for the important activities related with the administration of the kingdom.

Metics - The Middle Class

This was the next class in Ancient Greece Social Hierarchy. These people were not the natives of Athens, but came to Athens to settle down. They came to Athens for earning their livelihood. Such people were apt for the Middle Class. They were free men, they were not slaves but they possessed very little rights as compared to the Upper Class. They were majorly involved in the trading and manufacturing related jobs.

Freedmen - The Lower Class

Freedmen were the next class in the Ancient Greek Social Hierarchy and it incorporates those people who were once slaves but somehow were freed by their owner by any mode. This was the lower class people category but did not belong to Athens, i.e. these were neither Athens nor were granted citizenship in their life what so ever money they earned. These were the people who possessed least amount of privileges, but still got few, as compared to salves who had zero privileges.

The Slaves

This is the lowest most class, actually a level because Greeks never considered it as a class. These people were either rescued from war, some criminals or even bought upon people. These people possessed zero rights or authority. They did not even possess right of their own life. Very little number of Greeks were slaves otherwise the majority of slaves were non-Greeks. They had to pay a ransom amount to buy their freedom and get themselves free.

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Ancient Greek Social Hierarchy Chart | Hierarchy structure

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Ancient Greece was an ardent civilization that belongs to ancient Greek history. The ancient Greek was also a part of nations where people were divided on the basis of socialism - means the classes. Some classes were superior to other while some inferior. Superior classes enjoyed some special rights and benefits over the inferior ones.

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Ancient Greece was a fervent civilization and the Greek society was divided based on socialism or classes into four strata. Only, the superior class of the Greek society enjoyed some privileges and benefits. The lower class people including the slaves were denied even the basic human rights. In this article the hierarchy of the Greek society from the upper to the lower class has been described.

Athens - The Upper Class

The topmost and superior class in the Ancient Greek Social Hierarchy was this Upper Class. The people belonging to this class had the ultimate power and status in society. In order to enjoy the benefits and privileges granted to the people of the upper strata of the society, one had to be a citizen of Athens and it could only be acquired on the basis of heredity. The people of the upper class exhibited a good moral character, brilliant artistic sense, and were highly social.

The upper class people managed all the government and administrative work, the philosophical and literary work, as well as the military department. They bought slaves to have their household chores done. These slaves were tortured, flogged and ill treated by their masters.

They toiled day and night to win the favour of their masters. The people of the upper class stayed away from trade, which was considered to be an occupation of the lower classes. They also stayed away from other inferior tasks and solely engaged themselves in administrative work. They were considered to be the superior, dignified, privileged leisure class.

Metics - The Middle Class

The next strata of the ancient Greek society was the Middle Class. This class of people were not the original citizens of Athens but were foreigners who had come to Greece to settle down. The people of the Middle Class were free men and not bonded labourers like the slaves, but they were denied the privileges granted to the Upper Class. Their main occupation was commercial trade and business related activities.

Freedmen - The Lower Class

This class of the society comprised of the free men who were once slaves or bonded labourers. They now belonged to the lower class and enjoyed the basic human rights. They did not enjoy the privileges granted to the Upper Class people, but their plight was certainly better than the slaves. They were not granted the citizenship of Athens during their lifetime, no matter how much they earned.

The Slaves

The lowest rung of the society was occupied by the slaves. Their condition in the Greek society was the worst compared to all the other three classes of people. These slaves were either bought with money, rescued from war or were criminals. The majority of the slaves were non Greeks who were even denied the basic human rights. They were treated miserably by their masters and were expected to be at the beck and call of their masters. They were supposed to pay a huge ransom to buy their freedom from their masters.

This was the ancient Greek social hierarchy in a nutshell.

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Ancient Greece was a fervent civilization and the Greek society was divided based on socialism or classes into four strata. Only, the superior class of the Greek society enjoyed some privileges and benefits. The lower class people including the slaves were denied even the basic human rights.

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Social class system is a group of terms and concepts followed to incorporate social sciences and political theories in the society centered widely for social stratification. People used to be divided and grouped into a properly managed set of hierarchies' social categories. This system was widely spread in the world for many centuries.

Even India was immensely influenced by the social class division system. In actual practice, India once used to be referred to as a class society country. Some people were considered superior while some inferior. Ancient India social hierarchy was broadly divided in four major categories and these were:

The division was not based on the power but based on purity. Moreover, this kind of division streamlines the society, as the tasks to be done by all the groups were clearly defined.

Now if we consider the appropriate ancient Indian social hierarchy then this structure can be organized in a well-customized order. The order is described below starting with the top most level of the hierarchy and then proceeding forward in descending order.

Brahmins

Well this group of people were categorized on the top of the ancient Indian social hierarchy. These were not the most rich or powerful people of the time but were very respectful and prestigious people. Even the kings used to listen to the Brahmins.
These people were engaged in attaining the highest spiritual knowledge and adhered to different branches of Vedas, the holy books of India. Being a Brahmin was described to be a difficult path of discipline of body, mind, and intellect.

Kshatriyas / Rajputs

The next level in the ancient Indian social hierarchy is of Kshatriyas or Rajputs. Kshatriya basically means a warrior. They were the people who used to be the king and belonged to royal families normally.

Being a Kshatriya or a Rajput was considered to be a matter of respect and proud. Bravery was the perfect word to describe these people. The Rajputs eventually came to occupy the place in society of the Kshatriyas. They possessed special rights and powers in the society. This class was the governing body of the society and protection of the society was their duty.

Vaisyas

Vaisyas are the next level in the ancient Indian social hierarchy. According to the Hindu mythology, the Vaisyas are required to rear cattle and perform the productive labor, pastoral tasks, trade and agriculture. This class includes the common people. They were provided with little rights of their own.

Shudras

This was the lowest class of the ancient Indian social hierarchy. Eating anything or talking to these people was prohibited in the society to people of other classes. These people acted and worked as servants to the other three classes. These people were provided with very little or almost no rights and power of their own.

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Ancient India Social Hierarchy Chart | Hierarchystructure.com

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Social class system is a group of terms and concepts followed to incorporate social sciences and political theories in the society centered widely for social stratification. People used to be divided and grouped into a properly managed set of hierarchies' social categories. This system was widely spread in the world for many centuries.

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The social structure of ancient Egypt can be sorted into a social pyramid. At the top of the social pyramid was the pharaoh with the government officials, nobles and priests below him/her. The third tier consisted of the scribes and soldiers with the middle class in the fourth level. Peasants were the fifth tier of society with slaves making up the lowest social class.

Ancient Egypt's Social Pyramid

1. The Pharaoh

2. High government officials like the vizier (the pharaoh's right hand man), the chief treasurer and the army general

3. Priests and nobles (who serve as lesser government officials)

4. Soldiers and scribes (who write down important events and calculate taxes)

5. Craftsmen and merchants

6. Farmers and unskilled workers

7. Slaves

Often, people from a single level would live in the same area of a city. The levels of the pyramid could shift and individual tiers were more powerful at different times.

Duties of Each Level
The Pharaoh
The Pharaoh was a god on earth and the ultimate authority in Egypt. It was his/her duty to make the law and maintain order in the Kingdom. The people expected the pharaoh to keep the gods happy so the Nile would flood and there would be a good harvest. S/he had to maintain the army to defend the country from outside threats and internal difficulties. The people looked to the pharaoh to ensure their well-being and when s/he did not live up to this expectation s/he had less power. The Pharaoh owned all the land in Egypt but he could gift land to other people as gifts or to award them.
Government Officials
Government officials consisted of members of the royal family, nobles and priests. The royal family made up the original members of the government, the highest position of which was the vizier. Over time, the royal family left government positions, leaving the nobles to fill them. At first, the pharaoh appointed all government positions but soon they became hereditary.

The vizier was the pharaoh's second-in-command and sometimes served as High Priest of Amun-Ra. He oversaw the political administration and all official documents had to have his seal on them. The vizier managed the taxation system and monitored the supply of food. He listened to problems between nobles and settled them. The vizier also ran the pharaoh's household and ensured the royal family's safety.

© Captmondo - Papyrus from the Book of the Dead, depicting the High Priest Pinedjem II making an offering to Osiris

Priests served the gods' needs and, at times, the power of the High Priest of Amun-Ra rivaled pharaoh's. Pharaoh appointed the priests during early periods but later the posts became hereditary. They spent their time conducting rituals and ceremonies, in pharaoh's name, in temples to keep the gods happy. Priests were a part of ancient Egypt's daily life and they oversaw the running of the temple community.

Nobles were the only group, beside the royal family, who could hold a government office. They ruled the nomes (regions of Egypt), made local laws and maintained order. Nobles also owned farm land which the peasant class worked for them.

© Maia C - Relief of an Ancient Egypt nobleman
Scribes and Soldiers
Scribes, part of the third level of the pyramid, were some of the only people in Egypt who could read and write. They kept the records of the country including the amount of food produced and gifts presented to the gods. Scribes also kept records of the number of soldiers in the army and the number of workers on construction sites. They also wrote the copies of the Book of the Dead and biographies found in ancient Egyptian tombs.

© Charlie Phillips - Seated Scribe statuette

Soldiers protected Egypt from outside attacks and ended social uprisings. At times, they also oversaw the lowest classes when they built the pyramids. Second sons would often join the army because they gained wealth. They could get booty from battles and the pharaoh might reward them with land for their service.
The Middle Class: Craftsmen and Merchants
The middle class consisted of craftsmen, merchants and other skilled workers such as doctors. Merchants sold the goods made by craftsmen and doctors treated injuries. Craftsmen or artisans included carpenters, jewelers, metalworkers, painters, potters, sculptors, stone carvers and weavers. Women could work in some of the crafts, such as weaving. Craftsmen often worked in workshops with other artisans of the same type.
Peasants
Peasants were the farmers, servants and constructions workers. The government employed construction workers who built royal buildings like pyramids and palaces. Servants worked in the homes of the higher levels of society cleaning, making food, and completing other tasks.

Farmers were the most important part of the society because they raised the food that fed ancient Egypt. Pharaoh, or the nobles they worked for, provided them with food and clothing. This was an exchange for their cultivation of royal or noble land. Farmers lived in small, mud-brick houses and could rent land in exchange for a percentage of the crops from nobles or the Pharaoh.

© Maia C - Relief of an Ancient Egyptian peasants
Slaves
At the bottom of ancient Egypt's social structure were the slaves. Egypt did not have slave markets. Most of the time, the ancient Egyptians acquired slaves as prisoners-of-war. Slaves worked in the homes of the nobles, in the royal palace and in the temples. They also mined and quarried stone and precious materials. None of the records found to date say that slave labor built the pyramids of Giza, despite myths claiming they did.

Quick Facts

The Pharaoh was the ultimate authority in Egypt.

The people held the pharaoh responsible for their well-being.

Government officials helped ensure that the country ran well.

Priests oversaw the temples and the rituals and ceremonies to honor the gods.

Scribes recorded the events of the kingdom.

Soldiers protected the kingdom from military threats.

The middle class made craft items for the other classes and sold them.

Farmers grew the food that supported the entire kingdom.

Slaves were prisoners-of-war who worked in houses, mines or quarries.

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The Social Structure Of Ancient Egypt | Social Pyramid

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The social structure of ancient Egypt can be sorted into a social pyramid. At the top of the social pyramid was the pharaoh with the government officials, nobles and priests below him/her. The third tier consisted of the scribes and soldiers with the middle class in the fourth level.

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In Rome, the society was highly class conscious and hierarchical. Even, there were multiple social hierarchies present and mobility was also possible between the classes. As per ancient Rome social hierarchy, the whole society of Rome was divided into six classes known as Patrician, Senators, Equestrians, Commons, Freedpeople and Slaves. Out of these, Patricians, Senators and Equestrians are considered as the upper classes, Commons were considered as the middle classes and Freedpeople and Slaves were considered as the poor lower classes. Let us discuss in details about the different classes.

Ancient Rome Social Hierarchy:

1. Patricians: At the time, when Rome was under monarchic rule, all the official and the advisories position of the king were occupied by the members of the wealthiest families known as the patricians. After the dissolution of the monarch rule, the patricians took control over the city and formed the basis of aristocracy.

Another associated class of the Patricians was the Plebeians, who could not become politically active at that of the Patrician class. Instead, they became priests and joined the senatorial class. They also got married to the patrician families. After a certain period, the Plebeians also became wealthier and politically active and they got associated with the Patricians in strengthening the social and political scenario.

2. Senators: This class of ancient Rome social hierarchy got its position due to the political power that it possesses. The power is although less than that of the Patrician class. The class included all men who served in the senate. This class was dominated by the nobles. The nobles were the families whose ancestors included at least one ambassador. At that time, a man with a property value worth 800,000 sesterces was able to earn a lifelong membership to the senatorial class for the whole family.

But, unlike the patricians; the senators have to follow certain restricted rules to live in the society. Sometimes, they were legally forbidden to take part in any form of business. It was made a rule that a member of the Senate group cannot own a Cargo ship.

3. Equestrians: This class got its position due to its tendency towards the economic aspect. A man was entitled to belong to the Equestrian class along with his/her family, if s/he possessed a stable minimum wealth worth 400,000 sesterces. Equestrians were primarily involved in various types of businesses which were prohibited to the Senator class.

Basically, it can be said that equestrians are the members from the senator families who gave preference to the monetary and business gain than to politics. In spite of the fact that they were not into politics; they are influential due to the monetary wealth that they possessed.

4. Commons: The Commons were all other freeborn Roman citizens. The special trademark of the Roman citizens was their dress called as Toga. All the common citizens had the right to arrange a legal marriage with another Roman citizen.

5. Freedpeople: The men and women belonging to this class were slaves in the early days but have now recovered their freedom. However, they were not fully freed and they have had various restrictions regarding their legal rights. They are not eligible for working in the public offices.

6. Slaves: This was the lowest class of the Ancient Roman Hierarchy and they don't have any freedom of their own. They used to be the property of their masters.

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Ancient Rome Social Hierarchy Chart | Hierarchystructure.com

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In Rome, the society was highly class conscious and hierarchical. Even, there were multiple social hierarchies present and mobility was also possible between the classes. As per ancient Rome social hierarchy, the whole society of Rome was divided into six classes known as Patrician, Senators, Equestrians, Commons, Freedpeople and Slaves.

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Over two thousand five hundred (2,500+) years ago, ancient Greece was made up of many hundreds of Greek city-states, grouped together at the southern end of a very large peninsula that jutted out from Europe into the Mediterranean Sea. Smaller peninsulas stuck out from the main Greek peninsula, forming a great deal of natural coastline and many natural harbors. It's no wonder the Greeks were great sailors and fishermen!

The ancient Greeks believed in thousands of gods, goddesses, and magical creatures. They built temples to honor their gods. They prayed at home. They prayed all the time. Honoring their gods was part of their daily life and part of just about everything they did. That's because they believed their gods controlled the heavens and earth, and could interact with humans and cause all kinds of trouble!

A huge mountain range ran down the middle of the Greek peninsula. The people believed that the ancient Greek mystical world was ruled by a small group of powerful gods called the 12 Olympians, who lived at the top of the highest mountain, Mount Olympus. You could try to get to the top, but you'd never make it. The top of Mount Olympus was hidden in fog and snow and magic. When things had to be decided in the mythical world, the council met on Mount Olympus to discuss things, which was a very Greek thing to do - talk it over first, then go to war or get even!

The Greeks told wonderful myths about their gods. Poseidon, lord of the sea, could raise his hand and a new island would appear! Apollo brought up the sun every day, and his twin sister Artemis brought up the moon. Most of the gods avoided Ares. Nobody liked him much, but he was the god of war, so you had to keep him on your side if you could. The mighty Zeus, king of all the gods, probably caused more trouble than any of them, even more than Aphrodite, the goddess of love. The Greeks did not limit their myths to stories about the 12 Olympians. They told stories about nearly all the magical, mythical creatures in which they believed.

Many of their mythical beings looked like people, but some looked like monsters, because, well .. they were! Fortunately, the ancient Greeks found a way to beat monsters, nearly always with trickery and cleverness, two skills that were greatly admired by the ancient Greeks.

Ancient Greece was not a country. It was not an empire. It was a collection of over 1500 independent city-states, each with its own government and its own way of doing things. Some city-states, like ancient Corinth, were ruled by kings. Some, like the warrior city-state of Sparta, were ruled by council. Ancient Athens, the jewel of the ancient Greek city-states, experimented with an early form of democracy. The ancient Greeks were very loyal to their city-state.

The Greek city-states did, on occasion, team up against a common foe. They also went to war with each other, unless the Olympic Games were in progress . The Greeks invented the Olympics, and took the event quite seriously. Nearly all the ancient Greek city-states sent teams to participate. If two or more Greek city-states happen to be at war with each other when the game date arrived, war was halted for the duration of the games. The Greek Olympics were not the only games in ancient Greece - the Greeks loved competition of all sorts - but the Olympics were the most important. Every city-state wanted to brag that their athletics (their statues, their theatre, their fabrics) were the best!

The Greeks all spoke the same language, and they all loved to brag. To be fair, they had a great deal to brag about. The Greeks gave us so many gifts - gifts like the Olympics, democracy, the theatre, comedy, tragedy, the wheelbarrow, the alphabet, advances in medicine and science, architectural wonders like the ancient Greek columns, incredible myths, and tales of legends, heroes, and fables, to name a few. Theirs was a culture envied and copied by other ancient cultures.

Learn how the brave Greek hero Theseus escaped the maze, a trick you might find handy some day. Discover how the king of Corinth tricked the god of the underworld and got away with it! Meet Apollo's Oracle, where things are not always as they seem. Argue with Socrates, the great teacher. Join Hercules on 12 dangerous missions, battling evil monsters. Read Aesop's fables, a collection of very short stories that are still popular today.

Come meet the clever, creative, ancient Greeks, and enter a world of competition, trickery and myth.

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Over two thousand five hundred (2,500+) years ago, ancient Greece was made up of many hundreds of Greek city-states, grouped together at the southern end of a very large peninsula that jutted out from Europe into the Mediterranean Sea. Smaller peninsulas stuck out from the main Greek peninsula, forming a great deal of natural coastline and many natural harbors.

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During your Roman vacation, you may observe the differences in social classes; these differences are important to notice in that they strongly afftect the mechanisms of Roman society. There are three...

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The ancient Egyptian people were grouped in a hierarchical system with the Pharaoh at the top and farmers and slaves at the bottom. Egyptian social classes had some porous borders but they were largely fixed and clearly delineated, not unlike the medieval feudal system. Clearly, the groups of people nearest the top of society were the richest and most powerful.

The diagram above shows the structure of ancient Egyptian society.

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"But What Social Class Were The Pyramid Builders?" For the full "History Unplugged" podcast, click here!
The Pharaoh was believed to be a God on earth and had the most power. He was responsible for making laws and keeping order, ensuring that Egypt was not attacked or invaded by enemies and for keeping the Gods happy so that the Nile flooded and there was a good harvest.

The Vizier was the Pharaoh's chief advisor and was sometimes also the High Priest. He was responsible for overseeing administration and all official documents had to have his seal of approval. He was also responsible for the supply of food, settling disputes between nobles and the running and protection of the Pharaoh's household.

Nobles ruled the regions of Egypt (Nomes). They were responsible for making local laws and keeping order in their region.

Priests were responsible for keeping the Gods happy. They did not preach to people but spent their time performing rituals and ceremonies to the God of their temple.

Scribes were the only people who could read and write and were responsible for keeping records. The ancient Egyptians recorded things such as how much food was produced at harvest time, how many soldiers were in the army, numbers of workers and the number of gifts given to the Gods.

Soldiers were responsible for the defense of the country. Many second sons, including those of the Pharaoh often chose to join the army. Soldiers were allowed to share riches captured from enemies and were also rewarded with land for their service to the country.

Craftsmen were skilled workers such as - pottery makers, leatherworkers, sculptors, painters, weavers, jewelry makers, shoemakers, tailors. Groups of craftsmen often worked together in workshops.

Farmers worked the land of the Pharaoh and nobles and were given housing, food and clothes in return. Some farmers rented land from nobles and had to pay a percentage of their crop as their rent.

There were no slave markets or auctions in Ancient Egypt. Slaves were usually prisoners captured in war. Slaves could be found in the households of the Pharaoh and nobles, working in mines and quarries and also in temples.
This article is part of our larger selection of posts about Egypt in the ancient world. To learn more, click here for our comprehensive guide to Ancient Egypt.
Cite This Article

"Egyptian Social Classes and Society" History on the Net
© 2000-2022, Salem Media.
February 21, 2022 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/the-egyptians-society>
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Egyptian Social Classes and Society - History

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Loading... The ancient Egyptian people were grouped in a hierarchical system with the Pharaoh at the top and farmers and slaves at the bottom. Egyptian social classes had some porous borders but they were largely fixed and clearly delineated, not unlike the medieval feudal system.

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Rome began as a small city on the banks of the Tiber River in Italy. The Latin tribes (also known as the Latini or Latians) inhabited the region c. 1000 BCE but the founding of the city is dated to 753 BCE. They were a patrilineal society (legitimate descent and inheritance from the father's bloodline) who, among many other deities, worshipped the supreme the sky god Deus Pater ("Father God") - better known as Jupiter - who was associated with horses, thunder, lightning, storms, and fire. The male deity as head of the pantheon reflected the value of masculinity over femininity in the Latin culture.

The society was clearly patriarchal from an early stage and would continue along those same lines through the history of the Roman Republic (590-27 BE) and Roman Empire (27 BCE-476 CE in the west, 330-1453 CE in the east). Although there is a legend that a Trojan woman named Roma, travelling with the hero Aeneas, founded Rome, the far more popular and better-known foundation myth is that the city was founded in 753 BCE by the demi-god Romulus after he killed his brother Remus.

Part of Romulus' story involves the Rape of the Sabine Women which tells of the early Romans abducting women from other tribes, notably the Sabines. These tribes raised an armed force to get their women back but one of the women - Hersilia, who had become Romulus' wife - rallied the other women to stop unnecessary bloodshed and insisted on remaining with the Romans. This story is thought to represent, in mythological form, the vital role of women in Roman society in linking families and maintaining peaceful relations between rival factions through marriage.

Stable families were the most important component of a strict hierarchy based on gender, citizenship, ancestry, & census rank.

Classes & Conflict

The family was the nucleus of Roman society and formed the basis of every community. Stable families made for a stable society and were the most important component of a strict hierarchy based on gender, citizenship, ancestry, and census rank (where one lived and how much land one owned). A citizen was initially defined as any male above the age of fifteen who was a member of one of the original three tribes of the Latins who then dictated the lives of the people politically and socially.

Politically, there was a leader at the top (the consul during the republic, emperor during the empire), the senate, judges, and assemblies while, socially, there was the head of the house (pater familias), his wife, children and, in some cases, his extended family (unmarried sisters, widowed mothers, ageing fathers). The patriarchy, in both spheres (political and social) operated according to the rules of patronage: those in power were obligated to care for those beneath them. The consul, emperor, or head-of-the-house provided their charges with parental care and necessities and, in return, received their loyalty and service.

Society was divided in two classes - the upper-class Patricians and the working-class Plebeians - whose social standing and rights under the law were initially rigidly defined in favor of the upper class until the period characterized by the Conflict of the Orders (c. 500-287 BCE), a power struggle between the Plebeians and the Patricians.

The Conflict of the Orders began when Roman Patricians were campaigning against neighboring tribes for supremacy in the region and needed men for their armies. In 494 BCE, the Plebeians, who made up the bulk of the fighting force, refused to serve in the military until they were given a voice in government. Their grievances were addressed by new laws which allowed them to send their own representative (a tribune) to the senate and, in 449 BCE, by the Twelve Tables, the laws of Rome which were publicly posted for all to see and guaranteed that no one was above the law.

Prior to the conflict, Plebeians were strictly second-class citizens who were forbidden to marry Patricians while, after 445 BCE, this law was changed and Plebeians could marry whomever they chose and had a voice in politics. By the time the Conflict of the Orders ended, Roman society was defined by five social classes:

Although Patricians have traditionally been presented as landed gentry and the Plebeians as the landless poor, this is a misconception. The Patricians definitely did make up the senate and were the ruling class but there were many powerful Plebeian families and, as Roman history progressed, many Patrician families lost their wealth and standing while Plebeian families' fortunes improved dramatically. Basically, the Patricians were the aristocracy - one had to be born a Patrician - while the Plebeians were everyone else; but plebeian did not necessarily equate to poor. Farmers, plumbers, artisans, teachers, contractors, architects, and many other respectable and lucrative professions were all represented by the Plebeian class.

The Equites (equestrian class, cavalry) were originally the royal mounted knights who were given a certain amount of money to purchase and care for their horse in the period of the early republic and so became associated with commerce and trade. They eventually formed part of the upper-class dealing with business. In 218 BCE, a law was passed prohibiting senators from engaging in commerce because it could compromise their legislative decisions. The equites were patrician-class males, socially inferior to the senatorial class, who ran the banks, collected taxes, operated import-export of goods, and managed trade houses as well as the slave trade.

Freedmen were slaves who had managed to buy their freedom or whose owners had set them free. The freedman (or woman) then became a client of their former owner, relying on his or her patronage. Freed slaves were granted citizenship but could not hold political office. Any children of freed slaves, however, were given full rights as citizens. Freedmen could work any job they were qualified for but often continued in whatever duties they had performed for their former master when a slave.

Slave revolts were a perennial fear of the Romans which was realized in the Spartacus Slave Revolt of 73-71 BCE.

Slaves were the lowest class in society without any rights and considered property of the master. The quality of life as a Roman slave varied according to one's master and one's job. Life in the mines or in building roads was considerably more difficult than skilled artisan-slaves who worked for craftsmen or served their masters as tutors or musicians. Even so, no matter how easy a slave's responsibilities might seem, they were still subject to the whims of their master who could have them beaten, or even killed, for any reason.

Romans relied heavily on slaves to do whatever jobs they did not want to. Female slaves served their mistresses in every aspect of their lives from helping them bathe, dress, and put on make-up to tending the children, cleaning the home, and assisting in shopping. Male slaves served the master of the house in many capacities, including personal assistants, children's tutor, waiter, butler, bodyguard, overseer on estates among many others. At one point, the Romans considered instituting a law requiring slaves to wear a certain uniform to identify themselves but decided against this as they feared it would alert the slaves to how numerous they were and possibly encourage a revolt. Slave revolts were a perennial fear of the Romans which was realized in the Spartacus Slave Revolt of 73-71 BCE which terrorized the Romans and haunted them for years after.

Most slaves were foreigners captured in war or taken by slavers but some Romans sold themselves or their children into slavery as a means of paying off a debt. Patrician families sometimes held as many as 1,000 slaves on a small estate and more elsewhere and these slaves served the interests of the state through service to the nucleus of the state: the family.

Family

There is far more documentation on Patrician families than those of the lower class and yet the basic paradigm was the same for both. The father was the head of the family and made all the decisions regarding finance and the raising of children. Fathers had complete control over their children, no matter their age or marital status, from birth until his death (although a son could go to court to demand emancipation for his father if he could prove his father was incompetent or clearly acting against the son's best interests). The father even had the right to decide whether his newborn child would be raised in the house or abandoned.

Childbirth took place in the home, attended by a mid-wife and the slaves of the mother. Men did not participate in childbirth although sometimes, in upper-class homes, a male physician was called to be on-hand in case of a difficult birth. Once the child was born and cleaned, it was placed on the floor in a blanket and the father called into the room. At this point, the father could either pick the child up - signifying it was accepted into the household - or turn away from it.

If the father rejected the child, it was taken from the house and left in the streets to die. A father might reject the child for any reason and, whatever it was, his will could not be challenged. It is likely that more daughters were rejected than sons, since sons were required to carry on the family name and fortune, but newborns could be abandoned simply because another child would place too great a financial burden on the house and, especially if a family already had a healthy son, there was no need for another. These abandoned infants were often rescued by slave-traders who then raised and sold them as slaves.

Women

Women were subject to the will of their fathers throughout their lives, even after they were married, and had no political voice or power. Daughters were taught how to keep and run a household, take care of their husbands and advance his career. In the late stages of the Roman Republic, women gained more rights but were still under the control of their fathers and husbands.

Even so, women could file for divorce, obtain abortions (with a man's consent), inherit, manage, and sell property, and lower-class women could run businesses, work in stores and restaurants, and operate their own boutiques selling their wares such as jewelry, clothing, and ceramics. Women had no legal right over their children and, in the event of a divorce, the children automatically went to the father. When a woman reached the age of about 15, her father would have already found her a suitable match but some girls were betrothed - often to much older men - at earlier ages.

Marriage

There was no marriage ceremony as recognized in the modern day. Marriage was only legal between two consenting Roman citizens but "consent" was probably not always given freely. If a father had arranged a marriage for his son or daughter, unless he was incredibly lenient, the child was expected to go through with it even if they would prefer not to.

Marriage ceremonies usually took place just after sunrise, symbolizing the new life the couple was embarking on. The ceremony required ten witnesses in order to be legal and, although there was a priest present, he did not officiate. The bride would recite a traditional vow and, afterwards, the wedding party would join in a great feast and then follow the bride and groom to their new home (or the father of the groom's home).

The bride, as she walked, would drop one coin dedicated to the spirits of roads (an offering to bring luck to her future path in marriage) and gave two coins to her new husband, one to honor him personally and the other honoring the spirits of his home. As they walked together, the groom threw nuts and sweets into the crowd and the people who followed them scattered the same in return (a ritual remembered in the present day in throwing rice at weddings) until they reached the groom's house.

Once there, the groom would lift his bride over the threshold to carry her in. Scholar Harold W. Johnston suggests that this may have been "another survival of marriage by capture" referencing the story of the Rape of the Sabine Women (Nardo, 79). While this is possible, it could also have been to prevent the bride tripping and falling (a bad omen) or, more likely, was a symbolic gesture removing her from her old life and carrying her easily into her new one. Close friends and family were then invited into the house where the husband offered his new wife fire and water as essential elements of the home and she kindled the first fire in the hearth. Afterwards, there was more feasting until the new couple retired for the night.

Home & Family

The minimum legal age for a girl to be married was 12 and, for a boy, 15 but most men married later, around the age of 26. This was because males were thought to be mentally unbalanced between the ages of 15-25. They were thought to be ruled entirely by their passions and unable to make sound judgements. Girls were thought to be far more mature at an earlier age (an accepted fact in the modern day) and so were ready for the responsibilities of marriage when they were, often considerably, younger than the groom.

The central purpose of the marriage was to produce and raise children who would become responsible and productive members of society. Since males dominated the social hierarchy, the focus of the home was largely on the first-born son. Nine days after the birth of a male child (eight days for a female), the baby was given a name in the purification ceremony known as the Lustratio and received an amulet to ward off evil spirits. The amulet for boys was called a bulla while a girls' amulet was called a lunula. These objects were made of lead or cloth and, in wealthier homes, gold.

Boys wore the bulla daily until the age of 15 when they were considered a man after a coming-of-age ceremony and became a citizen. Girls wore the lunula until shortly before their marriage when they discarded it along with their childhood toys and clothes and put on women's garments and accessories. The boy would have been raised to learn his father's business and, if a Patrician or Equites, to ride, hunt, and fight. In the time of the Roman Republic, military service was compulsory and so every male was taught martial skills regardless of class while, during the empire, military service was voluntary. Girls, as noted, were raised to become wives and mothers and even though there are notable examples of powerful women in Roman history, these were still married women with children.

The home may have been governed by the father but it was maintained by the mother on every level and this included making it a haven of peace and harmony. Although everyone in the household was responsible for pleasing the gods and spirits, it fell primarily to the woman of the house to ensure that the household spirits were honored daily. These spirits included the panes and penates (spirits of the pantry and kitchen) and the genius (spirit of manhood of the head of the individual home). The lares (spirits of one's ancestors) and parentes (spirits of one's immediate family) were honored through the festival of Parentalia. There were also the manes (collective spirits of the dead) and the lemures (wrathful dead) honored and appeased in the communal festival of Lemuria.

Religion informed each home, community, and the state. The state sponsored and encouraged homogeneous religious belief and ritual and religion empowered the state. All through the year there were festivals celebrating the gods, great deeds of the past linked with the gods, and the harvest provided by providence. The birthday of the head of the household honored the genius of that household who enabled the father to recognize what needed to be done in any given situation and find the strength and ability to do it. Daily rituals in the home honoring the panes and penates were echoed by the state honoring national gods, exemplified in the role of the Vestal Virgins and the sacred fire of the goddess of hearth, home, and family, Vesta.

The greatest festival of the Roman calendar was Saturnalia, honoring the agricultural god of seed, sowing, and the harvest, Saturn. Saturnalia was celebrated, in some periods, from the 17th-23rd of December and during the festival all work stopped, businesses closed, and traditions were suspended. This was the only time of the year when the head of the household relinquished responsibility and a junior member of the house took control. All laws and rituals were relaxed, slaves were allowed to join the festivities as equals, and parties replaced council meetings, assemblies, and building-project planning boards.

People dressed in colorful clothes, decorated their homes with flowers, wreaths, and ceramic figurines, and invited friends and family in for feasts and drink while communal celebrations welcomed everyone in the neighborhood. Gifts were exchanged, usually including small figurines of Saturn as the giver of all good gifts and, the next day, everyone recovered from the festivities and went back to their normal lives.

Saturnalia, obviously, was the ancient precursor to the modern-day Christmas celebration. Scholars generally agree that Jesus Christ was probably born in the spring but the Church, in keeping with its policy of Christianizing popular pagan holidays, chose the 25th of December to celebrate Christ's birth in order to replace Saturnalia with their own holiday. Saturnalia was only the most popular and welcome of many religious festivals throughout the year, however, and these all served to bind Roman society together as a single unit with the head-of-state as the head-of-the-household of the cohesive family of the Roman people.

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The Roman Empire: in the First Century. The Roman Empire. Social Order | PBS

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Traditionally, Roman society was extremely rigid. By the first century, however, the need for capable men to run Rome's vast empire was slowly eroding the old social barriers. The social structure of ancient Rome was based on heredity, property, wealth, citizenship and freedom.

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How the Ancient Greeks Changed the World, Ancient Greek Inventions and Achievements for Kids and Teachers - Ancient Greece for Kids

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The people of ancient Greece lived nearly 4,000 years ago. Yet even today, their culture impacts our lives! Here are just a few of the gifts we received from the ancient Greeks.

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Ancient Egypt for Kids - Achievement and Inventions

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Ancient Egypt for Kids - Achievement and Inventions

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Ancient Egypt for Kids, Achievements & Inventions - Ancient Egypt for Kids

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CALENDAR: The ancient Egyptians created a calendar based on the farming season. There were 3 seasons - the flooding season, the planting season, and the harvest season. Each season was 3 months long. That added up to 360 days. The ancient Egyptians noticed they needed a few more days to fit the seasons.

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Egyptian society was structured like a pyramid. At the top were the gods, such as Ra, Osiris, and Isis. Egyptians believed that the gods controlled the universe. Therefore, it was important to keep them happy. They could make the Nile overflow, cause famine, or even bring death.

In the social pyramid of ancient Egypt the pharaoh and those associated with divinity were at the top, and servants and slaves made up the bottom.

The Egyptians also elevated some human beings to gods. Their leaders, called pharaohs, were believed to be gods in human form. They had absolute power over their subjects. After pharaohs died, huge stone pyramids were built as their tombs. Pharaohs were buried in chambers within the pyramids.

Because the people of Egypt believed that their pharaohs were gods, they entrusted their rulers with many responsibilities. Protection was at the top of the list. The pharaoh directed the army in case of a foreign threat or an internal conflict. All laws were enacted at the discretion of the pharaoh. Each farmer paid taxes in the form of grain, which were stored in the pharaoh's warehouses. This grain was used to feed the people in the event of a famine.

The Chain of Command

Ancient Egyptian royalty, nobility, and clergy enjoyed lives of wealth and comfort while farmers and slaves struggled to subsist.

No single person could manage all these duties without assistance. The pharaoh appointed a chief minister called a vizier as a supervisor. The vizier ensured that taxes were collected.

Working with the vizier were scribes who kept government records. These high-level employees had mastered a rare skill in ancient Egypt - they could read and write.

Noble Aims

Right below the pharaoh in status were powerful nobles and priests. Only nobles could hold government posts; in these positions they profited from tributes paid to the pharaoh. Priests were responsible for pleasing the gods.

Religion was a central theme in ancient Egyptian culture and each town had its own deity. Initially, these deities were animals; later, they took on human appearances and behaviors. Seated here is Thoth, the god of learning and wisdom, carrying a scepter symbolizing magical power.

Nobles enjoyed great status and also grew wealthy from donations to the gods. All Egyptians - from pharaohs to farmers - gave gifts to the gods.

Soldier On

Soldiers fought in wars or quelled domestic uprisings. During long periods of peace, soldiers also supervised the peasants, farmers, and slaves who were involved in building such structures as pyramids and palaces.

Skilled workers such as physicians and craftspersons made up the middle class. Craftspersons made and sold jewelry, pottery, papyrus products, tools, and other useful things.

Naturally, there were people needed to buy goods from artisans and traders. These were the merchants and storekeepers who sold these goods to the public.

The Bottom of the Heap

At the bottom of the social structure were slaves and farmers. Slavery became the fate of those captured as prisoners of war. In addition to being forced to work on building projects, slaves toiled at the discretion of the pharaoh or nobles.

Farmers tended the fields, raised animals, kept canals and reservoirs in good order, worked in the stone quarries, and built the royal monuments. Farmers paid taxes that could be as much as 60 percent of their yearly harvest - that's a lot of hay!

Social mobility was not impossible. A small number of peasants and farmers moved up the economic ladder. Families saved money to send their sons to village schools to learn trades. These schools were run by priests or by artisans. Boys who learned to read and write could become scribes, then go on to gain employment in the government. It was possible for a boy born on a farm to work his way up into the higher ranks of the government. Bureaucracy proved lucrative.

The Social Pyramid
The pharaoh was at the very top of ancient Egyptian society, and servants and slaves were at the bottom. Who was in the middle? Click on this interactive pyramid to find out how merchants, artists, farmers, and others stacked up. Links at the bottom of the page lead to other facts about ancient Egypt. This page comes from Odyssey Online, a website for kids produced by Emory University.

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Egyptian society was structured like a pyramid. At the top were the gods, such as Ra, Osiris, and Isis. Egyptians believed that the gods controlled the universe. Therefore, it was important to keep them happy. They could make the Nile overflow, cause famine, or even bring death.

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The Egyptian's inventions were many and it might be easier to list the things they did not invent such as the wheel; not unexpected in a country where everyone travels on water.

Most scholars now believe that isolated civilizations first arose independently at several locations; initially in Mesopotamia around Tigris and Euphrates rivers and, a little later, in Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean. Other civilizations arose in Asia along the Indus River in modern India and the Yellow River in what is now China.

All these early civilisations had to invent or discover everything for themselves because unlike later civilisations such as the Greeks in the west or the Chinese in the east, they had no one to learn from. Therefore, the Egyptians had to invented mathematics, geometry, surveying, metallurgy, astronomy, accounting, writing, paper, medicine, the ramp, the lever, the plough, mills for grinding grain and all the paraphernalia that goes with large organised societies.

So how do we define Egyptian inventions today? It is very difficult to determine because three thousand years is a long time for discoveries to be made and lost or appropriated by others. For example the Greeks sometimes take the credit for inventing mathematics but they learned their math from the Egyptians then later developed and improved upon what the Egyptian achieved.

3000 BC appears to have been a critical time for the development of technology, especially metal making. The Egyptians as well as the Mesopotamians independently discovered that by mixing a small quantity of tin ore with copper ores they could make bronze which is harder and more durable. This set off a chain of connected innovations that could not have happened without the primary discovery.

The Pyramids

The oldest pyramid was erected for King Zoser between 2667-2648 BC. In fact it is the first monumental stone building designed and constructed that we know of.

Writing

Along with the Mesopotamians, the Egyptians were the first people to develop their language into a codified form of writing. All early forms of writing were pictograms - pictures. All writing systems developed in this way but their original forms become lost as the pictures are refined into abstract forms. What is interesting about the Egyptians is that although their writing changed to the abstract form of Hieratic they deliberately preserved the hieroglyphic pictures in their original forms.

Papyrus Sheets

Papyrus sheets are the earliest paper-like material - all other civilisations used stone, clay tablets, animal hide, wood materials or wax as a writing surface. Papyrus was, for over 3000 years, the most important writing material in the ancient world. It was exported all around the Mediterranean and was widely used in the Roman Empire as well as the Byzantine Empire. Its use continued in Europe until the seventh century AD, when an embargo on exporting it forced the Europeans to use parchment.

Black Ink

The Egyptians mixed vegetable gum, soot and bee wax to make black ink. They replaced soot with other materials such as ochre to make various colours.

The Ox-drawn Plough

Using the power of oxen to pull the plough revolutionised agriculture and modified versions of this Egyptian invention are still used by farmers in developing countries around the world.

The Sickle

The sickle is a curved blade used for cutting and harvesting grain, such as wheat and barley.

Irrigation

The Egyptians constructed canals and irrigation ditches to harness Nile river's yearly flood and bring water to distant fields.

Shadoof

The Shadoof is a long balancing pole with a weight on one end and a bucket on the other. The bucket is filled with water and easily raised then emptied onto higher ground.

The Calendar

The Egyptians devised the solar calendar by recording the yearly reappearance of Sirius (the Dog Star) in the eastern sky. It was a fixed point which coincided with the yearly flooding of the Nile. Their calendar had 365 days and 12 months with 30 days in each month and an additional five festival days at the end of the year. However, they did not account for the additional fraction of a day and their calendar gradually became incorrect. Eventually Ptolemy III added one day to the 365 days every four years.

Clocks

In order to tell the time Egyptians invented two types of clock.
Obelisks were used as sun clocks by noting how its shadow moved around its surface throughout the day. From the use of obelisks they identified the longest and shortest days of the year.
An inscription in the tomb of the court official Amenemhet dating to the16th century BC shows a water clock made from a stone vessel with a tiny hole at the bottom which allowed water to dripped at a constant rate. The passage of hours could be measured from marks spaced at different levels. The priest at Karnak temple used a similar instrument at night to determine the correct hour to perform religious rites.

The Police

During the Old and Middle Kingdoms order was kept by local officials with their own private police forces. During the New Kingdom a more centralized police force developed, made up primarily of Egypt's Nubian allies, the Medjay. They were armed with staffs and used dogs. Neither rich nor poor citizens were above the law and punishments ranged from confiscation of property, beating and mutilation (including the cutting off of ears and noses) to death without a proper burial. The Egyptians believed that a proper burial was essential for entering the afterlife, so the threat of this last punishment was a real deterrent, and most crime was of a petty nature.

"They went to the granary, stole three great loaves and eight sabu-cakes of Rohusu berries. They drew a bottle of beer which was cooling in water, while I was staying in my father's room. My Lord, let whatsoever has been stolen be given back to me." (Eighteenth Dynasty)

Surgical Instruments

The Edwin Smith Papyrus shows the Egyptians invented medical surgery. It describes 48 surgical cases of injures of the head, neck, shoulders, breast and chest. It includes a list of instruments used during surgeries with instructions for the suturing of wounds using a needle and thread. This list includes lint, swabs, bandage, adhesive plaster, surgical stitches and cauterization. It is also the earliest document to make a study of the brain. The Cairo Museum has a collection of surgical instruments which include scalpels, scissors, copper needles, forceps, spoons, lancets, hooks, probes and pincers.

Wigs

During the hot summers many Egyptians shaved their heads to keep them clean and prevent pests such as lice. Although priests remained bald as part of their purification rituals, those that could afford it had wigs made in various styles and set with perfumed beeswax.

Cosmetic Makeup

The Egyptian invented eye makeup as far back as 4000 B.C. They combined soot with a lead mineral called galena to create a black ointment known as kohl. They also made green eye makeup by combining malachite with galena to tint the ointment.
Both men and women wore eye makup; believing it could cure eye diseases and keep them from falling victim to the evil eye.

Toothpaste

At the 2003 dental conference in Vienna, dentists sampled a replication of ancient Egyptian toothpaste. Its ingredients included powdered of ox hooves, ashes, burnt eggshells and pumice. Another toothpaste recipe and a how-to-brush guide was written on a papyrus from the fourth century AD describes how to mix precise amounts of rock salt, mint, dried iris flower and grains of pepper, to form a "powder for white and perfect teeth."

Mummification

The Egyptians were so expert at preserving the bodies of the dead that after thousands of years we know of the diseases they suffered such as arthritis, tuberculosis of the bone, gout, tooth decay, bladder stones, and gallstones; there is evidence, too, of the disease bilharziasis (schistosomiasis), caused by small, parasitic flatworms, which still exists in Egypt today. There seems to have been no syphilis or rickets.

Egyptian Hieroglyphics 2018

This is a brand new version that now works on Windows 10, MAC, iPad, Android and all mobile phones.
There are more than 1100 Hieroglyphic illustrations including 450 Egyptian word examples and over 650 hieroglyphs from the Gardiner list.
Egyptian Hieroglyphics includes detailed information on the history of Egyptian writing and mathematics, the use of the different types of symbols, how to write your name, how to recognize kings names and the story of the scribe with a video showing how papyrus is made.

Kids can quickly write names and short secret messages and then select print from the menu.

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Ancient Egyptian Inventions were many such as Writing Papyrus Sheets Black Ink Irrigation The Calendar Clocks Surgical Instruments Toothpaste Mummification

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As we mentioned previously, the Egyptians had a lot of trouble with their teeth, in large part because their bread had grit and sand in it, which wore out their enamel. While they didn't have dentistry, they did make some effort to keep their teeth clean. Archaeologists have found toothpicks buried alongside mummies, apparently placed there so that they could clean food debris from between their teeth in the afterlife. Along with the Babylonians, they're also credited with inventing the first toothbrushes, which were frayed ends of wooden twigs.

But the Egyptians also contributed a innovation to dental hygiene, in the form of toothpaste. Early ingredients included the powder of ox hooves, ashes, burnt eggshells and pumice, which probably made for a less-than-refreshing morning tooth-care ritual [source: Colgate.com]. Archaeologists recently found what appears to be a more advanced toothpaste recipe and how-to-brush guide written on papyrus that dates back to the Roman occupation in the fourth century A.D. The unknown author explains how to mix precise amounts of rock salt, mint, dried iris flower and grains of pepper, to form a "powder for white and perfect teeth" [source: Zoech].

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As we mentioned previously, the Egyptians had a lot of trouble with their teeth, in large part because their bread had grit and sand in it, which wore out their enamel. While they didn't have dentistry, they did make some effort to keep their teeth clean.

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10 Ways Ancient Egyptians Influenced Modern Life

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10 Ways Ancient Egyptians Influenced Modern Life

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As ancient civilizations go, the Egyptians are by far one of the more well-known. Their pyramids still stand to this day, and their mummies and sarcophagi pepper our museums, but is there more to them?

It turns out, some aspects of our modern life found their start in Egypt.

10Mathematics

The Egyptians were remarkable at mathematics. The earliest records of geometry come from Egypt, as their geometry specialists were called " arpedonapti." The arpedonapti used ropes to calculate the area of lands, eventually passing this knowledge to Greece.

Egyptians also worked out efficient ways of performing multiplication and division. While we have various ways to perform such calculations, Egyptians used a more computation-friendly method that involved doubling numbers, a technique we still use in modern-day computing. The above video goes into detail as to how computers and ancient Egyptians come together.

Egyptians also invented basic fractions. Most had 1 on the top (called a "unit fraction"), and more complex fractions (such as "4/7") had to be represented by adding up several unit fractions.

Egyptians played a game very similar to modern-day bowling.

Archaeologist William Matthews Flinders Petrie found a child's grave containing crude pins and small marbles and concluded it might have related to bowling, but there was no proof that they were used for such a purpose. More solid evidence can be found in a room near a residential area from the second century. It featured several balls and a lane with a hole in the middle. Some of the balls could fit through the center hole, while others were far too big.

Archaeologists believe it was a competitive game; one person tried to bowl the smaller ball into the hole, while someone on the other side of the lane tried to knock the ball off-course with the larger ones.

8Alphabets

Of course, we don't use any Egyptian alphabets today, but the idea of a phonetic alphabet (where each symbol represents a sound rather than a whole word) came from Egypt.

Egyptian hieroglyphs used a symbol for each word, but 24 uniliuteral signs were phonetic to pronounce loanwords and foreign words. Due to the complex nature of hieroglyphs, people had to be trained to use them, so Semitic people within Egypt crafted a 22-letter alphabet based on the uniliteral signs. It's now known as the Proto-Sinaitic alphabet. It was wholly phonetic, with each letter used to construct a larger word-like our own alphabet.

It caught on with Egypt's neighbors, including the Phoenicians. The Phoenicians would make it their own with an alphabet, simply called the Phoenician Alphabet, which spread around the Near East and Greece through trading. This acted as the foundation for alphabets around the world.

7Paper and Writing

While the Egyptians didn't discover the paper we use today, papyrus was a huge step up from carving words into stone, both in terms of ease of writing and being lighter to carry around. The Egyptians discovered papyrus (and the reed pen, so they could actually write on it) in 3000 BC. Still, it would take until 500 BC for papyrus to catch hold in the Mediterranean and West Asia. Papyrus would become one of Egypt's best exports; it was very expensive, and the secrets on how it was made were heavily guarded.

Inspired by Egypt's work, Europe would eventually move on to parchment. China would invent paper in 100 BC using mulberry bark and hemp rags, using a method that would evolve into today's technology. While Egypt's grand invention fell out of use, it gave the world the idea of moving away from stone tablets.

The Ancient Egyptians had a little bit of a dilemma. They didn't like to have a full head of hair under the heat of the Sun, but they also didn't want to go totally bald due to both the head skin being roasted by the Sun's rays and for personal fashion reasons. They needed a temporary head of hair that didn't trap heat as much as normal hair did but still looked good. The answer, of course, was the wig.

Keeping the heat away wasn't the only reason the Egyptians adopted the wig. It also protected against head lice. As for what the wigs were made from, the rich and influential could afford to wear wigs made from the real thing-hair, either from themselves or someone else.

5Recorded Medicine

People were treating wounds with all kinds of herbs and ground-up animal parts for a long time. Due to their new and convenient writing methods, however, the Egyptians produced some of the oldest logs we've found of both medical procedures and medicine recipes. So far, we've found nine separate papyrus logs that talk about how the Egyptians performed their medicine.

One of them, the Edwin Smith papyrus, discusses myriad different wounds on each part of the body and their treatments. It's unique, as it's the first historical medical description that doesn't rely on supernatural or magical forces to treat the wounds, making it scientifically sound-at least, as sound as Egyptian science was at the time. If you'd like to read some of their methods yourself, you can read a translation of the Edwin Smith scroll online.

To go with their new-fangled recorded medicine, the Egyptians hold the title for the civilization with the earliest discovered surgical tools. They were found within the Tomb of Qar, known as "the Physician of the palace and keeper of the secrets of the king." Kept next to Qar's head were several bronze surgical tools, each of which sported a hole as if intended to be hung up on a hook.

Of course, given how Egyptians were now writing down their methods and procedures, we can also see written logs of surgery. They detail the removal of cysts and tumors, but more major surgeries that are performed today were probably never performed back then. Given how it was in the very early days of human biology study and anesthetics were still very crude, it's easy to imagine why.

How we divide the day into hours and minutes and the structure and length of the yearly calendar owe much to pioneering developments in ancient Egypt. Ancient Egypt was run according to three different calendars. The first was a lunar calendar based on 12 lunar months, each of which began on the first day in which the old moon crescent was no longer visible in the East at dawn. This calendar was used for religious festivals.

The second calendar, used for administrative purposes, was based on the observation that there were usually 365 days between the heliacal rising of Serpet. This civil calendar was split into twelve months of 30 days with an additional five epagomenal days attached at the end of the year. These five days became a festival because it was thought to be unlucky to work during that time. A third calendar, which dates back at least to the 4th century BC, was used to match the lunar cycle to the civil year. It was based on 25 civil years, which was approximately equal to 309 lunar months.

2Toothpaste

Methods of keeping the teeth clean of detritus have been around for a while, but the Egyptians invented the first recorded toothpaste specifically created and reported to help oral health. Some Egyptian tombs were even found with toothbrushes within, which consisted of a twig frayed on one end.

Found in papyrus documents, the recipe for an Egyptian-style toothpaste is a drachma (1/100 of an ounce) of rock salt, two drachmas of mint, a drachma of the dried iris flower, and some pepper. A dentist called Heinz Neuman gave this recipe a shot and said that while it made his gums bleed, his mouth definitely felt cleaner afterward.

While glass can be found naturally formed around the world, the first proof that people were creating and using glass in crafts can be found back in 3500 BC, in both the Egyptian and the Mesopotamian civilizations, mainly in the form of small glass beads.

The Egyptians would go on to discover an efficient way of making vases, by plunging compacted sand molds into molten glass and rolling the result onto a cooled slab. The earliest Egyptian vases found were dedicated to Pharaoh Thoutmosis III, dating to around 1500 BC. Ancient Egyptians also managed to master the art of making red glass, which was very hard to do due to the glass having to be fired in an environment without oxygen.

Both the Egyptians and the Mesopotamians would spread their methods through trade and conquer, inspiring the Romans to take up the craft.

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10 Ways Ancient Egyptians Influenced Modern Life - Listverse

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As ancient civilizations go, the Egyptians are by far one of the more well-known. Their pyramids still stand to this day, and their mummies and sarcophagi pepper our museums, but is there more to them? It turns out, some aspects of our modern life found their start in Egypt.

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Throughout history, inventions have defined civilizations and changed the way we live our lives. The ancient world was full of possibilities when it came to making life easier since there was so much to invent and discover. Ancient Rome is undoubtedly one of the most well-known civilizations for inventions that changed the course of human development. However, in many cases, Roman invention was more accurately innovation, bringing about changes to existing technology. Without further ado, here is a list of the top 10 ancient Roman inventions that led to major advances in engineering and architecture, establishing the Romans as one of the most dominant civilizations of the contemporary period.

10. Arches

Even though the first use of this incredible architectural invention predates even the earliest years of the Roman civilization, the arch truly became an essential structure in the general architecture paradigm once the Romans adapted it to their own designs. It was the Romans who first found a way to set an arch on top of two tall pedestals such that it would span a walkway (and in many cases, even highways). These arches went on to become pivotal engineering constructions that laid the foundation for many of the subsequent structural highlights of ancient Rome. Many bridges were built upon these arches, and so were the aqueducts, sewers, amphitheaters, and even the great Colosseum. Roman arches were later used in the Middle Ages when some of the most magnificent cathedrals in history were built. In fact, it was the only known method for putting a roof on a building without the use of support beams.

9. Grid-based cities

Again, the Romans were not the first to invent grid-based establishments and cities, and the earliest basic grid planning dates as far back as the ancient Indus city of Mahjong Daro and Harappa in Pakistan. But it was the Romans who embraced this concept, added a new dimension to it and implementing it on such a large scale that grid-based settlements became commonplace. A basic Roman grid was characterized by a rectangle or a square in a nearly perfect orthogonal layout of streets. The two main streets, the cardo and the decumanus, would cross each other at a right angle in the center of the grid. This grid was an ideal structure to organize the different components of a city such as housing, theaters, and stores into particular blocks. To avoid the city becoming a monotonous series of blocks, the Romans incorporated various items such as open theaters, public baths, markets, and other recreational facilities within the city grid. They then went on to standardize this pattern of settlement by building colonial cities and military camps throughout their huge empire, from Britain to North Africa, Italy, and the Eastern Mediterranean region.

8. Sewers and Sanitation

The ancient Roman Empire in many ways boasted the highest level of sewage and sanitation management in contemporary times. The Romans established a number of public baths, latrines, and an interlinked sewage line binding them all together in a complex and efficient feat of engineering. Rome and other major cities had an extensive network of sewers and drains that ran along the sides of the streets. The abundance of water in Roman aqueducts along with runoff water from local streams was regularly used to flush these drains and sewers. The flush would then dump all the waste into the nearest river (usually the Tiber), which does not sound the best sanitary solution but was far better than leaving the sewage lying around in the streets. The ancient Romans also excelled in the use of covered gutters and sewer lines to which the majority of houses in the city were connected. Without a doubt, their sewage and sanitation system made the ancient Romans forerunners for subsequent practices in sanitation throughout the world.

7. Roads and Highways

One of the main reasons behind ancient Rome's impeccable and effective administration of such a vast empire was the construction of one of the most sophisticated systems of roads in ancient times. Roman roads and highways played a pivotal role in the rise of the Roman state, expanding all across the Roman Republic and then the Roman Empire. In a period of about 700 years, they built about 55,000 miles of paved highways around the Mediterranean basin and across Europe - a feat that ensured the fast and efficient movement of goods, soldiers, and information across the entire empire. Roman roads usually followed a straight route across the countryside, making travel efficient and fast. These expertly engineered routes were easy to navigate and the Romans were one of the first to use road signs and mile markers. They also made sure the majority of highways were well protected and patrolled.

6. Aqueducts

Back in the times of the Roman Empire and Republic, the Romans enjoyed many facilities which would not have been possible had they not mastered the technique of building aqueducts to transport water from rivers, springs, and reservoirs. The first Roman aqueducts were built around 312 BC and from then on took off as an engineering marvel that used the downhill flow of water to supply the city centers. The entire aqueduct network relied on various factors and the use of gravity to maintain a continuous flow, which made the overall engineering concept remarkable for its time. Once the water reached bigger cities like Rome, large reservoirs would then contain it. The public baths, fountains, toilets, and private villas could then all tap into the network and access the water. Being one of the most visible symbols of the ancient water transport system, the aqueduct stands as a true testament of ancient Roman engineering and innovation.

See also:
Top 10 Amazing Facts about Ancient Rome

5. Roman Numerals

As the name already suggests, Roman numerals originated in ancient Rome. Constituting one of the most popular numbering systems still in use today, the first use of these numbers dates back to somewhere between 900 and 800 BC. Back then, the existing counting systems could not keep up with the need for ever complex calculation requirements. Roman numerals were developed to serve the purpose of delivering a standard counting method that could be efficiently used in communication and trade. However, these Roman numbers came with their flaws such as the absence of the number zero and the inability to calculate fractions, among others. Despite this, these numbers survived even after the fall of the Roman Empire. Their use in movie titles, books, and many other popular and cultural spheres today shows the long-lasting legacy of this ancient numerical notation.

4. Surgery Tools and Techniques

The ancient Romans invented a number of surgical tools and techniques that led the way for subsequent developments in the fields of medicine and surgery. The Roman medical scene was heavily influenced by surgical advances achieved by the ancient Greeks. Medical practitioners in ancient Rome not only utilized all available tools, but also developed many new tools themselves and invented procedures such as the cesarean section. But they made the biggest surgical leaps on the battlefield by making field medicine a primary concern. During the reign of Augustus, a military medical corps was established to assist injured soldiers in battle. The Romans mastered medical innovations to curb immediate blood loss in battle, thus saving thousands of lives. They also invented tools like bronze scalpels, obstetric hooks, bone drills, and forceps, and also the rather frighteningly named vaginal speculum. The Romans are also credited with pioneering the earliest form of antiseptic surgery since they used to dip medical tools in hot water to disinfect them before surgery.

See also:
Top 10 Popular Ancient Weapons

3. Julian Calendar

As the ancient Romans became the biggest civilization of the ancient Western world, they realized the complications of maintaining a standard calendar which could apply to the whole empire. It did not help that they introduced months with odd numbers of days because of a prevailing superstition against even numbers. Eventually, the calendar was so far from a regular timeline that Julius Caesar implemented a new reform, making the duration of a solar year the basis for the calendar. He also instituted the 12 months of the year. It is clear from the name that the calendar was named after Julius Caesar himself, and some Eastern orthodox churches use it to calculate holidays even today. Even though it was a seemingly perfect innovation for its time, the Julian calendar miscalculated the solar year by about 11 and a half minutes. This eventually led to the creation of the Gregorian calendar that relied heavily on the Julian model and was adopted in 1582 AD.

2. Newspapers

History is rife with autocrats who wanted to keep the public in the loop about official announcements and developments. Rome was the first empire to establish a sophisticated system of circulating written news which it published the Acta Diurna which translates as "Daily Events." These handwritten news sheets were published daily and posted by the government in the Roman Forum from the year 59 BC to somewhere around 222 AD. The majority of the content in the Acta Diurna usually comprised of political news, trials, military campaigns, executions, major scandals, and other similar subjects. The Romans also published the Acta Senatus that recorded the proceedings in the Roman Senate, though this sort of journal was kept out of public reach until Julius Caesar made it accessible to everyone as part of the popular reforms he introduced during his reign. When the first modern newspapers were introduced in Europe, they may have had no bearing on the early Acta Diurna, but these news sheets were the pioneers of news publishing history.

1. Concrete

The ancient Romans were particularly skillful at both quickly building new structures and maintaining their structural integrity. The revolutionary concrete developed by the Romans helped to build impeccable and lasting structures, playing a huge part in the architectural accession of ancient Rome. The scientists who studied its composition in detail found it to be superior to modern-day concrete and far more environmentally friendly.

The piece of concrete they experimented on had been submerged in the Mediterranean for more than 2,000 years. Analysis of this concrete found that it produced a compound that significantly differed from the concrete we use today and made it an incredibly strong building material. The Romans used to combine their cement with volcanic rock popularly known as "tuff," enabling the resulting concrete to endure possible chemical decay. It is not much of a surprise that many ancient Roman structures such as the Pantheon, the Colosseum and the Roman Forum having been standing for more than two millennia.

See also:

Conclusion

Courtesy of the inventions and innovations listed above, it is only fair to say the Romans certainly stepped out from beneath the giant shadow of the ancient Greeks. From engineering marvels like aqueducts and arches to the amazingly stable concrete that stood the test of time, the ancient Romans truly succeeded in inventing and innovating their way to become one of the most prominent empires of the ancient world. Though many of their advances may have been forgotten in the light of far superior modern technological developments, their inventions encouraged subsequent societies to adopt news ways of governing, living, and understanding the world.

See also:

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Throughout history, inventions have defined civilizations and changed the way we live our lives. The ancient world was full of possibilities when it came to making life easier since there was so much to invent and discover. Ancient Rome is undoubtedly one of the most well-known civilizations for inventions that changed the course of human development.

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http://www.history.com/news/history-lists/10-innovations-that-built-ancient-rome

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Invention or adaptation: what did the Romans really do for us?

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Invention or adaptation: what did the Romans really do for us?

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The Romans get the credit for a lot of inventions, but things are more complicated than that. Jem Duducu investigates how Roman innovation was often a case of adaptation, rather than originality...

Rather than thinking of the Romans as great inventors, perhaps a more appropriate analogy would be to think of them as the Apple of their day. Apple didn't invent the smart phone, nor did they create the first music download, and electronic tablets were around for more than a decade before the iPad. But what Apple did do was take existing concepts and develop them in ways that hadn't been done before. The Romans did exactly the same thing - they took an idea and developed it to the next level. Here are just a few examples:

1) The Romans and roads

In the fifth century BC, King Darius of Persia ordered the construction of the 'Royal Road', which stretches over 1,600 miles - but not all of it was paved, nor was all of it straight. The oldest paved road in history is in an Egyptian quarry and is around 4,600 years old.

The Romans could see potential in these early roads, so they borrowed the idea and enhanced it. At the peak of the Roman empire there were 29 military highways radiating from the capital, with 113 provinces interconnected by 372 roads - nearly a quarter of a million miles in total. At the time, and for years to come, this was the best-connected empire the world had ever seen.

Straight, paved roads improved communication, trade and the movement of armies. However, they were also expensive to build and maintain. Only 20 per cent of Roman roads were paved in stone, meaning that 80 per cent were either dirt tracks or covered only in gravel, which degraded over the winter months. Even the stone roads weren't always all that great. In the Vindolanda Tablets - a series of 'postcards' written on slivers of wood and discarded at a Roman fort on Hadrian's Wall - it is interesting to read complaints about the state of the roads that the soldiers travelled on, demonstrating that maintenance wasn't always a priority.

2) The Romans copied the Greeks... a lot

Roman civilisation only really got into its stride in the third century BC. By then, the Greeks had been cultivating their culture for centuries. By the second century BC, Macedonia was still the main military power in the Greek world, but Rome was a greedy neighbour and fought four separate wars against it. By 146 BC, Macedonia and the rest of the Greek world had fallen under Roman rule.

Roman architecture is an interesting example of Greek influence. The very first structures in Rome were circular, implying a Celtic influence, but over time that all changed. Instead, the columns and triangular pediments that had been all the rage in Greece for centuries began to emerge.

Another example of the Greek influence on Rome is the pantheon of gods, renamed by the Romans but, in terms of myths and imagery, completely interchangeable with the Greek gods. Zeus was Jupiter and Aries was Mars, while soothsayers and oracles both also appeared in Greek culture.

The Olympic Games flourished under Roman rule and even chariot racing seems to have originated in Greece.
Roman art: Chariot race with the charioteers in starting position. Mosaic of the 3rd century, National Archaeological Museum, Madrid, Spain (Photo by Leemage/Corbis via Getty Images)
3) The Romans (sort of) invented concrete

There is a form of concrete that is naturally occurring, so technically it predates humans. Yet in around 1200 BC, the Mycenaeans made floors in concrete. Independently, Bedouins in north Africa also created their own concrete before the Roman era.

However, it was the Romans who were to use concrete - made from a mixture of water, quicklime, sand and volcanic ash - extensively and consistently from around 300 BC, right up to the fall of Rome in the fifth century AD. Indeed our word 'concrete' comes from the Latin concretus, meaning 'compact'. Somewhat ironically, the Romans didn't use the Latin word concretus; they called it opus caementicium.

The Romans recognised that building arches and domes using a quick-drying, liquid material was far easier than trying to build the same features in brick or stone. It was also far cheaper and quicker than building a large structure from solid marble. It was also the Romans who developed the idea of making a framework in concrete, before cladding it with stone. The Colosseum in Rome is an example of a large, mainly concrete, Roman structure.

Emperor Augustus famously said, "I found Rome a city of bricks and left it a city of marble". While this may be a great line that underscores his achievements as emperor, he missed out the most important Roman building material of all - concrete.

Colosseum, Rome. (© Horst Gossmann/Dreamstime.com)

4) Julius Caesar created a calendar

The Julian calendar was not the first calendar, but has been the most influential in European history. Julius Caesar didn't put his name to the months however; this was done later in his honour. The old Quintilis was changed to Iulius (July), and the eighth month became known as Augustus (August).

The Julian calendar has a regular year of 365 days, divided into 12 months, with a leap day added to February every four years. This system worked well for over a millennium.

However, the year isn't exactly 365 ¼ days long. Although this was only a tiny discrepancy, over the centuries it began to cause problems - the calendar year gained about three days every four centuries. So over long periods of time, it needed adjustments, and changes were brought into effect in 46 BC. Once again, what had been in use previously was refined and recalibrated in 1582 to become our modern day Gregorian calendar.

5) The Romans were masters of siege warfare

The Romans didn't invent siege warfare, but they certainly mastered it. It is fair to say that if Roman legions made it as far as an enemy city or fort, the defenders were at a disadvantage, no matter how high or how thick their walls. Alongside brutal tactics, the Romans had a number of weapons to bring a siege to a successful conclusion.

One of these deadly tools was a ballista (what the modern world would call a catapult), which hurled stones or sometimes pots of Greek fire, the ancient equivalent of napalm. Depending on circumstances, ballistas could also be mounted on warships. The Romans were exceptional engineers who could usually determine the weak spots in defenders' walls and would keep pounding them until they came down. A later version of the ballista was called an onager, which did pretty much the same job but was cheaper and easier to build.

The scorpio, meanwhile, was like a large version of a crossbow. It could fire bolts over long distances (well out of the range of enemy archers) and was designed to kill careless defenders on the city walls.

Engraving of Roman war engine the scorpio. From 'Poliorceticon sive de machinis tormentis telis' by Justus Lipsius (Antwerp, 1605). (Photo by Universal History Archive/Getty Images)

Another complex and fearsome weapon was the siege tower. This was a moveable wooden tower, designed to be rolled up to enemy walls, allowing the troops inside to descend onto the enemy defenders. Siege towers took time to build and needed ramps, which allowed the defenders to see what was coming and gave them time to prepare a counter-attack. Nevertheless, when siege towers were deployed, more often than not they got the Romans over the walls.

If all of these failed, a battering ram could be used against the defenders' gates. These rams were protected by a wooden gallery covered in wet cowhides to stop them being burnt by the defenders.

Once enemy walls were breached, the Roman soldiers would advance in a testudo (tortoise) formation. This involved covering their heads with their rectangular shields, with other shields protecting their front and sides. Such a formation absorbed arrows and small rocks, giving the men valuable time to get to the breach relatively unharmed.

6) Diocletian tried reinventing government and inventing economics

Not all Roman experiments were successful. In AD 284, Diocletian, a man of low birth who had risen through the ranks in the army, became emperor. He solidified the idea of the 'tetrarchy': a system of sub-emperors, each one ruling over a number of provinces, all reporting to him. This meant that local issues could be dealt with locally and that power was shared (to a certain extent). Obviously a sub-emperor could go rogue, but after decades of war and strife, the tetrarchy was a welcome idea that brought peace.

By AD 300 however, Diocletian's empire was facing economic problems: free trade had broken down in some areas and prices were rising. The emperor didn't help the situation when he embarked on a costly public building programme on a scale not seen for generations.

Diocletian attempted to confront these issues head on. First, he overhauled the tax system, which eliminated ingrained inefficiencies. He also recognised that the coinage had been debased to an extent that confidence in the Roman currency had diminished, so he reminted and revalued all of the coins. While this may sound like a good idea, costs continued to rise even faster, creating a huge spike in prices. Diocletian responded by setting price caps on most resources. The penalty for disobeying these imposed price caps? Death. The system of fixed prices was widely despised, and almost as soon as it was introduced, it was generally ignored. The law of supply and demand dictates that if someone needs something badly enough, they will pay over the odds. Under the circumstances, the black market boomed. Fortunately, the situation in AD 301 didn't last long - once the new coinage had a chance to embed itself in the Roman economy, prices began to normalise.

Diocletian was also a highly unusual Roman emperor in that, in AD 305, he voluntarily abdicated in favour of a two-emperor system. He retired to the Dalmatian coast (modern day Croatia), where he lived out his days in splendour and spent his time cultivating cabbages.

7) There is one thing the Romans definitely invented: the book

After all these examples of the Romans enhancing existing ideas rather than inventing new ones, here's one that was genuinely original.

The first recognisable alphabet, and therefore writing, was developed in ancient Babylon around 3100 BC. This writing was done on clay tablets - not the most portable of formats for written literature. The Egyptians made a leap forwards with papyrus, thin sheets made from the pith of the papyrus plant. Now knowledge could be preserved on scrolls, which were easier to transport, but still bulky. Paper itself was invented in China around the end of the first century AD but didn't reach Europe until after the fall of the western Roman empire.

Around the same time that paper was being invented in China, the Romans invented the codex. For the first time, sheets of a uniform size were bound together along one edge, in between two larger, stronger protective covers. And again for the first time, large amounts of written information could be concentrated in one highly transportable volume. This would become the standard way to write and store information until the rise of the e-book 1,900 years later. Across the empire (both during and after the Roman era), the book became the standard format for writing. Most famously, the word 'bible' is a variation of the Greek word for 'the books' ( ta biblia). The invention of the book enabled much easier sharing of complex ideas, including everything from Christianity to annals about emperors.
Jem Duducu is the author of The Romans in 100 Facts (Amberley Publishing, 2015). You can follow Jem on Twitter and Facebook @HistoryGems.

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Invention or adaptation: what did the Romans really do for us?

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Rather than thinking of the Romans as great inventors, perhaps a more appropriate analogy would be to think of them as the Apple of their day. Apple didn't invent the smart phone, nor did they create the first music download, and electronic tablets were around for more than a decade before the iPad.

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WATER AND WASTEWATER SYSTEMS IN IMPERIAL ROME

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WATER AND WASTEWATER SYSTEMS IN IMPERIAL ROME

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ABSTRACT: Ancient Rome is famous for its water and wastewater systems. This paper is a discussion of the impact these systems had on living conditions in the imperial city. Rome's water system provided a constant supply to centrally located areas, in contrast to modern systems which deliver water on demand to individual connections. For both water and wastewater systems, access points were generally outside the household. Because of this lack of individual connections, Romans were forced to spend much of their time outside their tenements in the shops, streets, latrines, baths, and arenas of the noisy, vibrant city.

Rome's water supply system was one of the marvels of the ancient world. After all, who has not heard of the aqueducts? Much is known and has been written about Rome's water supply. Much less, however, has been made of the impact that the water (and wastewater) system had on the Roman lifestyle. Answers to the following questions provide us with valuable information about the water use in an ancient society:

(1) How was water used in the imperial city?
(2) Who benefitted from Rome's water supply?
(3) What impact did the water and wastewater systems have on public sanitation and fire protection?
(4) What operation and maintenance problems did the systems have?
(5) How do Rome's systems contrast with contemporary water and wastewater systems?

SOURCES OF INFORMATION

A variety of first-hand written material concerning public utilities and general life in ancient Rome is available. This information has been augmented with considerable archeological evidence. This paper combines information from both to construct a picture of life in imperial Rome.

Rome's authors frequently wrote from diverse points of view. This has resulted in contradictory images of the imperial city. In general, written records have given us two distinct descriptions: the first is the classical city of grandiose monuments and engineering marvels; the second is the Rome described by the ancient satirists.

Representing the classical image of Rome is Sextus Julius Frontinus, the water commissioner at the end of the first century A.D. The books of Frontinus have made him the most famous of the Roman engineers. He has left us his personal account of the water system of Rome: De aquae ductu Urbis Romae. He described in proud detail the sources, length, and function of each of Rome's aqueducts. Frontinus is best remembered for his statement ( Frontinus, trans. by Bennett , 1961, p. 357): ". . . with such an array of indispensable structures carrying so many waters, compare if you will, the idle Pyramids or the useless, though famous works of the Greek." This quotation tells us a lot about Frontinus; he was a utilitarian public servant with little interest in beauty apart from function.

Representing the ancient satirists is Decimus Julius Juvenal, a contemporary of Frontinus. Very little is known about Juvenal, but he did leave the world sixteen poems. Nineteen centuries of readers have characterized his work with such adjectives as bitter, hysterical, profound, brilliant and pornographic. Juvenal satirized morals and life styles. He heaped considerable abuse on the living conditions in the imperial city.

ANCIENT ROME

While much is known about the city's monumental structures like the Coliseum and Forum, less is known about residential structures. Archaeologists tell us that the majority of Romans lived near the center of the city ( Packer, 1967). In an era when urban transportation and communication was slow and difficult, it made sense to concentrate as many residents as possible near centers of attraction. A visitor to ancient Rome generally had trouble getting around. Most of the residential streets were unnamed, and houses and apartments were unnumbered. There were few sidewalks. Streets were narrow and crowded ( Juvenal, trans. by Mazzaro, 1965, p. 44):

And what rest is there in the rooms we keep?
The rich may rest my friend. It's their real power.
Daily the traffic wakes.
Our narrow winding streets, or narrow drives
Make sleep impossible the lifelong night
Yet the rich man's paths are always cut,
And shoulder-high he's borne on four slaves.

Walking Rome's street was frequently dangerous, for it was not unusual to dispose of trash by throwing it out windows.

While there were palaces and individual houses which provided lodging for the rich and powerful, the majority of Romans lived in tenement houses ( Figure 1). Because continual rebuilding has destroyed most of Rome's ancient apartments, we need to took at nearby Ostia for information. During the first and second centuries A.D., Ostia was the port of the city of Rome. Silt, along with the decline of the Roman Empire, killed Ostia. The Tiber River delta gradually became unnavigable. The silting up of the Tiber created at Ostia what the cataclismic eruption of Vesuvius created at Pompeii: a wealth of information on domestic life in ancient Rome. According to Watts and Watts (1986, p.133):

In Pompeii there are many well preserved examples of the traditional single-family house, the domus, with its characteristic arrangement of rooms around a central atrium. In densely populated Ostia, on the other hand, as in Rome itself, only the very wealthy could afford a domus; the middle and lower classes lived in three-to-six story apartment buildings call insulae.

The ground floor of the insulae frequently housed commercial shops.

Most of Rome's dwellings were ill-supplied with heat, light, and water. The sanitary arrangements, if judged by modern standards, were inadequate. The typical Roman must have lived almost entirely outside of his tenement house, in the streets, shops, latrines, baths, and arenas of the city. The domicile must have served principally as a place to sleep and store possessions.

WATER SUPPLY

Romans, at first, turned to the Tiber River, local springs, and shallow wells for their drinking water; but water obtained from these sources grew polluted and became inadequate for the city's growing population. It was this necessity that lead to the development of aqueduct technology. The date of the first aqueduct is assigned to the year 312 B.C.

During the time of Frontinus, nine aqueducts conveyed water from distant springs and streams to Rome ( Table 1). The water in the aqueducts descended gently through concrete channels. Multi-tiered viaducts were used to cross low areas. Inverted siphons were employed (sparingly) when valleys were particularly deep. Tunnels, burrowed through hill too difficult to skirt, were equipped with vertical shafts for inspection and cleaning ( Figure 2). Debris cleaned from the tunnels was dumped beside the openings to the vertical shafts. Modern archaeologists have been able to locate long abandoned conduits by finding the piles of debris ( Smith, 1978).

Aqueduct

Date Constructed

Length (meters)

Altitudeof SourceAbove Sea-Level

Levelin Rome

Source: Lanciani, 1967, p. 58.

Various vestiges of aqueduct bridges are still in evidence in and around modern Rome. The popular but inaccurate image is that Roman aqueducts were elevated throughout their entire length on lines of arches. Roman engineers were very practical; whenever possible the aqueducts followed a steady downhill course at or below ground level. Inverted siphons, viaducts, and tunnel were used sparingly, when difficult conditions could not be met by any other techniques. The system of aqueducts serving Rome had only 5 percent of its total distance supported by viaducts or bridges ( Smith, 1978).

In the long run, the elevated sections were not an unqualified success. Both archeological and written evidence indicate they required extensive and frequent repairs, which entailed lengthy interruptions in the flow of water. According to Smith (1978), the Aqua Claudia, which was under construction for 15 years, was repaired after 10 years of use and 9 years of disuse, repaired again 9 years later and worked on once more just four years later. Evidence of substandard construction and repair work is evident in the sections of the aqueduct that still exist.

To further complicate matters, not all the water diverted into the aqueduct arrived in Rome. Frontinus (1961, p. 405) described the problem of illegal connections:

. . . a large number of landed proprietors, past whose fields the aqueducts run, tap the conduits; whence it comes that the public water courses are actually brought to a standstill by private citizens, just to water their gardens.

Providing Rome an adequate water supply required a constant vigil on the part of water officials.

The aqueduct channels were equipped with air vents or inspection holes. The channels were usually rectangular in the cross-section and varied from 0.5 to 2.0 meters in width and from 1.5 to 2.5 meters in depth. Sometimes two or three channels were superimposed, the upper ones being added to the original to accommodate increasing demand.

Once in or near Rome, water from the aqueducts passed into large, covered catch-basins. Here waters were supposed to deposit their sediment ( Frontinus, 1961, p. 361). Waters from the catch-basins were distributed through free-flowing canals, lead pipes, and terra-cotta pipes to storage reservoirs and then through lead pipes (called fistulae) to users. The number of connections to private customers were limited; most Romans were obliged to get their supply of domestic water from public fountains.

Water was supposedly only piped into the abodes of those lucky enough to have official authorization, but having running water was so desirable that Romans were constantly bribing water officials to tap an aqueduct. Frontinus (1961, p. 447) described a problem called "puncturing":

. . . There are extensive areas in various places where secret pipes run under the pavement all over the city. I discovered that these pipes were furnishing water by special branches to all those engaged in business in those localities through which the pipes ran, being bored for the purpose here and there by the so-called "punctures". How large an amount of water has been stolen in his manner, I estimate by means of the fact that a considerable quantity of lead has been brought in by the removal of that kind of branch pipe.

In the late nineteenth century, archaeologists found a lead pipe which conveyed water from a reservoir to the Roman Forum. The pipe was 1750 meters long and required 232,750 kilograms of lead ( Lanciani, 1897). When it is considered that there were thousands of these conduits in Rome, one can get a feeling for Rome's massive dependence on lead.

Figure 2. The Courses of the Nine Aqueducts in Existence at the Time of Frontinus (Source: Smith, 1978).

WATER QUALITY

As one might expect, Roman water quality standards were remedial, taking into consideration only such factors as taste, temperature, smell, and appearance. Since the quality of water from the nine aqueducts varied, the worst waters were used for articial lakes and irrigation, and the best for drinking. The aqueducts carrying water to Rome were covered to prevent the water from being contaminated by dust, dirt, and other impurities and from being heated by the sun. The best quality waters came from the valley of the Anio River.

One source (Anio Novus) from that watershed, however, did have a water quality problem every time it rained. Roman engineers first tried mixing it with water from a nearby clear spring. Next they tried running it through a small settling basin. Because of design problems with the basin, this too was unsuccessful. Finally the condition of the water was improved by carrying the head of the aqueduct higher up the valley to a reservoir formed behind an immense dam near Subiaco. The articial lake served efficiently as a settling basin and the quality of the water was improved.

The dam at Subiaco was built to form a pleasure lake for the Emperor Nero. It was a straight masonry dam and reached a maximum height of approximately 40 meters. The Subiaco Dam was the highest such structure built by the Romans and their only known use of dam technology in Italy. It failed in 1305 without leaving a trace ( Smith, 1970).

It has been hypothesized that Rome's dependence on lead water pipes lead to its decline. It has been suggested that the aristocracy died off from nothing more complicated than simple lead poisoning.

Since almost all of the lead absorbed by the human body is deposited in bones, investigators have studied the bones of ancient Romans. While some studies did indicate above normal concentrations of lead, it seems unlikely that water pipes were a contributing factor. Hodge (1981) has correctly pointed out that lead pipes would not have caused contamination for two reasons: (1) because the Roman water contained high concentrations of calcium which formed deposits inside the pipes, insulating the lead and (2) because lead will never greatly affect running water.

WATER USAGE

Water was provided for a variety of uses including fountains (which served as sources for culinary water) and latrines, and for more exotic activities such as public baths and sham naval battles. With few exceptions, the water from the aqueducts reached only the ground floor of apartment buildings. The tenants of the upper floors had to rely on slaves to carry water or go themselves and draw water from the nearest fountain. Because fire was a constant concern, Romans were encouraged to keep water stored in their rooms.

It is not difficult to imagine the problem sixth-floor residents, with no running water, had in dealing with fire and public sanitation. Residents of apartment buildings lived with a constant fear of fire ( Juvenal, 1965, p. 36):

for what disheartens worse
than the exhausting dangers of this town,
the dread of flashfire's ruin or falling houses
or poets spouting their dull, awful verses.

Many must also have lived in a constant state of squalor. In fact, fire probably served an important public sanitation function.

We know that Rome was struck by massive fires on several occasions. Most notable was the fire during the reign of the Emperor Nero which destroyed large sections of Rome because the city had no effective means of stopping the spread of the fire. Juvenal (1965, p. 43) indicated that arson was a problem, " . . . rumors hint that he set his house afire".

Besides private connections and fountains, the aqueducts supplied water to latrines. Many of Rome's were sumptuous. All around the circular or rectangular structure, water flowed continuously in small channels. One of the more elaborate establishments had 20 seats made of marble and each seat was framed by sculptured brackets in the form of dolphins. Occasionally the latrine was cheered by the sounds and sights of a fountain. Latrines were heated; nothing is colder than marble.

Two common forms of entertainment--baths and sham naval battles required large quantities of water. During the Roman Empire, baths became more and more elaborate, providing not only bathing facilities, but games, lectures, musical performances, prostitutes, calisthenics, and places to lounge and gossip. The baths had hot, warm, and cold water pools. The water in the pools was changed several times each day. The air and water were heated by a number of underground furnaces. These furnaces were like bakers' ovens. Water of two different temperatures--hot and warm--circulated automatically by thermo-siphon.

Another popular form of entertainment was the sham naval battle on articial lakes (naumachia). These not-so-sham battles were the most elaborate of all spectacles offered at Roman celebrations. The contestants butchered one another until one side or the other was eliminated; the victors, if they fought bravely, were occasionally given their freedom. The Emperor Domitian had the arena of the Coliseum flooded and reproduced an historic naval battle. Special piping was installed under the floor for flooding. The arena, however, proved to be too small. Roman historians report that Domitian staged sham naval battles with almost regular fleets, having dug an artificial lake near the Tiber River and surrounded it with seats. His enthusiasm was so great he continued to watch contests amid heavy rains ( Suetonius, trans. by Rolfe, 1951). Generally the aqueduct with poorest quality water was used to fill the naumachia.

PER CAPITA WATER USEAGE

One unresolved historical problem regarding water use bears discussion; the quantity of water provided by the aqueducts. In general, data provided by archeological evidence and written accounts fall short of that required for the computation of either per capita supply or per capita use. The cross-sectional areas of the aqueducts are known, but one cannot be sure the conduits ever ran full. Sizing of the channels was probably determined as much by the need for work space as by the volume needed for water. As previously mentioned, it was certainly a rare occasion when the aqueducts were all working at the same time. Another uncertainty is the population of Imperial Rome. No accurate estimate exists for any particular period. It is generally assumed that during Frontinus' era the population of Rome was approximately one million ( Parker, 1967).

Early opinions on the amount of water delivered by the aqueducts varies from a low of 322,000 cubic meters per day ( Herschel, 1913) to a high of 1,010,623 ( Ashby, 1935). There is also little consensus among more recent estimates. Bruun in his 1991 monograph (p. 100) prefers a number in the 600,000 range; this number he feels is the most defensible, given the current level of knowledge. This latter figure computes to a per capita supply of 0.6 cubic meters (or 600 liters) per day. But this figure is misleading because of the unequal division between public consumption (44 percent according to Frontinus) and the small number of private users (who received a combined 38 percent).

Bruun (1991, p. 103) makes an estimate of the per capita useage of the middle and lower classes. According to Frontinus, the aqueducts served 591 lacus (or major delivery points), and each, on average, delivered 60 cubic meters of water per day. Bruun estimates that each delivery point served, on average, 900 individuals. This computes to a per capita water use of 67 liters per day.

This figure is considerably lower than all previous estimates, but it is not too low when you consider that Romans could also benefit from water from baths, latrines, and other establishments, as well as from rainwater and the Tiber River. The 67-liters-per-day figure is only water delivered from the lacus. It would seem that for the ordinary Roman, this quantity or water was satisfactory, but not lavish. Contemporary residential customers in the United States require approximately 250 liters per person per day.

But comparing Roman water supply and useage rates with contemporary needs is problematic. It is commonly felt that water to ancient Rome was delivered in a constant flow instead of on-demand (as with modern systems). For example, water flowed through a latrine in one continual stream, not just when flushed as is the case with the modern toilet. Fountains ran night and day. For this reason, to compare a per capita water use figure for Rome with a twentieth-century figure is somewhat misleading.

Bruun (p. 112) disagrees somewhat with the idea that Rome's water supply was constant and continuous:

Arguably the Romans considered water flowing day and night as a particular sign of richness and a high standard of living. But this does not necessarily mean that they paid little attention to the storage of water, or to regularizing the water flow. In fact there exists sundry evidence that measures for saving water had been adopted. It is often maintained that the Romans did not make use of taps and similar devices in this distribution net; e.g. Frontinus never even once refers to such objects. But as a matter of fact archeological discoveries have brought forward a large amount of evidence for their use.

The Romans also diverted water into storage tanks. Archaeologists have uncovered large cisterns in Rome, many received water from the aqueducts. Bruun argues that Romans were better water managers than we commonly give them credit for. (His assumption is that continuous water is bad water management and on-demand water is good management.)

It is safe to assume that Rome received in impressive supply of water, and that the rich and influential received a disproportionate amount. But the water supply for the common Roman was still sufficient. By historic standards, Roman's water supply was a very impressive accomplishment.

WASTEWATER SYSTEMS

Water from the baths, latrines, palaces, fountains, etc., as well as other urban runoff was discharged into Rome's drainage and wastewater collection system. Several centuries before the birth of Christ, Etruscan engineers built the initial drainage system (Cloaca Maxima) whose main outlet into the Tiber River still exists 28 centuries later. The covered drains were designed on such a large scale that in certain sections wagons loaded with hay could drive through with ease. Rome's sewers and drains emptied directly into the Tiber, whose polluted state must have been a constant problem for the Roman populace.

The Roman sewers have been overpraised. Despite their longevity, they ignored basic sanitary principles. They carried sewage, urban runoff, and drainage water together. This multiple employment made it necessary to have large openings along the streets. These openings exposed Rome's populace to the effluvia of the sewers. To mitigate this danger to public health, Romans had only two protections: (1) the masses of water from infiltration and the aqueducts which constantly flushed the drains, and (2) the hilly nature of the city which gave the drains a steep slope.

The Roman sewer system probably carried off at least as much water as the aqueducts provided. Consumptive use in Rome was not high and there was a lot of infiltration into the drains from groundwater (parts of Rome are constructed over swamps). The flow of the Tiber River was greatly increased by discharges from Rome's sewers.

Although the ancient sewers were very skillfully constructed, they were not used to their full potential. There were few private connections to the sewers. Even with the wastewater system's shortcoming, it is astonishing to note the absence of significant improvements in collection systems until the 1840's, some 17 centuries later.

Romans without indoor facilities were forced into one of two options. For a relatively small charge they could enter one of the city's public latrines or they could use chamberpots. (The Roman latrine system must represent one of history's earliest employments of the pay toilet, or more correctly, pay latrine, since the modern toilet was not invented until the sixteenth century.)

Rome's elaborate latrines were not a haven for the lazy, the misers, the poor, or the invalids. These latter groups had to resort to chamberpots. These were emptied into vats placed under the stairwells or, if vats were not provided, jars could be emptied into a nearby cesspool or an opening into the central sewer ( Figure 4). There were many who found their stairs too steep, the distances to cesspools or sewers too far, and who found it more energy efficient to empty the contents of their chamberpots from windows onto the streets below. Emptying chamberpots in this fashion caused a great deal of irritation to passersby who happened to intercept an unwanted gift. Juvenal (1965, p. 45) penned the following:

From every towering roof the rubbish falls,
striking the head, and injuries grow rank.
See how pots strike and dint the sturdy pavement
There's death from every window where you move.
You'd be a fool to venture out to dine,
Oblivious of what goes on above,
Without you having penned the dotted line
Of your last testament,
You can but hope they spill a chamberpot.

Fouled or even injured, the passer-by had no recourse except to file a complaint. Many passages written by Roman legal authorities indicate that the problem of falling debris was not trivial. Ulpian, a fourth century jurist, even classified the various clues by which it was possible for an injured party to find a culprit.

If the guilty party was found, Ulpian recommended a penalty proportionate to the seriousness of the injury (as quoted in Carcopino, 1940, p. 43):

When in consequence of the fall of one of these projectiles from a house, the body of a free man shall have suffered injury, the judge shall award to the victim in addition to medical fees and other expenses incurred in his treatment and necessary to his recovery, the total of the wages of which he has been or shall in the future be deprived by the inability to work which has ensued.

It would appear that the lack of pumping in Rome may have inspired contemporary laws related to accidents and liability.

The instructions of Ulpian give us a glimpse of the conditions which must have existed in ancient Rome for such a legal analysis to be necessary. Clearly public sanitation must have been a very real problem. Many back streets must have reeked of urine and worse.

The Emperor Vespasian had the produce of the city's urinals collected, decanted and stored in cisterns, taxed, and sold to the guild of fullers ( Suetonius, p. 319). (The fullers were the dry cleaners of Rome. They had discovered that the ammonia in urine had cleaning properties.) The Emperor's son Titus, a more genteel individual, protested against the new tax. But pushing a coin beneath his son's nose, Vespasian reminded him, in one of his best know phrases, that "gold has no odor". When the emperor came to power, Rome was bankrupt; when he died it was not. Thus, it may well be that recycling human waste helped restore the Empire to economic well being. (The Emperor's illustrious name lives on in the vespasiennes, Parisian pissoirs in the graceful shape of sentry boxes.)

CONCLUSIONS

Imperial Rome was a city not unlike many contemporary cities. It was filled with apartment buildings and noisy streets, and its services were often less than satisfactory (if judged by modern standards). Notwithstanding its problems, Rome's water system was a superb engineering achievement.

Frontinus had a right to be proud. Imperial Rome was supplied with large quantities of high quality water. Once the water arrived in Rome, however, the distribution system was quite limited. With both the water and wastewater system, access points were generally located outside the household. But it must be remembered that Rome's water and wastewater systems were the best in antiquity and that improvements in their designs were not made until the modern era.

Rome's system of providing a constant water supply to centrally located areas contrasts markedly with modern systems which deliver water on demand to individual customers. Certainly modern systems provide the flexibility necessary for improved fire protection and public sanitation. Today's systems are certainly more convenient that were their Roman counterparts.

Modern American life is to a great extent centered around the household. This was not the case in ancient Rome. For example, there was obviously no television coverage of the gladiator fights at the Coliseum. Romans lived to a large extent outside their abodes. Thus, not having running water and sanitary facilities nearby was not the inconvenience it is today.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Graphics for this paper were provided by Floyd Barnes. The author owes a major debt to David Macaulay for the illustrations.

LITERATURE CITED

Ashby, Th., 1935. The Aqueducts of Ancient Rome (ed. I. Richmond), Oxford.

Bruun, Christer, 1991. The Water Supply of Ancient Rome: A Study of Roman Imperial Administration. The Finnish Society of Sciences and Letters, Helinki.

Carcopino, Jerome, 1947 (first published in 1940). Daily Life in Ancient Rome. Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut.

Frontinus, Sextus Julius (trans. Charles Bennett), 1961. Stratagems and the Aqueducts of Rome. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Hansen, Roger D., 1983. Water and Waste Water in Imperial Rome. Water Resources Bulletin. 19:263-269.

Herschel, Clemens, 1913. Frontinus and the Water Supply of Rome. Longman, Green and Company, New York.

Hodge, A.T., 1981. Vitruvius, Lead Pipes and Lead Poisoning, AJA 85: 486-491.

Juvenal, Decimus Julius (trans. Jerome Mazzaro), 1965. Satire. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.

Lanciani, Rodolfo, 1967 (first published in 1897). The Ruins of Ancient Rome. Benjamin Blom, New York.

Macaulay, David, 1978. City: A Story of Roman Planning and Construction. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, Massachusetts.

Parker, James E., 1967. Housing and Population in Imperial Ostia and Rome. Journal of Roman Studies 57:82-91.

Smith, Norman, 1970. The Roman Dams of Subiaco. Technology and Culture 11:58-68.

Smith, Norman, 1978. Roman Hydraulic Technology. Scientific American 238:154-161.

Suetonius Transquillus, Gaius (trans. J.C. Rolfe), 1951. Lives of the Twelve Ceasars. Vol. II, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Watts, Donald J. and Carol Martin Watts, 1986. A Roman Apartment Complex. Scientific American 255:132-139.

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ABSTRACT: Ancient Rome is famous for its water and wastewater systems. This paper is a discussion of the impact these systems had on living conditions in the imperial city. Rome's water system provided a constant supply to centrally located areas, in contrast to modern systems which deliver water on demand to individual connections.

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10 Incredible Roman Military Innovations You Should Know About

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10 Incredible Roman Military Innovations You Should Know About

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While military innovations did play their crucial role in the armies of ancient civilizations, it was undoubtedly the Romans (among few) who pushed the scope of progressive technologies and deep tactical developments that directly affected their battlefield effectiveness. To that end, ranging from weapons, formations to infrastructure, let us take a gander at ten incredible Roman military innovations you should know about.
Note - The ten military innovations are presented in an alphabetical manner, as opposed to chronology.
1) Battlefield Surgery -

The Roman army and its incredible organizational depth constituted the greatest of Roman strengths, thus setting them apart from other ancient military institutions. One of the major advantages of the sheer organizational scope directly pertained to the self-sufficient capacity of the individual legions. And it was the immunes, a group of highly trained specialists who were specifically employed to maintain the logistical and medical sustenance of the legions. Ranging from doctors, engineers to architects, these men were exempt from the hard labor duties of the rank-and-file soldiers, while also earning more than them - thus hinting at the (presumed) crucial nature of their jobs.

Pertaining to the Roman medical professionals, their dedicated battlefield surgery units were instrumental in the use of innovative contraptions like hemostatic tourniquets and arterial surgical clamps to curb blood loss. This was complemented by antiseptic measures where instruments were disinfected with hot water before their real-time usage, thus espousing an 'advanced' form of surgery that only became the norm after 19th century.

Moreover the doctor's job also entailed the supervision of sanitation quality in the army camps, which aided in the mitigation of dreadful logistical nightmares, otherwise known as the spread of diseases. Taking all of these factors into account, combined with better diet, the Roman soldiers (possibly) tended to live longer than their civilian counterparts, thus alluding the efficiency of the ancient Roman doctors and surgeons.

2) Carroballista -

While the core ballista mechanism was (probably) developed by the ancient Greeks by 5th century BC (in forms like oxybeles and gastraphetes), there is no doubt that the Romans advanced the practical scope of such fascinating weapon systems, along with their deployment and usage on ancient battlefields. To that end, the manuballista was a Roman siege engine (originally based on the design of Heron of Alexandria) that has often been described as the "most advanced two-armed torsion engine used by the Roman army" (circa late 1st century AD).

The so-named carroballista was an extension of the similar manuballista technology, but its difference lied in its advantage of maneuverability. In essence, the weapon system was developed as a cart-mounted ballista, thus entailing a type of mobile field artillery. ArcheoArt has described the weapon in some details, based on the reconstruction of Michael Lewis -

The caroballista: a powerful descendent of the Roman ballistae and catapultae. This two-man example is being used at some point in the Dacian War. It shoots heavy bolts, and is an extremely powerful weapon, thanks to the wide sweep of the arms, which transmit a huge amount of stored spring-energy to the ammunition. The sinew-loaded spring frames are made of iron, and have tough leather covers to protect them from enemy fire- and the weather. The machine is mounted on a universal joint, atop a stand, and can be pointed in any direction. To shoot, one man turns the windlass to draw back the slider and rope, while his crew-mate holds it steady, and places a bolt on the slider; he then holds the tiller and aims, while the first pulls the trigger-bar. The whole weapon is light enough for its two-man crew to move it around and load it onto a cart when the division has to move; in this way, it is the equivalent of a WW2 Bren-gun.

According to Vegetius, the late Roman army adopted the carroballista as a standard mobile field artillery, with 55 carroballistae being the standard number that was distributed among each legion. Each of these war machines, having the advantage of light yet stout metal spring-frame, were transported by mules and operated by contubernium units (group of ten legionaries).

3) Corvus -

During the time-line of the First Punic War fought between Rome and Carthage (264 - 241 BC), the Carthaginians were known for their prowess in the naval field, partly due their maritime experience in trading and overseas colonies that stretched beyond centuries. On the other hand, the Romans were considered as relative newcomers to the Mediterranean sphere of influence. In spite of this, it was the sheer ingenuity of the Roman army engineers that brought victory to the Romans in what might have been the largest naval battle in the history of mankind. We are talking about the Battle of Cape Ecnomus (in 256 BC) - that pitted around 350 Carthaginian ships (with more than 150,000 rowers and marines) against 330 Roman vessels (with around 140,000 rowers and soldiers); all the figures being according to the account of Polybius (in World History).

In a bid to nullify the enemy's numerical advantage, the Roman army devised a mechanism known as corvus (meaning "crow" or "raven" in Latin) or harpago. This was a sort of a boarding bridge that could be raised from a 12-ft high sturdy wooden pillar, and then rotated in any required direction. The tip of this bridge had a heavy spike (the 'corvus' itself) that clung on to the deck of the enemy ship, thus locking the two ships together. The Roman soldiers crossed across this makeshift bridge, and directly boarded the enemy ship. This naval tactic gave the Romans the upper-hand, since they were known for their expertise in close-quarter combat, as opposed to the Carthaginians who mainly relied on mercenaries. Unfortunately, the corvus was seemingly abandoned in the post 255 BC era, perhaps because of its destructive effect even on Roman warships.

In any case, this is how 2nd century BC Greek historian, Polybius, described the boarding maneuvers initiated by the corvus -

Once the ravens were fixed in the planks of the enemy's deck and grappled the ships together, if they were broadside on, they boarded from all directions but if they charged with the prow, they attacked by passing over the gangway of the raven itself two abreast. The leading pair protected the front by holding up their shields, and those who followed secured the two flanks by resting the rims of their shields on the top of the railing.

4) Greek Fire -

Designed as an incendiary weapon circa 7th century AD, the Greek Fire is one of the very few contrivances whose gruesome effectiveness was noted by various then-contemporary sources, both Arabs and Greeks. Said to be originally created by a Syrian Engineer named Callinicus (who was a refugee from Maalbek), the technology was sort of a precursor to napalm, and it entailed vicious 'liquid fire' that continued to burn even while floating in water.

In fact, some writers have gone on to explain how the viciously efficient Greek Fire could only be mitigated by extinguishing it with sand, strong vinegar or old urine. Suffice it to say, the weapon was perfectly tailored to naval warfare; and as such the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) used it in numerous marine-based encounters to secure victories - with notable examples involving the crucial successes achieved against two Arab sieges of Constantinople.

However the procedures of making and (subsequent) deployment of Greek Fire remained a closely guarded military secret - so much so that the original ingredient has actually been lost over time. Still researchers speculate that the composition of the substance might have pertained to chemicals like liquid petroleum, naphtha, pitch (obtained from coal tar), sulfur, resin, quicklime and bitumen - all combined with some kind of a 'secret' ingredient.

5) Highways -

Once again while the construction and development of roads mirrored the historical evolution of urban culture and trade (since Bronze Age), the ancient Romans took it up a level to complement their juggernaut of a military. In fact, highways and roads were an intrinsic part of the logistical scope maintained by the Roman Empire at its height, so much so that the massive road networks after 2nd century AD accounted for a whopping 250,000 miles, of which over 50,000 miles were stone paved.

In fact, at the peak period of the ancient empire, around 29 great military highways radiated from the capital Rome itself, and these in turn were connected by at least 372 great roads. Now as for the construction of the roads, building materials that were generally used encompassed a composite of dirt and gravel along with bricks made of either granite or (hardened) volcanic lava. The Roman engineers also gave special attention to the gradient of the roads, with accommodation for curvatures that allowed for efficient water drainage.

In consideration of all these factors, suffice it to say, the Roman network of highways and roads played a major role for the inland carriage of official communications and trade goods. But as with many things 'Roman', the infrastructure's primary purpose was tailored to serve the military, especially in regard to the overland movement of armies. To that end, highways are estimated to have allowed the Roman legions to travel as fast as 25 miles (or 40 km) per day. And furthermore, intermittently constructed post houses allowed the armies to maintain communications and share intelligence over relatively long distances.

6) Onagers -

While ballistae were mostly used for afflicting enemy troops with bolts, the Romans also used 'heavier' artillery systems that could hurl rocks to take down walls and small fortifications. To that end, the onager (named after the wild ass, because of its 'kick') was a type of catapult that used torsional force derived from a twisted rope (or springs) to account for the potential energy need for a shot. This is how Ammianus Marcellinus, the 4th century Roman soldier and historian, described the ancient war machine -

The scorpion, which is now-a‑days called the wild ass, has the following form. Two posts of oak or holm-oak are hewn out and slightly bent, so that they seem to stand forth like humps. These are fastened together like a sawing-machine and bored through on both sides with fairly large holes. Between them, through the holes, strong ropes are bound, holding the machine together, so that it may not fly apart. From the middle of these ropes a wooden arm rises obliquely, pointed upward like the pole of a chariot, and is twined around with cords in such a way that it can be raised higher or depressed. To the top of this arm, iron hooks are fastened, from which hangs a sling of hemp or iron. In front of the arm is placed a great cushion of hair-cloth stuffed with fine chaff, bound on with strong cords, and placed on a heap of turf or a pile of sun-dried bricks; for a heavy machine of this kind, if placed upon a stone wall, shatters everything beneath it by its violent concussion, rather than by its weight.

Then, when there is a battle, a round stone is placed in the sling and four young men on each side turn back the bar with which the ropes are connected and bend the pole almost flat. Then finally the gunner, standing above, strikes out the pole-bolt, which holds the fastenings of the whole work, with a strong hammer, thereupon the pole is set free, and flying forward with a swift stroke, and meeting the soft hair-cloth, hurls the stone, which will crush whatever it hits. And the machine is called tormentum as all the released tension is caused by twisting (torquetur); and scorpion, because it has an upraised sting; modern times have given it the new name onager, because when wild asses are pursued by hunters, by kicking they hurl back stones to a distance, either crushing the breasts of their pursuers, or breaking the bones of their skulls and shattering them.

Interestingly enough, there are also accounts of how the Roman sometimes mixed in combustible substances with the large rocks that were used as projectiles to be hurled towards enemy fortifications. And at times, depending upon wind speeds and the terrain, onagers could even out-range dedicated archers by virtue of their sheer torsional force.

7) Pilum -

According to Polybius, every Roman soldier carried two types of pila into the battlefield, with one being 'thick' and another being 'thin'. Archaeological evidences (mainly from site of the Roman siege of Numantia, in Spain) conforms to this assessment. To that end, both types of the pila were made from around 1.4 m (4.6 ft) long wooden shafts, and these shafts in turn were connected to narrow soft-iron shanks through pyramid-shaped points. However, the 'thin' variety differed in the sense that it had its shank socketed, while the 'thicker' variety had a flat (and wide) iron piece riveted to a fatter section of the wood.

Anyhow, beyond their shape and thickness, the pilum was engineered as a potent javelin-like throwing weapon that would mostly only favor the Romans. How so? Well, the design in itself was furnished so that it could carry most of the weight behind the aforementioned pyramid-point. This endowed the weapon with incredible penetrating power that could go through enemy shields and even injure the shield bearer.

And then came the ingenious part - once the pilum got stuck into the shield, it became very difficult to remove the pointed javelin (mostly due to its varying cross-sectional thickness). This forced the enemy to let go of his shield during the thick of battle. Moreover, the narrow-shanked varieties would twist upon impact, thus making them useless for the enemy - in case they wanted to throw these pila back towards the advancing Roman army.

8) Plumbata -

One of the curious and often-overlooked weapon from the late Roman arsenal pertains to the (also called martiobarbuli). Etymologically relating to plumbum or lead, the weapon was essentially crafted as a throwing dart with lead-weights (at the anterior part), while the head part was probably made of iron. These close sections ultimately gave way to a wooden shaft with fletching. The latter mentioned modification allowed the ancient Roman soldier to throw the dart (which often went beyond 30 cm of length) in a streamlined manner, either over hand or under hand.

This is how martiobarbuli (roughly translated to "little barbs of Mars") had been described by Vegetius in his De Re Militari, circa late 4th century AD-

The exercise of the loaded javelins, called martiobarbuli, must not be omitted. We formerly had two legions in lllyricum, consisting of six thousand men each, which from their extraordinary dexterity and skill in the use of these weapons were distinguished by the same appellation. They supported for a long time the weight of all the wars and distinguished themselves so remarkably that the Emperors Diocletian and Maximian on their accession honored them with the titles of Jovian and Herculean and preferred them before all the other legions. Every soldier carries five of these javelins in the hollow of his shield. And thus the legionary soldiers seem to supply the place of archers, for they wound both the men and horses of the enemy before they come within reach of the common missile weapons.

An anonymous treatise titled De Rebus Bellicis, also from the late 4th century AD, describes the use of spiked plumbatae ( plumbata tribolata); though archaeological evidences have still not been able to confirm its existence. And interestingly enough, martiobarbuli has also been described as a part of the arsenal of the Eastern Roman Empire, with its mention in the Strategicon, written by (late) 6th century emperor Maurice.

9) Pontoon Bridge -

The technology of pontoon bridge was not at all a Roman invention, with ancient Chinese and Persians making use of the floating mechanism in various military circumstances, like Xerxes' pontoon bridges being constructed across the Hellespont. However the Romans did take the advantage of its rapid deployment techniques to raid and harass the enemy, thus suggesting tactical scopes rather than strategic ambit. To that end, the great Julius Caesar was believed to have a penchant for using pontoon bridges to shock-and-awe his foes. One fascinating example would pertain to the 437 yards (400 m) long floating bridge deployed to cross the Rhine river. This tactical trick caught two Germanic tribes off guard, who were showed the Roman force of arms. Interestingly enough, after demonstrating his superiority in arms, Caesar promptly withdrew from the Rhine territory and dismantled his hastily constructed pontoon bridge.

This is how Gallagher Flinn of How Stuff Works described the Roman version of the pontoon bridge -

Caesar's Rhine bridge was clever for a couple of reasons. Building a bridge without diverting a river is notoriously difficult to do, and even more so in a military setting where construction must be guarded at all times, so engineers had to work fast. Rather than driving beams straight into the river, engineers rammed timbers into the bottom of the river at an angle against the current, lending the foundation extra strength. Protective pilings were also driven in upstream to catch or slow down any potentially destructive logs that might float down the river. Finally, the beams were lashed together, and a wooden bridge was built on top of it. In total, the construction took only ten days, used entirely local lumber and sent a firm message to local tribes about the power of Rome: if Caesar wanted to cross the Rhine, he could do it.

Vegitius also mentioned the use of wood from the light boats that the late Roman army deployed in many river-dominated terrains. According to the ancient writer, these lightweight crafts could be organized and tied together with the aid of planks, nails and cables, which allowed the hasty construction of a structurally sound floating bridge.

10) Testudo -

A military formation that was inherently Roman in nature, the famed Testudo (Latin for 'Tortoise') was a battlefield tactic that was generally applied by the trained legionaries during siege battles. In its most simplistic scope, the maneuver entailed the positioning and raising of shields that would allow a group of soldiers to form a packed formation covered on all (or most) sides with those shields. In essence, it was adopted as a purely defensive tactic that allowed the usually infantry-based Roman army to protect themselves against missiles and various projectiles from enemy archers.

Suffice it to say, the Testudo formation was not the norm, but rather adopted in specific situations to deal with particular threats on the battlefield. Interestingly enough, according to Livy, in consideration of the sheer discipline and synchronization required to form a Testudo, the formation in itself was actually an evolution of a nifty circus trick. Livy went on to describe how the defensive tactic also allowed the Roman soldiers to push ahead in chaotic siege battles -

A testudo formed in this way was brought up against the lowest part of the wall. When the soldiers who were mounted on it came close up to the wall they were at the same height as the defenders, and when these were driven off, the soldiers of two companies climbed over into the city. The only difference was that the front rank and the files did not raise their shields above their heads for fear of exposing themselves; they held them in front as in battle. Thus they were not hit by the missiles from the walls, and those which were hurled on the testudo rolled off harmlessly to the ground like a shower of rain from the roof of a house.

And in another interesting note, the 2nd century Roman statesman and historian (of Greek origin), Cassius Dio, went on to mention how the Testudo was also adopted for protecting pack animals, such as horses or even donkeys. Furthermore he described, how in contrast to a small group of soldiers, the Testudo was also formed by entire armies in rare scenarios -

This testudo and the way in which it is formed are as follows. The baggage animals, the light-armed troops, and the cavalry are placed in the center of the army. The heavy-armed troops who use the oblong, curved, and cylindrical shields are drawn up around the outside, making a rectangular figure; and, facing outward and holding their arms at the ready, they enclose the rest. The others, who have flat shields, form a compact body in the center and raise their shields over the heads of all the others, so that nothing but shields can be seen in every part of the phalanx alike and all the men by the density of the formation are under shelter from missiles. Indeed, it is so marvelously strong that men can walk upon it, and whenever they come to a narrow ravine, even horses and vehicles can be driven over it. Such is the plan of this formation, and for this reason it has received the name testudo, with reference both to its strength and to the excellent shelter it affords.

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10 Incredible Roman Military Innovations You Should Know About

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While military innovations did play their crucial role in the armies of ancient civilizations, it was undoubtedly the Romans (among few) who pushed the scope of progressive technologies and deep tactical developments that directly affected their battlefield effectiveness. To that end, ranging from weapons, formations to infrastructure, let us take a gander at ten incredible Roman military innovations you should know about.

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Did the Romans invent the washing machine?

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Did the Romans invent the washing machine?

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Expert details ancient inventions that have given birth to modern gadgets

They include the Antikythera Mechanism - an ancient analogue computer

Ex-slave's tomb suggests Romans invented Kitchen Aid-like mixers

Ancient observatory in Iraq bears some resemblance to Nasa

We may view computers and washing machines as hallmarks of modern life, but such contemporary contraptions may have been originally invented thousands of years ago.

Evidence suggests the first mechanical washing machine was invented by the Romans in 100AD.

While the Antikythera Mechanism is recognised as the first analogue computer, dating back to the 1st century BC.

Zena Kamash, lecturer in Roman Art and Archaeology at Royal Holloway, London, details more ancient inventions, including an early KitchenAid and even a forerunner of Nasa, in an article for The Conversation.

True innovation is hard to find, as few things come out of nothing. Take the now ubiquitous selfie, for example.

The format may have changed but the concept of making self-portraits is hundreds, if not thousands of years old.

The same is true of many inventions that we typically think of as modern, some of which actually have precedents dating back over 1,000 years.

'Fulling' was a major occupation in the Roman world that involved cleaning cloth by trampling it in tubs containing an alkaline solution, such as water and urine or the mineral known as fuller's earth.

But in ancient Antioch, in what is now Turkey, evidence suggests the process may have been mechanised, meaning the Romans may have effectively created the world's first washing machine as far back as the 1st century AD.

Traditionally thought of as a medieval invention, the mechanical fulling mill would likely have consisted of a waterwheel that lifted a trip-hammer, which would then drop to press the cloth.

A fullers' canal mentioned in an inscription in Antioch would have supplied an estimated 300,000 cubic metres of water at almost a metre per second, far in excess of what was needed for regular foot-powered fulleries.

The power this could generate means it could have supported fulling on an industrial scale with maybe 42 pairs of mechanical hammers.

In 1900, divers off the coast of the Greek island of Antikythera discovered something that changed our view of ancient science.

The Antikythera Mechanism is a bronze system of 30 gears that models the cycles of the sun and moon. It is effectively the first-known analogue computer, dating back to the 1st century BC.

Set in a wooden box, the internal gears would have turned dials on the outside that showed the position of the sun and moon, as well as the rising and setting of specific stars and possibly the positions of Mars and Venus, too.

Another dial could be moved to take into account leap years.

Although we now know that the Babylonians discovered how to use geometry to track the course of Jupiter in around 1,800 BC, the Antikythera mechanism is the earliest known device that automatically calculates astronomical phenomena.

We know of no other similar devices for several hundred more years until the 8th century AD, when mathematician Muhammed al-Fazari is said to have built the first Islamic astrolabe.

And nothing as mechanically sophisticated would appear again until the European astronomical clocks of the 14th century.

Bread was big business in the Roman world.

It was given out by the state as part of a dole known as the annona.

This meant that it was possible for people to make substantial amounts of money as bakers.

One such person was Marcus Vergilius Eurysaces, a freedman (ex-slave) from Rome, who was so proud of his successful baking business that he commemorated it on his tomb.

Today it is one of the most striking monuments from ancient Rome.

The top of the monument is decorated with a series of scenes that show a range of baking activities including the mixing and kneading of dough, the forming of loaves and the baked loaves being stacked in baskets.

The most curious part, however, is the cylinders that make up the bulk of the monument.

These features have baffled scholars for quite some time.

One convincing theory argues that it is likely that these cylinders are related to baking and may well represent an early dough-mixing machine.

The idea is that a rotating metal arm would have been attached to each cylinder in order to mix the dough.

THE FIRST STATE SPACE PROJECT

Ninth-century Baghdad, in what is now Iraq, saw the rise of a growing scientific community, particularly in astronomy, centred around a library known as the 'House of Wisdom'.

The problem for these new scholars was that their books were written many centuries earlier and came from a wide range of different cultures - including Persian, Indian and Greek - that did not always agree.

The Caliph al Ma'mun decided the only solution was to build an astronomical observatory so the city's scholars could determine the truth.

Observatories weren't new, but a state-sponsored scientific institution was.

It's hard to be sure exactly which instruments were used in the al-Shammasiyya observatory, but they probably included a sundial, astrolabes and a quadrant set on the wall to measure the precise position of objects in the sky.

The quadrant may have been the first of its kind to be used in astronomical observations.

The scientists used these instruments to reassess Ptolemy's Mathematical Treatise from the 2nd century AD, and to make numerous astronomical observations, including the latitudes and longitudes of 24 fixed stars.

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The modern technology invented 1,000 years ago

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Expert details ancient inventions that have given birth to modern gadgets They include the Antikythera Mechanism - an ancient analogue computer Ex-slave's tomb suggests Romans invented Kitchen Aid-like mixers Ancient observatory in Iraq bears some resemblance to Nasa We may view computers and washing machines as hallmarks of modern life, but such contemporary contraptions may have been originally invented thousands of years ago.

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For Kids: The idea of the caste system in ancient India began after the Indus Valley Civilization disappeared and a new people arrived, the Aryans. The Aryans were nomads from the north. They brought with them some new ideas. One of those ideas was Hinduism, which is now a world religion. Another was the idea of a caste system. A caste is a life-long social group into which a Hindu is born.

The Vedas are the Sanskrit writings that are the earliest sacred texts of Hinduism. The Vedas suggest the caste system in India. There were four social classes in the ancient Aryan society. These were the brahmins (priests & scholars); warriors & nobles; artisans & merchants; and on the lowest level, farm workers, laborers, servants

Once the Aryans settled down and began to grow their food instead of being just herdsmen, they started developing a caste system. The caste system started with just four castes. In order of importance and power these castes were priests, warriors, traders and farmers, and finally paid workers. The caste system grew progressively more strict until finally you were born into your caste and could not move or marry out of your caste.

The caste system really wasn't part of Hinduism, at first. The caste system began at about the same time as Hinduism. The caste system remained in place in India for thousands of years, long after Aryan rule was replaced by other leaders. But over the years, the caste system became intertwined with Hindu India. When Buddhism began in India, Buddhists did not recognize castes. That made Buddhism very attractive to the lower ranks in India's society. But in spite of the introduction of Buddhism and other religions, most ancient India people remained Hindus, and thus the caste system continued.

Top Caste: The Brahims: The top caste was made up of scholars, priests, teachers, judges, and landowners. They were know as the Brahmin caste or Brahmins. Many Brahmins lived in temples, removed from society. Others spent a great deal of time in contemplation and meditation. Some were quite social.

The Kshatriya: Kshatriyas were the warriors. Rulers of towns and cities mostly came from the Kshatriya caste. Any decision they made, however, could be overruled by a member of the Brahmin, the caste above them.

The Vaishyas: Vaishyas were skilled farmers, merchants, and craftsmen. Vaishyas could hold office in village government. They might live in very nice houses. Even though they were three down on the social scale, they still had good clothes and ample food. They might not be the top leaders, but they were certainly a respected part of society.

Bottom Caste: The Sudras: The Sudras were the unskilled workers. They might find a job on a farm or a non-skilled job in a home or business like cleaning. They were the bottom caste.

The people without a caste, the Untouchables: There was one other social rank in ancient India. People who were born into this social rank were called Untouchables. These were the people who were considered the lowest in society in Hindu India, so low that they were not part of the caste system. They had no rights. If they had a job at all, other than begging, it was a degrading job that no one else wanted to do. If your parent was an Untouchable, so were you. Untouchables could not move up or marry out of their social rank.

Since 1950, the Indian Constitution has forbidden discrimination.
The Caste System in India (Mr. Dowling) Caste System (video, BBC)
Religion in ancient India

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For Kids: The idea of the caste system in ancient India began after the Indus Valley Civilization disappeared and a new people arrived, the Aryans. The Aryans were nomads from the north. They brought with them some new ideas. One of those ideas was Hinduism, which is now a world religion.

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The Many Vital Contributions Ancient Greeks Made to Scientific Knowledge

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Many inventions and discoveries have been attributed to ancient Greek scientists, especially in the areas of astronomy, geography, and mathematics.

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Ancient India in the Vedic Period (c. 1500-1000 BCE) did not have social stratification based on socio-economic indicators; rather, citizens were classified according to their Varna or castes. 'Varna' defines the hereditary roots of a newborn, it indicates the colour, type, order or class of people. Four principal categories are defined: Brahmins (priests, gurus, etc.), Kshatriyas (warriors, kings, administrators, etc.), Vaishyas (agriculturalists, traders, etc., also called Vysyas), and Shudras (labourers). Each Varna propounds specific life principles to follow; newborns are required to follow the customs, rules, conduct, and beliefs fundamental to their respective Varnas.

The first mention of Varna is found in the Purusha Suktam verse of the ancient Sanskrit . Purusha is the primordial being, constituted by the combination of the four Varnas. Brahmins constitute its mouth, Kshatriyas its arms, Vaishyas its thighs, and Shudras its feet. Likewise, a society, too, is constituted by these four Varnas, who, through their obedience to the Varna rules, are provisioned to sustain prosperity and order. A newborn in a specific Varna is not mandatorily required to obey its life principles; individual interests and personal inclinations are attended upon with equal solemnity, so as to uproot the conflict between personal choice and customary rules. Given this liberty, a deviated choice is always assessed for its cascading impact on others. The rights of each Varna citizen are always equated with their individual responsibilities. An elaborated Varna system with insights and reasoning is found in the Manu Smriti (an ancient legal text from the Vedic Period), and later in various Dharma Shastras. Varnas, in principle, are not lineages, considered as pure and indisputable, but categories, thus inferring the precedence of conduct in determining a Varna instead of birth.

Purpose of the VARNA System

The caste system in ancient India had been executed and acknowledged during, and ever since, the Vedic period that thrived around 1500-1000 BCE. The segregation of people based on their Varna was intended to decongest the responsibilities of one's life, preserve the purity of a caste, and establish eternal order. This would pre-resolve and avoid all forms of disputes originating from conflicts within business and encroachment on respective duties. In this system, specific tasks are designated to each Varna citizen. A Brahmin behaving as a Kshatriya or a Vaishya debases himself, becoming unworthy of seeking liberation or moksha. For a Brahmin (having become one by deed, in addition to the one by birth) is considered the society's mouth, and is the purest life form as per the , because he personifies renunciation, austerity, piousness, striving only for wisdom and cultivated intellect. A Kshatriya, too, is required to remain loyal to his Varna duty; if he fails, he could be outcast. The same applies to Vaishyas and Shudras. Shudras, far from left out or irrelevant, are the base of an economy, a strong support system of a prosperous economic system, provided they remain confined to their life duties and not give in to greed, immoral conduct, and excess self-indulgence.

The underlying reason for adhering to Varna duties is the belief in the attainment of moksha on being dutiful.

The main idea is that such order in a society would lead to contentment, perpetual peace, wilful adherence to law, wilful deterrence from all misconduct, responsible exercise of liberty and freedom, and keeping the fundamental societal trait of 'shared prosperity' above all others. Practical and moral education of all Varnas and such order seemed justified in ancient Indian society owing to different Varnas living together and the possibility of disunity among them. Hence, Brahmins were entrusted with the duty of educating pupils of all Varnas to understand and practice order and mutual harmony, regardless of distressed circumstances. Justice, moral, and righteous behaviour were primary teachings in Brahmins' ashrams (spiritual retreats, places to seek knowledge). Equipping pupils with a pure conscience to lead a noble life was considered essential and so was practical education to all Varnas, which provided students with their life purposes and knowledge of right conduct, which would manifest later into an orderly society.

The underlying reason for adhering to Varna duties is the belief in the attainment of moksha on being dutiful. Belief in the concept of Karma reinforces the belief in the Varna life principles. As per the Vedas, it is the ideal duty of a human to seek freedom from subsequent birth and death and rid oneself of the transmigration of the soul, and this is possible when one follows the duties and principles of one's respective Varna. According to the Vedas, consistent encroachment on others' life responsibilities engenders an unstable society. Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras form the fourfold nature of society, each assigned appropriate life duties and ideal disposition. Men of the first three hierarchical castes are called the twice-born; first, born of their parents, and second, of their guru after the sacred thread initiation they wear over their shoulders. The Varna system is seemingly embryonic in the Vedas, later elaborated and amended in the Upanishads and Dharma Shastras.

Brahmins

Brahmins were revered as an incarnation of knowledge itself, endowed with the precepts and sermons to be discharged to all Varnas of society. They were not just revered because of their Brahmin birth but also their renunciation of worldly life and cultivation of divine qualities, assumed to be always engrossed in the contemplation of Brahman, hence called Brahmins. Priests, gurus, rishis, teachers, and scholars constituted the Brahmin community. They would always live through the Brahmacharya (celibacy) vow ordained for them. Even married Brahmins were called Brahmachari (celibate) by virtue of having intercourse only for reproducing and remaining mentally detached from the act. However, anyone from other Varnas could also become a Brahmin after extensive acquisition of knowledge and cultivation of one's intellect.

Brahmins were the foremost choice as tutors for the newborn because they represent the link between sublime knowledge of the gods and the four Varnas. This way, since the ancestral wisdom is sustained through guru-disciple practice, all citizens born in each Varna would remain rooted to the requirements of their lives. Normally, Brahmins were the personification of contentment and dispellers of ignorance, leading all seekers to the zenith of supreme knowledge, however, under exceptions, they lived as warriors, traders, or agriculturists in severe adversity. The ones bestowed with the titles of Brahma Rishi or Maha Rishi were requested to counsel kings and their kingdoms' administration. All Brahmin men were allowed to marry women of the first three Varnas, whereas marrying a Shudra woman would, marginally, bereft the Brahmin of his priestly status. Nevertheless, a Shudra woman would not be rejected if the Brahmin consented.

Brahmin women, contrary to the popular belief of their subordination to their husbands, were, in fact, more revered for their chastity and treated with unequalled respect. As per Manu Smriti, a Brahmin woman must only marry a Brahmin and no other, but she remains free to choose the man. She, under rare circumstances, is allowed to marry a Kshatriya or a Vaishya, but marrying a Shudra man is restricted. The restrictions in inter-caste marriages are to avoid subsequent impurity of progeny born of the matches. A man of a particular caste marrying a woman of a higher caste is considered an imperfect match, culminating in ignoble offspring.

Kshatriyas

Kshatriyas constituted the warrior clan, the kings, rulers of territories, administrators, etc. It was paramount for a Kshatriya to be learned in weaponry, warfare, penance, austerity, administration, moral conduct, justice, and ruling. All Kshatriyas would be sent to a Brahmin's ashram from an early age until they became wholly equipped with requisite knowledge. Besides austerities like the Brahmins, they would gain additional knowledge of administration. Their fundamental duty was to protect their territory, defend against attacks, deliver justice, govern virtuously, and extend peace and happiness to all their subjects, and they would take counsel in matters of territorial sovereignty and ethical dilemmas from their Brahmin gurus. They were allowed to marry a woman of all Varnas with mutual consent. Although a Kshatriya or a Brahmin woman would be the first choice, Shudra women were not barred from marrying a Kshatriya.

Kshatriya women, like their male counterparts, were equipped with masculine disciplines, fully acquainted with warfare, rights to discharge duties in the king's absence, and versed in the affairs of the kingdom. Contrary to popular belief, a Kshatriya woman was equally capable of defending a kingdom in times of distress and imparting warfare skills to her descendants. The lineage of a Kshatriya king was kept pure to ensure continuity on the throne and claim sovereignty over territories.

Vaishyas

Vaishya is the third Varna represented by agriculturalists, traders, money lenders, and those involved in commerce. Vaishyas are also the twice-born and go to the Brahmins' ashram to learn the rules of a virtuous life and to refrain from intentional or accidental misconduct. Cattle rearing was one of the most esteemed occupations of the Vaishyas, as the possession and quality of a kingdom's cows, elephants, horses, and their upkeep affected the quality of life and the associated prosperity of the citizens. Vaishyas would work in close coordination with the administrators of the kingdom to discuss, implement, and constantly upgrade the living standards by providing profitable economic prospects. Because their life conduct exposes them to objects of immediate gratification, their tendency to overlook the law and despise the weak is perceived as probable. Hence, the Kshatriya king would be most busy with resolving disputes originating of conflicts among Vaishyas.

Vaishya women, too, supported their husbands in business, cattle rearing, and agriculture, and shared the burden of work. They were equally free to choose a spouse of their choice from the four Varnas, albeit selecting a Shudra was earnestly resisted. Vaishya women enjoyed protection under the law, and remarriage was undoubtedly normal, just as in the other three Varnas. A Vaishya woman had equal rights over ancestral properties in case of the untimely death of her husband, and she would be equally liable for the upbringing of her children with support from her husband.

Shudras

The last Varna represents the backbone of a prosperous economy, in which they are revered for their dutiful conduct toward life duties set out for them. Scholarly views on Shudras are the most varied since there seemingly are more restrictions on their conduct. However, Atharva Veda allows Shudras to hear and learn the Vedas by heart, and the Mahabharata, too, supports the inclusion of Shudras in ashrams and their learning the Vedas. Becoming officiating priests in sacrifices organised by kings was, however, to a large extent restricted. Shudras are not the twice-born, hence not required to wear the sacred thread like the other Varnas. A Shudra man was only allowed to marry a Shudra woman, but a Shudra woman was allowed to marry from any of the four Varnas.

Shudras would serve the Brahmins in their ashrams, Kshatriyas in their palaces and princely camps, and Vaishyas in their commercial activities. Although they are the feet of the primordial being, learned citizens of higher Varnas would always regard them as a crucial segment of society, for an orderly society would be easily compromised if the feet are weak. Shudras, on the other hand, obeyed the orders of their masters, because their knowledge of attaining moksha by embracing their prescribed duties encouraged them to remain loyal. Shudra women, too, worked as attendants and close companions of the queen and would go with her after marriage to other kingdoms. Many Shudras were also allowed to be agriculturalists, traders, and enter occupations of Vaishyas. These detours of life duties would, however, be under special circumstances, on perceiving deteriorating economic situations. The Shudras' selflessness makes them worthy of unprecedented regard and respect.

Gradual withdrawal from the ancient Varna duties

Despite the life order being arranged for all kinds of people, by the end of the Vedic period, many began to deflect and disobey their primary duties. Brahmins started to feel the authoritarian nature of their occupation and status, because of which arrogance seeped in. Many gurus, citing their advice-imparting position to Kshatriya kings, became unholy and deceitful by practising Shudra qualities. Although Brahmins are required only to live on alms and not seek more than their minimal subsistence, capitalising on their superior status and unquestioned hierarchical outreach, they began to demand more for conducting sacrifices.

Kshatriyas contested with other kings often to display their prowess and possessions. Many kings found it acceptable to reject their Brahmin guru's advice and hence became self-regulating, taking unrighteous decisions, leading to loss of kingship, territory, and the confidence of the Vaishyas and Shudras. Vaishyas started to see themselves as powerful in their ownership of land and subjection of Shudras. Infighting, deceit, cheating influenced the conduct of Vaishyas. Shudras were repeatedly oppressed by the Kshatriyas and Vaishyas at will, which made them disown their duties and instead opt for stealing, lying, avariciousness, and spreading misinformation.

India is now home to a repository of the primary four Varnas & hundreds of sub-Varnas, making the original four Varnas merely 'umbrella terms' & perpetually ambiguous.

Thus, all Varnas fell from their virtuosity, and unrighteous acts of one continued to inspire and justify similar acts of others. Mixing of castes was also considered a part of the declining interest in Varna system. Most of these changes took place between 1000 BCE and 500 BCE when constant social and economic complexities emerged as new challenges for Varna-based allocation of duties. Population increased, and so did the disunity of citizens in their collective belief in the sanctity of the original Varna system. Religious conversions played a significant part in subsuming large societies into the tenets of humanism and a single large society.

The period between 300 CE to 700 CE marked the intersection of multiple religions. As a large Varna populace became difficult to handle, the emergence of Jainism propounded the ideology of one single human Varna and nothing besides. Many followed the original Varna rules, but many others, disapproving opposing beliefs, formed modified sub-Varnas within the primary four Varnas. This process, occurring between 700 CE and 1500 CE, continues to this day, as India is now home to a repository of the primary four Varnas and hundreds of sub-Varnas, making the original four Varnas merely 'umbrella terms' and perpetually ambiguous.

The subsequent rise of Islam, Christianity, and other religions also left their mark on the original Varna system in India. Converted generations reformed their notion of Hinduism in ways that were compatible with the conditions of those times. The rise of Buddhism, too, left its significant footprint on the Varna system's legitimate continuance in renewed conditions of life. Thus, soulful adherence to Varna duties from the peak of Vedic period eventually diminished to subjective makeshift adherence, owing partly to the discomfort in practising Varna duties and partly to external influence.

While the above impacts were gradual, expeditious withdrawal from Varna rules was made possible by the large-scale influence of western notions of liberty, equality, and freedom. These changes can be observed from 1500 CE right through the present. For Western nations, rooted in their own cultural background, it made little sense to approve of this in their eyes antiquated Varna system. Intercepting the Moghul invasion and the near-end sovereignty of multiple Hindu dynasties, British invasion brought with it a fresh worldview based on equality and freedom, incompatible with the Varna system. Massive colonisation, impact of 'cultural imperialism' enforced significant alterations on Varna duties. Trade and liberalisation, exchange of culture dented the tiny bit of belief left in continuing the Varna system.

Despite this perpetual decline, the descendants of all four Varnas in contemporary India are trying to reinvent their roots in search of ancestral wisdom. Although the four Varnas have encroached upon each other's life duties, a sense of order and peace is sought and recalled in discourses, community gatherings, and engagement between different generations. Varna system in contemporary terms is followed either with earnest commitment without reservations and doubt or with ambiguity and resistance arising out of unprecedented external influence and issues of subjective incompatibility. While many citizens practice a diluted version of Varna system, extending its limitations and rigidness to a broader context of Hindu religion, staunch believers still strive and promote the importance of reclaiming the system.

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Ancient India in the Vedic Period (c. 1500-1000 BCE) did not have social stratification based on socio-economic indicators; rather, citizens were classified according to their Varna or castes. 'Varna' defines the hereditary roots of a newborn, it indicates the colour, type, order or class of people.

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Ancient Indian Inventions and Discoveries

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Ancient Indian Inventions and Discoveries

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Ludo:

This game was played by the Mughal emperors. Earlier known as Pachisi, this game originated in India by the sixth century. A variant of this game, called Ludo, made its way to England during the British Raj.

Snakes and ladders:

Snakes and ladders originated in India as a game based on morality.

Chaturanga/ Chess:

The game of chess originated in India 1500 years ago , during the time of the Gupta dynasty, by an Indian Brahmin. The Indian king Balhait ordered a Brahmin to design a chess game called Chaturanga to help strengthen his people's intelligence. In Sanskrit, it means an army of four divisions.

Rulers:

Rulers were first made during the Indus valley civilization. They were made from ivory.

Ink:

Indians have been writing with ink since the fourth century BC. During that time in South India, a sharp needle was used to write with ink.

Shampoo:

Did you know that shampoo evolved from oil? It comes from the word champo. The Nawabs of Bengal used it for head massages at first. Over the years, it became shampoo.

Cotton gin :

A cotton gin is used to separate cotton fibres from their seeds. A painting of a cotton gin has been found in the Ajanta caves. The painting dates back to the fifth century AD. We were also the first to cultivate cotton. This began in the Indus Valley civilization.

Flush toilets:

The Indus Valley civilization was the first to use toilets with flushes. The city had an advanced sewage system too.

Dock:

One of the earliest docks of the world was the one in Lothal, Gujarat. Oceanographers think that the Harappans must have possessed knowledge relating to tides. So, they could build such a dock on the ever-shifting course of the River Sabarmati. The walls are of kiln- burnt bricks and so scientists hypothesise that Lothal engineers studied the effects of tidal movements on brick-built structures.
For more such interesting history articles and videos, visit History for Kids category.

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Ancient Indian Inventions and Discoveries - History | Mocomi Kids

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This game was played by the Mughal emperors. Earlier known as Pachisi, this game originated in India by the sixth century. A variant of this game, called Ludo, made its way to England during the British Raj. Snakes and ladders originated in India as a game based on morality.

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innovations and discoveries in ancient india

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Inventions, Innovations and discoveries in ancient India

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Ancient India was one of pioneers of Science in this world it may be Medicine,Mathematics,Astronomy,Metallurgy, Agriculture or even city Planning India was greatly ahead of the other countries it was through India that the Europe got knowledge of Mathematics and Science via Islamic countries So let us see some of the great inventions and discoveries of ancient India

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25 Things You Probably Didn't Know Were Invented by the Greeks

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25 Things You Probably Didn't Know Were Invented by the Greeks

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Modern society always seems to put itself above the ancient societies that preceeded it, but without their inventions, we wouldn't be what we are today, and we certainly would not have what we have today. The ancient Greek civilisation flourished for about a thousand years, not as a unified country but rather as a loose association of city states, both on the mainland of Greece and elsewhere around the Mediterranean. The philosopher Plato described the states as being like a series of frogs sitting around a pond. Although the Greeks drew on the ideas of various earlier civilisations, they were the people who, more than any other, handed down to us the foundations of our democracy, our notions of ethics and justice, our science, our mathematics and our music. But perhaps their most amazing invention is the first known computer. This was a small box stuffed with cogs and moving parts all skilfully made and by turning a handle it would display the movements of planets to an astonishing degree of accuracy -in fact it was a planetarium. Here is a list of 25 of them. How many were you aware of?

Anchor: the Hellenic contribution to ship construction is huge. You've heard of the Argo, right? The Hellens were also some of the firsts who made long sea voyages and who build ships that could not be brought to shore, thus forcing them to find a way to tie their ships down when there was nothing to tie them to. Anchors of huge stones have been around since the Bronze Age, but the Hellens were the first to solve the problem in a technological manner. Most often these anchors--often referred to 'teeth' (ὀδὁντες, dentes) in Hellenic poetry--consisted of sacks or buckets which were filled with stones, although later versions were made of stone and already had the shape of anchors so well know today. Every ship had several anchors.

Alarm Clock: the ancient Greek philosopher Plato (428-348 BC) was most likely the first to possess an alarm clock. It was a water clock of some design that, when having counted to the desired time, played something with the sound of a water organ. Ctesibius (285-222 BC) had a device which would drop balls of some sort onto a metal plate at a specified time, thus waking up the sleeping party.

Automatic Doors: Heron of Alexandria created a hydraulic system, based on steam power, which automatically opened the doors to an Alexandrian temple. The engine used air from a closed chamber heated by an altar fire to displace water from a sealed vessel; the water was collected and its weight, pulling on a rope, opened temple doors.

Catapult: accounts of Hellenic versions of the catapult date back to 399 BC. They often shot out arrow-shaped projectiles, not boulders, but the mechanism was very much the same as the later medieval catapults.

Cement: cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens independently, and can bind other materials together. Although the word is Roman, the Hellens already had a version of it, adding limestone to a mixture of clay, water and sand. It was used from 100 BC onwards, and mostly in what is now the coast of Turkey.

Central Heating: although the Romans perfected the design, the ancient Hellens already had a system in place where a fire heated up air, which was then forced through pipes hidden under the floor. The air warmed up the floor and, in turn, the room. Slaves kept the fire burning, of course.

Clock Tower: the ancient Tower of the Winds dates back to about 100 BC. It housed a water clock which was connected to eight sundials on the outside of the tower. The entire mechanism has since vanished, but the tower remains, including the depictions of the eight wind deities: Boreas (N), Kaikias (NE), Eurus (E), Apeliotes (SE), Notus (S), Livas (SW), Zephyrus (W), and Skiron (NW). I have seen the Tower of the Winds in person, and it's beautiful. It's also (one of the) first clock towers of the world.

Coin Money: long before the rule of the Hellens, we developed a trade system that relied on a token, not goods. Commodity money was born, but the Hellens were the first to develop coins of different sizes and materials and put a value on various trading goods.

Crane: in the sixth century BC, the Hellens invented a way to lift the heavy stone blocks onto the emerging temple walls: a crane. Holes drilled into the stone suggest ropes were attached to the blocks, and pulled up to be fitted in place.

Crossbow: like the catapult, crossbows emerged in ancient Hellas and were a favored weapon. The arrows they fired traveled far, were absolutely deadly, and the weapon was relatively easy to load. The earliest evidence for the crossbow in Europe dates back to the 5th century BC when the gastraphetes, an ancient Greek crossbow type, appeared. The device was described by the Greek author Heron of Alexandria in his work Belopoeica ("On Catapult-making"), which draws on an earlier account of his famous compatriot engineer Ctesibius (fl. 285-222 BC). Heron identifies the gastraphetes as the forerunner of the later catapult, which places its invention some unknown time prior to 420 BC.

Lighthouse: the famous lighthouse of Alexandria was constructed around 300 BC, by Sostratus of Cnidus. With a height around 400 ft (120 m), it stood as one of the tallest man-made structures on Earth for many centuries. It was one of the original Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The early lighthouses used wick lamps as a source of light. In the olden times the light beam could only travel a few miles.

Maps: Anaximander, who lived from 610 to 546 BC, was the first to create maps with the concept of latitude and longitude, and it were later Hellens Eratosthenes and Strabo who created maps of the entire known world at the time, which--granted--was not the known world as we know it today. Maps in western literature were first produced in 6200 B.C. Maps are one of the most ancient Greek inventions that are used today.

Odometer: an odometer--as car enthusiasts will most likely know--is an instrument that indicates distance traveled by a vehicle. In ancient Hellas, it was used to measure the distance between cities. Although the actual device was never recovered, some of the measurements were. They were so accurate that some form of technology had to be involved.

Plumbing: in the 400s BC, Athens began to develop highly extensive plumbing systems for baths and fountains, as well as for personal use within individual homes. Many houses in ancient Greece were equipped with closets or latrines that drained into a sewer beneath the street. They seemed to have been flushed by waste water. Some of the sewers were fitted with ventilating shafts.

Sinks: the ancient Hellens were the first to have an automated sink with running water, so both hands could be washed at the same time. The ancient Greeks washed themselves with lumps of clay, had steam baths and rubbed their skin with oil, such as olive oil, which they then scraped off with an instrument called a "strigil", along with any dirt. The Ancient Greeks recognised the value of bathing as an important part of their lifestyles. Writers such as Homer had their heroes bathe in warm water so as to regain their strength; it is perhaps notable that the mother of Achilles bathed him in order to gain his invincibility. Palaces have been uncovered throughout Greece with areas that are dedicated to bathing, spaces with ceramic bathtubs, as well as sophisticated drainage systems. Homer uses the word λοετρά, loetrá, "baths", later λουτρά, loutrá, from the verb λούειν, loúein, to bathe. The same root finds an even earlier attestation on Linear B tablets, in the name of the River Lousios ("bathing" [river]), in Arcadia. Public baths are mentioned by the comedian Aristophanes as βαλανεία, balaneía (Sing.: βαλανείον, balaneíon, Latinized as balneum, a "balneary").

Showers: The ancient Greeks were the first people to have showers. Their aqueducts and sewage systems made of lead pipes allowed water to be pumped both into and out of large communal shower rooms used by elites and common citizens alike. These rooms have been discovered at the site of the city Pergamum and can also be found represented in pottery of the era. The depictions are very similar to modern locker room shower, and even included bars to hang up clothing.

Spiral Staircase: Temple A at Selinunte, Italy, was special. It was build around 480 BC. Selinunte was one of the most important of the Greek colonies in Sicily. There were five temples, but of only the 'E'-temple, it is sure whom it was dedicated to: Hera. Who the A-temple was dedicated to is not clear, but it had a unique design feature: the first spiral staircase in history.

Steam Engine: it was a children's toy, designed by Heron of Alexandria. He called it an aeolipile; a cylinder, arranged to rotate on its axis, having oppositely bent or curved nozzles projecting from it. When the cylinder is pressurized, steam blows through the nozzles and the aeolipile spins around. It was the first steam-powered anything, and extraordinary in its own way.

Surveying tools: the Hellens were well aware that a building needed a solid foundation, and a city needed proper planning in order to stand safely for a long time. More on the latter below, but for both, it was incredibly important to pick out a good building site. In order to do this, the Hellens devised many tools to test the soil, measure out the slope of the ground, and gather other valuable information before building their structures. It shows; much of what stood then, survives to this day, more or less intact.

Thermometer: Philo of Byzantium was a Hellenic Jewish philosopher who discovered that air expanded when heated.He attached a tube to a hollow sphere and extended it over a jug of water. When the device was in the sun, air expanded out of the sphere and into the water, creating bubbles. When he put the device in the shade, nothing happened. Around that same time (+/- 50 AD) Heron of Alexandra worked on the first thermometer for medicine.

Umbrella: they were made from larger bones, wood or plant leaves, and used to block rain or sun. While they certainly were not up to par with modern umbrella's, they served their purpose well. Depictions dating back to the late 4th century BC display umbrellas that could apparently open and close. Ancient Greek culture considered it a mark of effeminacy if a man carries one. Its religious significance can be seen in depictions highlighting the feast of Athene Sciras and those of Dionysus. Interestingly, a marked paradox reveals that Athenian women carried umbrellas as a mark of subservience! The umbrellas' odyssey seemed to have meandered towards Rome thereafter.

Urban Planning: The Greek Hippodamus (c. 407 BC) has been dubbed the "Father of City Planning" for his design of Miletus; Alexander commissioned him to lay out his new city of Alexandria, the grandest example of idealized urban planning of the ancient Mediterranean world, where the city's regularity was facilitated by its level site near a mouth of the Nile. The Hippodamian, or grid plan, was the basis for subsequent Greek and Roman cities. Aristotle's critique and indeed ridicule of Hippodamus, is perhaps the first known example of a criticism of urban planning.

Vending Machine: The first vending machine was a construction of Heron) of Alexandria (c. 10-70 AD). He was an ancient Greek mathematician and engineer who was active in his native city of Alexandria, Roman Egypt. He is considered the greatest experimenter of antiquity and his work is representative of the Hellenistic scientific tradition. His invention of the vending machine became really popular when a coin was introduced via a slot on the top of the machine, and a set amount of holy water was dispensed. This was included in his list of inventions in his book, "Mechanics and Optics". When the coin was deposited, it fell upon a pan attached to a lever. The lever opened up a valve which let some water flow out. The pan continued to tilt with the weight of the coin until it fell off, at which point a counter-weight would snap the lever back up and turn off the valve.

Water Mill: even back in the day, power was needed to set mechanisms to work. The earliest evidence of a water-driven wheel is the Perachora wheel (3rd c. BC), in Greece. The earliest written reference is in the technical treatises Pneumatica and Parasceuastica of the Greek engineer Philo of Byzantium (ca. 280−220 BC). The British historian of technology M.J.T. Lewis has shown that those portions of Philo of Byzantium's mechanical treatise which describe water wheels and which have been previously regarded as later Arabic interpolations, actually date back to the Greek 3rd century BC original. The sakia gear is, already fully developed, for the first time attested in a 2nd century BC Hellenistic wall painting in Ptolemaic Egypt. Lewis assigns the date of the invention of the horizontal-wheeled mill to the Greek colony of Byzantium in the first half of 3rd century BC, and that of the vertical-wheeled mill to Ptolemaic Alexandria around 240 BC. The Greek geographer Strabon reports in his Geography a water-powered grain-mill to have existed near the palace of king Mithradates VI Eupator at Cabira, Asia Minor, before 71 BC.

25 Wheelbarrow: it seems like something someone in the stone age would have come up with, but it wasn't. The wheelbarrow existed in ancient Greece in the form of a one-wheel cart. Two building material inventories for 408/407 and 407/406 B.C. from the temple of Eleusis list, among other machines and tools. Although evidence for the wheelbarrow in ancient farming and mining is absent, it is surmised that wheelbarrows were not uncommon on Greek construction sites for carrying moderately light loads.

http://baringtheaegis.blogspot.gr/2012/10/25-things-you-may-not-know-were.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_planning

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shower

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_mill

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheelbarrow

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25 things You Probably Never Knew Were Invented By The Ancient Greeks

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Modern society always seems to put itself above the ancient societies that preceeded it, but without their inventions, we wouldn't be what we are today, and we certainly would not have what we have today.

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Guide to Ancient Greece

The Ancient Greeks lived around 3,500 years ago their legacy shapes the world we live in today. For some people, life in Greece was good, and many lived in busy towns and cities. They build many temples and very important building that all stood on hills. You will learn about daily life and how they tried to make sense of the world with Philosophy. We hope you have fun learning about this wonderful topic and time in history.

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Ancient Greek History for Kids - Fun Facts to Learn

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Guide to Ancient Greece The Ancient Greeks lived around 3,500 years ago their legacy shapes the world we live in today. For some people, life in Greece was good, and many lived in busy towns and cities. They build many temples and very important building that all stood on hills.

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Science and Technology in Ancient Greece

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Science and Technology in Ancient Greece

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Ancient Greece for Kids: Science and Technology

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Kids learn about science and technology during the civilization of Ancient Greece including mathematics, astronomy, medicine, biology, inventions, and interesting facts.

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In the ancient days, China or the Classical China witnessed a hierarchical social structure in which the Chinese society was divided into different classes on the basis of the wealth, responsibilities as well as the social standing. There were a total of 4 different social classes and each was distinct as far as there jobs, roles and duties were concerned. This social system was based on the Fengjian structure of circa and the ones placed at the top were richer and more powerful than the ones placed at the bottom. To know more about the Classical China social

The following are the main classes of classical China social hierarchy:

King & his family

Shi Class

Nong Class

Gong Class

Shang Class

King

At the topmost level of the Ancient Chinese social pyramid was the king and his family. These were those individuals who were not just the most powerful and rich but also the most respected. They owned a lot of land and made laws that others followed. The King and his Chinese family enjoyed all the luxuries, wealth and other things in life and had to engage in no jobs to lead a comfortable lifestyle, unlike others. This higher class was also shared by the soldiers who were considered the second most respected citizens of the society.

Shi

Next in line was the class that was known as the Shi. The Shi were the gentry scholars in the time of ancient Zhou and Shang dynasties. These individualspossessed certain privileges and had certain say in important matters of those times. The Shi were also appointed in civil services of the classical china society and possessed excellent warrior skills as well.They possessed knowledge, skills and were thus highly respected.

Nong

This was the third level class during the classical China society days and was mainly comprised of peasant farmers. The farmers were considered same in standard and importance as the traders and craftsmen as cultivating food for the society earned them respect and value. Ofcourse, the Nong class didn't enjoy many privileges as the Shi but they were still higher in respect than the other lower classes. They owned their own lands and produced food for all including themselves.

Gong

The Artisans and the craftsmen made the Gong class during the classical China society days and these individuals were mainly considered as the laborers. They didn't own any land of their own but possessed or developed skills which helped them work on day wage jobs. This class wasn't given too many privileges and rights but often made enough money to be wealth.

Shang

The Shang was the lowermost class in the social hierarchy of the classical. This was that class which composed of the merchants and the traders. The individuals who belonged to this class didn't have any rights, responsibilities or respect and could never achieve a good status in the society. Theyoften acquired enough wealth for themselves by working hard and even moved up the ladder of the hierarchical structure of the classical Chinese society.

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Classical China Social Hierarchy | Ancient China's Social Classes

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In the ancient days, China or the Classical China witnessed a hierarchical social structure in which the Chinese society was divided into different classes on the basis of the wealth, responsibilities as well as the social standing. There were a total of 4 different social classes and each was distinct as far as there jobs, roles and duties were concerned.

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Defining the Shi as Gentry scholars is not wholly accurate. The early Shi came from the ancient warrior caste, but the make-up of the Shi gradually evolved until it was mostly made of aristocratic...

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All throughout Ancient China to the end of Imperial China, Chinese civilisation lived under a social hierarchy - a ruling system where people are ranked according to status or occupation.

There are many roles within the Chinese hierarchy, some more respected than others.

In ancient Chinese society, the Fengjian social structure of circa 1046-256 BCE gave rise to Confucian or Legalist scholars' classification of the Chinese people into four broad categories.

These roles are often distributed since birth according to their parent's position, and each person is compelled to perform their duty, occasionally moving up the hierarchy ladder to a higher and better position.

From highest to lowest social strata, the categories were:

The Shi, or gentry scholars;

The Nong, or peasant farmers;

The Gong, artisans and craftsmen;

And the Shang, merchants and traders.

Emperor

The emperor was an important role within the Ancient Chinese hierarchy: they were well venerated, dominating power over everyone in the kingdom, making the major decisions.

The emperors had considerable wealth and owned the most land, they would usually assign talented soldiers and nobles to help them make decisions and govern small areas of land, called counties. There would only be one emperor reigning at a time, when the emperor dies, the son would typically assume the throne.

Throughout Chinese History, there has been emperors that significantly contributed to the progression of civilisation, and emperors that were tyrants, impeding further progression.

Soldiers

The soldiers were also a respected class of the Ancient Chinese hierarchy, they were the defenders of the kingdom; protecting the country from raids and riots, keeping the people in control. Soldiers also had great wealth.

Shi Class - Gentry Scholars

Defining the shi as gentry scholars is not wholly accurate. The early shi came from the ancient warrior caste, but the make-up of the shi gradually evolved until it was mostly made of aristocratic scholars who studied in order to occupy positions of rank, and then further into a bureaucratic scholarly elite where noble lineage was de-emphasized.

Nobles were well educated, gentry scholars of Imperial China especially prevalent in the Shang and Zhou Dynasty. These people were still relatively well respected in the Ancient Chinese society.

Scholars - even those who owned land - were never very rich, but they were respected because of their knowledge. Access to information was very limited in ancient times, and so scholarly pursuits were very challenging.

Nobles are low-level aristocrats, they were granted certain privileges and held limited power over people, conducting and commanding battles during wars. Nobles were also known for their warrior skills and double edged swords called Jian (剑).

Nong Class - Peasant Farmers

Peasant farmers were second only to gentry scholars in ancient China. Peasant farmers served an important purpose in the Chinese hierarchy. They had to sustain food for not only themselves, but the whole kingdom.

Farmers were landholders like gentry scholars, and agriculture long played a key role in the rise of Chinese civilization.

Not only did the farmers produce the food to sustain the society, they paid land tax, which was a source of state revenue for the ruling dynasties.

Farmers were therefore valuable members of society even though they weren't shi. However, shi families were still landholders who also produced crops and food themselves.

Gong Class - Artisans and Craftsmen

The gong were those who had skills to make useful objects. This was the class identified by the Chinese character that stands for "labor."

They were like farmers in that they produced essential objects, but most of them did not have land of their own and so did not generate the revenue.

However, they commanded more respect than merchants because the skills they had were handed down from father to son.

Artisans could be government employed or self employed, and those that were most successful could become wealthy enough to hire apprentices or laborers that they could manage. Besides creating their own enterprises, the artisans also formed their own guilds.

Shang Class - Merchants and Traders

The Shang Class consisted of merchants, traders, shopkeepers and bankers. There was not a lot of respect for merchants and traders in ancient Chinese society.

Though they could achieve significant wealth, they were held in low esteem because they did not produce anything, but rather transported and traded goods made by others.

Sometimes merchants bought land in order to be considered farmers and therefore command more respect in society.

However, some people of the Shang Class were able to make enough money to climb up the hierarchy ladder into better positions

Some would buy a good education for their descendants so that they could attain the status of scholars. Though traders, merchants, and peddlers were viewed as essential members of society, they were lowest on the four rungs of the ladder of ancient Chinese social hierarchy, due to popular perception of these people as greedy and immoral.

Slaves

The slaves were the lowest class of the Chinese social hierarchy, they lived a very sad, gruesome life.

Like peasants, slaves often worked out on the fields, planting and harvesting crops.

However, the people of this class were owned by masters, so they had no rights and were severely underfed.

Slaves were often killed as sacrifice for ceremonies and funerals. These people almost never moved up the hierarchy pyramid, working to the end of their lives. The life expectancy rate of a slave is around 30-40 years.

The four basic classes of ancient Chinese society were broad categories that were more ideals than reality, particularly as China approached the era of the Song and Ming dynasties, and commercialization of society increased. By the time of the late Ming Dynasty, the class of wealthy merchants had merged with the landholding gentry.

Though the so-called "four occupations" did entail different levels of legal privilege in ancient Chinese society, they were more a rhetorical construct, and did not have much of an effect on government policy.

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All throughout Ancient China to the end of Imperial China, Chinese civilisation lived under a social hierarchy - a ruling system where people are ranked according to status or occupation. There are many roles within the Chinese hierarchy, some more respected than others.

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Like the other parts of the world, the ancient China also witnessed the social classes in its societal structure. The ancient Chinese society was divided on the basis of Fengjian structure of Circa. This gave rise to social hierarchy of ancient China by classifying the Chinese people into four social classes. Following are the details about the social hierarchy of ancient China beginning from highest and going towards lowest strata of the country.

King & his family

Shi Class

Nong Class

Gong Class

Shang Class

King

The king and his family were placed on the topmost level of the ancient Chinese social hierarchy pyramid. These people were the most respected, owned the largest amount of land and ruled the people in the entire kingdom. Apart from king, the higher classes were also shared by soldiers who were the second most respectable people in the ancient China. They were respected greatly due to the wealth that they possessed.

After these major classes lies the actual social hierarchy of ancient China that was based on occupation of people.

Shi

The Shi were the gentry scholars in the time of ancient Zhou and Shang dynasties. These were regarded as the low level aristocratic lineage in the social structure. They also possessed certain privileges that other people were not given like they had the right of riding in chariots and command the battles from their mobile chariots. The people from this class were also appointed in civil services of the country. earlier these were the people who were known for their warrior skills and were recognized double edged sword that was known as Jian, but later on the people started recognizing these knowledge, scholarship and their administration abilities.

Nong

The Nong class was comprised by the peasant farmers. since Neolithic age the agriculture in China remained as a key element for the entire civilization since the farmers produced the food to sustain the whole society. These were considered as part of higher ranks compared to craftsmen and traders. Although they did not enjoy the privileges that the Shi class was given but farmers were considered as the valuable members of society. These were landholders and were responsible for producing food and crops for themselves and the society.

Gong

The Gong class was composed by the craftsmen and artisans. As per Chinese understanding these were considered as the labors. They were like the farmers but since they did not possess any land of their own therefore they engaged themselves in developing good and crafts. This was also a wealthy class but was not considered as a good class in the social structure and hence was not given privileges & rights as compared to the higher classes.

Shang

The lowermost class in the social hierarchy of ancient China was the Shang class which was composed by traders and merchants. Since these people could not achieve good status in the society so they were placed on the lowermost levels of the social structure. They had significant wealth but because they indulged themselves in trading and transporting goods that were made by the other people, they were not considered as respectable people in the society.

More Resources:
Victorian england social hierarchy Mesopotamia social hierarchy Latin america social hierarchy Ancient greek social hierarchy

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Social Hierarchy of Ancient China - HierarchyStructure.com

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Like the other parts of the world, the ancient China also witnessed the social classes in its societal structure. The ancient Chinese society was divided on the basis of Fengjian structure of Circa. This gave rise to social hierarchy of ancient China by classifying the Chinese people into four social classes.

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We take a lot of things for granted in the modern world. Fiber optic cables deliver enormous amounts of information at nearly the speed of light. You can hop into your car and shout your destination at your GPS navigation system, and a digitized and disembodied voice issues easy-to-follow directions. We have it pretty sweet here in the 21st century.

As time marches on, it becomes easier to overlook the contributions of those who came before us. Even in the 19th century, Charles Duell, patent commissioner of the United States, reportedly remarked that everything that can be invented already has been invented [source: Idea Finder].

Clearly, if Duell said such a thing, he was way off. The 20th and 21st centuries have seen enormous booms in ingenuity. However, his alleged words also reveal an understanding that seems to have been lost. He understood that humans have experienced flashes of brilliance and made discoveries throughout history. He also understood that these advances have so greatly accelerated human progress that everything following them seems to be built on the foundation provided by these early inventions.

Perhaps no other ancient culture has contributed more to this advancement of human progress than the Chinese. Here are ten of the greatest inventions of the ancient nation, in no particular order.

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We take a lot of things for granted in the modern world. Fiber optic cables deliver en­ormous amounts of information at nearly the speed of light. You can hop into your car and shout your destination at your GPS navigation system, and a digitized and disembodied voice issues easy-to-follow directions.

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The quest for immortality ironically led to gunpowder’s invention.

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The deadly irony of gunpowder - Eric Rosado

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Try to imagine life without paper. Even in the era of emails and digital books, paper is all around us. Paper is in shopping bags, money, store receipts, cereal boxes, and toilet paper. We use paper in so many ways every day. So, where did this marvelously versatile material come from?

According to ancient Chinese historical sources, a court eunuch named Ts'ai Lun (or Cai Lun) presented the newly-invented paper to the Emperor Hedi of the Eastern Han Dynasty in 105 CE. The historian Fan Hua (398-445 CE) recorded this version of events, but archaeological finds from western China and Tibet suggest that paper was invented centuries earlier.

Samples of even more ancient paper, some of it dating to c. 200 BCE, have been unearthed in the ancient Silk Road cities of Dunhuang and Khotan, and in Tibet. The dry climate in these places allowed the paper to survive for up to 2,000 years without entirely decomposing. Amazingly, some of this paper even has ink marks on it, proving that ink was invented much earlier than historians had supposed.

Writing Materials Before Paper

Of course, people in various places around the world were writing long before the invention of paper. Materials such as bark, silk, wood, and leather functioned in a similar way to paper, although they were either much more expensive or heavier. In China, many early works were recorded on long bamboo strips, which were then bound with leather straps or string into books.

People world-wide also carved very important notations into stone or bone, or pressed stamps into wet clay and then dried or fired the tablets to preserve their words. However, writing (and later printing) required a material that was both cheap and lightweight to become truly ubiquitous. Paper fit the bill perfectly.

Chinese Paper-Making

Early paper-makers in China used hemp fibers, which were soaked in water and pounded with a large wooden mallet. The resulting slurry was then poured over a horizontal mold; loosely-woven cloth stretched over a framework of bamboo allowed the water to drip out the bottom or evaporate, leaving behind a flat sheet of dry hemp-fiber paper.

Over time, paper-makers began to use other materials in their product, including bamboo, mulberry and different types of tree bark. They dyed paper for official records with a yellow substance, the imperial color, which had the added benefit of repelling insects that might have destroyed the paper otherwise.

One of the most common formats for early paper was the scroll. A few long pieces of paper were pasted together to form a strip, which was then wrapped around a wooden roller. The other end of the paper was attached to a thin wooden dowel, with a piece of silk cord in the middle to tie the scroll shut.

The Spread of Paper-Making

From its point of origin in China, the idea and technology of paper-making spread throughout Asia. In the 500s CE, artisans on the Korean Peninsula began to make paper using many of the same materials as Chinese paper-makers. The Koreans also used rice straw and seaweed, expanding the types of fiber available for paper production. This early adoption of paper fueled the Korean innovations in printing, as well. Metal movable type was invented by 1234 CE on the peninsula.

Around 610 CE, according to legend, the Korean Buddhist monk Don-Cho introduced paper-making to the court of Emperor Kotoku in Japan. Paper-making technology also spread west through Tibet and then south into India.

Paper Reaches the Middle East and Europe

In 751 CE, the armies of Tang China and the ever-expanding Arab Abbasid Empire clashed in the Battle of Talas River, in what is now Kyrgyzstan. One of the most interesting repercussions of this Arab victory was that the Abbasids captured Chinese artisans, including master paper-makers like Tou Houan, and took them back to the Middle East.

At that time, the Abbasid Empire stretched from Spain and Portugal in the west through North Africa to Central Asia in the east, so knowledge of this marvelous new material spread far and wide. Before long, cities from Samarkand (now in Uzbekistan) to Damascus and Cairo had become centers of paper production.

In 1120, the Moors established Europe's first paper mill at Valencia, Spain (then called Xativa). From there, this Chinese invention passed to Italy, Germany, and other parts of Europe. Paper helped spread knowledge, much of which was gleaned from the great Asian culture centers along the Silk Road, that enabled Europe's High Middle Ages.

Manifold Uses

Meanwhile, in East Asia, paper was used for an enormous number of purposes. Combined with varnish, it became beautiful lacquer-ware storage vessels and furniture. In Japan, the walls of homes were often made of rice-paper. Besides paintings and books, paper was made into fans, umbrellas, even highly effective armor. Paper truly is one of the most wonderful Asian inventions of all time.

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Invented in northwestern China around 2000 years ago, the invention of paper empowered humankind in ways which continue to resonate.

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Top Ancient Chinese Inventions and Discoveries

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Top Ancient Chinese Inventions and Discoveries

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Top important ancient Chinese inventions and discoveries for the modern world.

The ancient Chinese are credited with having invented many things that we use today. Since we're dealing with Antiquity here (roughly the Shang to the Chin [c.1600 B.C. - A.D. 265]), rather than the period from the beginning of time through the Middle Ages, I can't simply use a list of the Four Great Chinese Inventions. So, here is my list of the most important inventions from ancient China in terms of western use today. Arguably, gunpowder, even in its ancient form, could be on top, but my choice is one that millions of us drink every day, the most popular drink in the world, and, while initially, people were suspicious of its harmful effects, a lot healthier than the other candidate for top billing.

Tea has been so important in China that even the story of silk includes a probably anachronistic cup of it. Legend says silk was discovered when a cocoon fell from a mulberry bush into a cup of imperial tea. This is similar to the legend of the discovery of tea where an emperor (Shen Nung (2737 B.C.)) drank a cup of water into which leaves from an overhanging Camellia bush had fallen.

Tea, no matter what country it comes from, is from the Camellia sinensis plant. It seems to have been a new beverage in the third century A.D., a time when it was still regarded with suspicion, much as the tomato was when it was first brought to Europe.

Today we refer to beverages as tea even though there is no real tea in them. (Purists call them tisanes.) In the early period, there was confusion, too, and the Chinese for tea was sometimes used to refer to other plants, according to Bodde.

"Early References to Tea Drinking in China"
Derk Bodde
Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 62, No. 1 (Mar., 1942), pp. 74-76.

Paper was another Han invention. Paper could be made from a sludge made from fabrics, like hemp, or rice. Ts'ai-Lun is credited with the invention, although it is thought to have been created earlier. Ts'ai-Lun gets the credit because he showed it to the Chinese emperor c. A.D. 105. Should paper come before silk? Perhaps, but with the decline in newspapers and print books, as well as the use of email for personal communication, it doesn't seem quite so important as it did, say 20 years ago.

Papermaking - From the Guide to Inventors at About.com

Coming from perhaps as early as the Neolithic era, lacquer use, including lacquerware, has been around since the Shang Dynasty. Lacquer produces a hard, protective, insect and water repelling (so it can preserve wood as on boats and repel rain on umbrellas), and decorative surface that can last indefinitely. Created by adding thin layers of the material over each other and onto a core, the resulting lacquerware is lightweight. Cinnabar and iron oxide were commonly used to color the material. The product is the dehydrated resin or sap from the Rhus verniciflua (lacquer tree), harvested by a method similar to mapling.

Source: The Chinese Traditional Art of Lacquer

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The 9 Most Important Ancient Chinese Inventions

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Top important ancient Chinese inventions and discoveries for the modern world. The ancient Chinese are credited with having invented many things that we use today. Since we're dealing with Antiquity here (roughly the Shang to the Chin [c.1600 B.C. - A.D.

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Welcome to Britannica School , a safe, up-to-date and age-appropriate information resource for Elementary, Middle and High School.

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India Pakistan Partition Documentary BBC

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Ancient India's Contributions to the World (Full Documentary)

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India is one of the oldest and richest civilizations in the world. It is home to the world's first planned cities, where every house had its own bathroom and toilet five thousand years ago. The Ancient Indians have not only given us yoga, meditation and complementary medicines, but they have furthered our knowledge of science, maths -- and invented Chaturanga, which became the game of chess.

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Indian inventions and discoveries have been instrumental in shaping the face of the current modern world. We picked up 20 such interesting findings out of a whole bunch that will make you go, "I didn't know that".

1. Buttons

Buttons were first used in Mohenjo-daro for ornamental purpose rather than for fastening. They were first used in the Indus Valley Civilization by 2000 BCE.

2. Chess

Chess developed out of Chaturanga, which is an ancient strategy board game developed during the Gupta Empire in India around the 6th century AD. Now you know why Vishwanathan Anand is such a pro, rag rag me is tarah ... 😉

3. Prefabricated home and movable structure

In 16th century Mughal India, during the reign of Akbar, the first prefabricated & movable structures were invented.

4. Ruler

Rulers were first used by the Indus Valley Civilization prior to 1500 BCE. Made of ivory, the rulers found during excavation, reveal the amazing accuracy of decimal subdivisions on it.

5. Shampoo

The word 'Shampoo' is derived from chāmpo (चाँपो). It was initially used as a head massage oil for the Nawabs of Bengal during the Mughal Empire around 1762. It evolved into shampoo over the years.

6. Snakes and Ladders

The game, Snakes & Ladders, was invented in India as a game of morals. Later it spread to England and eventually introduced in the USA by game pioneer Milton Bradley in 1943.

7. Cotton cultivation (We clothed the world, yay!)

The ancient Greeks used to wear animal skins and were not even aware of cotton. But Indians were sort of cool 😉 and started cultivating cotton during the 5th - 4th millennium BCE in the Indus Valley Civilization. The word spread to the Mediterranean and beyond and soon everyone was ordering one from Flipkart. Well, pretty much.

8. Fibonacci Numbers

The Fibonacci numbers were first described by Virahanka, Gopala and Hemachandra as an outgrowth of earlier writings by Pingala.

9. Decimal System, Quadratic formula and Zero!

It was in 7th century CE when Brahmagupta found the first general formula for solving quadratic equations. The decimal system (or the Hindu number system), which was a precursor of the Arabic numeric system, was developed in India between the 1st and 6th centuries CE.

10. Suits Game

The popular game of cards originated from India & was known as Krida-patram (which literally means "painted rags for playing").

11. Cataract Surgery

Indian physician Sushruta (6th century BCE) had the knowledge of performing cataract surgery. It spread to China from India. Greek scientists would visit India to get operations done and also to learn the nitty-gritties.

12. Diamond Mining

Worldwide, India was the only source of diamonds until the discovery of mines in Brazil in the 18th century. Almost 5000 years ago, diamonds were first recognized and mined in central India.

13. Water on Moon

ISRO's Chandrayaan-1 made the startling discovery that our moon is not a dry ball of rocks. The discovery of lunar water is attributed to the Chandrayaan mission.

14. Radio/Wireless communication

We all know that Marconi received a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1909 for contribution to the development of wireless telegraphy. But the first public demonstration of radio waves for communication was made by Sir Jagdish Chandra Bose in 1895, two years prior to Marconi's similar demonstration in England.

Sir Bose was posthumously credited (more than a century later) for his achievement. The fact remains that this discovery truly shaped the face of modern wireless communication.

15. Flush Toilets

Flush toilets were first used in the Indus Valley Civilization. These existed in most homes and were connected to a sophisticated sewage mechanism. The civilization was prominent in hydraulic engineering.

16. Binary Code

Binary numbers were first described by Pingala (c. 200 BC). Pingala is the traditional name of the author of the Chandaḥśāstra, the earliest known Sanskrit treatise on prosody.

17. Ink

Many ancient cultures and civilizations independently discovered and prepared ink for writing purposes. The source of carbon pigment used in Indian Ink (called musi) used in ancient India, was India. Since 4th century BC, the practice of writing with ink with a sharp pointed needle was common in South India.

18. Steel & Metal works

Ancient Indians were pioneers in metallurgy. High quality steel was produced, almost two thousand years before it was understood by the West. One of the most remarkable feat in metallurgy: creating a seamless celestial globe, was invented in Kashmir. It was earlier considered impossible to create a metal globe without seams.

So thanks to India, Iron Man can wear his suit now.

19. Fiber Optics

Named as one of the 7 'Unsung Heroes' by Fortune Magazine, Dr. Narinder Singh Kapany, is widely recognized as the 'Father of Fiber Optics' for his pioneering work in Fiber Optics technology. Watch him speak eloquently on his entrepreneurial journey.

20. Plastic Surgery

Yes, you heard it right. Indians were pioneers in Plastic Surgery too. It was carried out in India as early as 2000 BCE.

So, we've always been a cool country. 😉 History is testimony to it. So what's stopping you from being innovative? Go, win the world.

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20 Clever Inventions You Probably Didn't Know Were Made By Indians

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316.5Kshares Share Tweet WhatsApp Pinterest Email Indian inventions and discoveries have been instrumental in shaping the face of the current modern world. We picked up 20 such interesting findings out of a whole bunch that will make you go, "I didn't know that". 1. Buttons Buttons were first used in Mohenjo-daro for ornamental purpose rather [...]

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Some of the oldest human remains in South Asia date back to around 75,000 years ago. These early humans made tools and lived a nomadic hunter/gatherer life. Artifacts indicate that around 5000 BCE, farming developed in South Asia. Slowly, people began to live in permanent places and villages slowly developed-eventually these villages turned into cities and created one of the earliest human civilizations in the world. This civilization is known by many names: Ancient India, Indus Valley, and Harappan Civilization. Historians and archeologists believe the Indus Valley Civilization began around 3000 BCE. There is evidence of trade between Ancient India and

South Asia is one of the four early places where human civilization began-similar to Egypt (Nile), China (Yellow), and Iraq (Tigris and Euphrates). Civilization in South Asia began along the Indus River. The land of South Asia is dominated by three main types of physical features. Mountains, rivers, and the massive triangular-shaped peninsula of India.

50 or 60 million years ago India slowly smashed into Asia and formed the Himalaya and Hindu Kush Mountains that nearly block off India from the surrounding area. Except for the coast, there are only a few narrow passes through the mountains such as the Khyber Pass that have allowed people to enter this land. The other main physical features are the Indus River in modern day Pakistan and the Ganges River in modern day India. The Indus River is in a very dry area called the Thar Desert--this Arid climate is the site for another of the world's first human civilizations.

The water in the Indus River mainly comes from melting glaciers and natural springs from the mountains that surround it. As the water runs down the mountain it picks up fertile silt. This area would flood at least one time every year and provide irrigation water for farmers. When the flood waters went away the left a thin layer of fertile silt. Today, much of South Asia experiences an annual change of wind direction called monsoon that usually brings massive amounts of rain. Some historians claim the Indus Valley received two annual floods.

Mesopotamia as early as 3200 BCE. This an other evidence suggests Ancient India relied on trade in a larger way than other early civilizations.

Ancient India

Ancient India is often called the Harappan Civilization because one of the ancient cities was called Harappa. Harappa was just one of 1500 cities in the Indus River Valley. Another well-known city is called Mohenjo-Daro. Historians estimate Ancient India to be the biggest of all four early civilizations. This civilization was not discovered until the 1920's CE, and much of this civilization remains a mystery. One reason the Indus Valley civilization is so mysterious is because historians have not been able to translate their complicated written language called Indus Script. There are thousands of artifacts with 400-600 different written symbols. Most of these symbols were pressed into soft clay with seals. A seal is similar to a stamp that makes an impression in the soft clay. Seals are sometimes in a cylinder shape so they can be rolled on the clay. Indus Script symbols have been discovered in Mesopotamia, which suggests they maintained a regular trade.

The archeologist have found the remains of cities to be incredibly well planned out. Historians estimate that each major city could support as many as 80,000 people, so Ancient India was by far the largest early civilization. The buildings were made from mud-bricks that had been fired in a kiln to make it harder. A kiln is a hot oven or furnace to bake clay pottery. City planners started by digging water wells and water drainage systems with main roads and small roads laid out in a square grid. Finally homes were built along the roads, sometimes with multiple stories. It appears that most urban homes had water drain systems in the their home--a technology that wouldn't be matched in history for over 3000 years. However, most people didn't live in the urban areas. Most people lived in farming villages in rural areas.

Farmers domesticated several plants including melons, wheat, peas, dates, sesame seeds, and cotton, as well as many animals. Archeologists have discovered what food the Ancient Indian people ate by examining the teeth of skeletons and food storage areas. Another example of how well planned the Indus Valley civilization was is their grain storage building. Some historians believe they have discovered a massive granary nearly 200 feet long to store and dry wheat. However, there is no evidence of grain in this building, so once again, historians are uncertain about the mysterious Indus Valley civilization.

Ancient India was different from the Egyptians and Mesopotamians in several ways. One way they are different is that there appear to be very few large structures in Ancient India. One of the largest structures that has been discovered is called the Great Bath. Basically its a public pool that is over 40 feet long, 20 feet wide, and nearly 10 feet deep. If large temples or palaces once existed they are gone today. This leads to a curious question--did Ancient India have kings or high ranked religious leaders? What did the social pyramid look like? The remains of the civilization suggests they were a very egalitarian society. Egalitarian means everyone in society was basically equal. Another difference is in military and weapons. There is very little evidence of weapons and military culture in the Indus Valley. Another difference is that astronomy seems to be less important in India than in other civilizations unless the text has been lost.

The Indus Valley religion is also mysterious because the language hasn't been translated. Historians believe they may have worshiped a Mother Goddess. They believe the Great Bath could have been used for some type of baptism. A small artifact has been found that some historians think may be a priest (right), but archeologists have yet to find a temple of any kind. Some of the Indus Script symbols are related to the images of the modern religion of Hinduism (left), but historians don't all agree about the symbols. The image to the left shows a three-faced person sitting in the lotus position. The lotus positions is a Yoga position of meditation where a person sits upright with their legs folded in their lap. Yoga is a spiritual practice of meditation, breathing, and body position used in many religions, especially Hinduism.

By 1500 BCE, the once vast and powerful civilization began to decline at some point it suddenly ended. Historians are uncertain why this area's power declined. There are some theories that a great earthquake crumbled cities and changed the path of rivers, which caused them to move to a new location. Another theory claims the climate may have changed, which forced them to move. Yet another theory suggests invading armies destroyed some cities and forced most people to move. One thing we know for sure is that the civilization that once lived in this area ended and new people moved into this area.

Some people have disputed this arrival of the Indo-Europeans, however, the spoken language that these Indo-European people brought to India, recorded in Sanskrit, is very similar to other Indo-European languages such as Greek and Latin. There are many examples of similar words between the languages spoken in these areas. In addition, some DNA evidence supports the arrival of the Indo-Europeans to these regions. However, this is a theory of history that some historians don't agree with. In addition to their spoken language, the Indo-Europeans brought their religious beliefs with them to India. The story and beliefs of first written down in a language called

Sanskrit. Sanskrit was a spoken language that was written down in different writing systems that developed later on such as Devanagari--the early form of Hindi (picture on right), India's main language today. Indo-Europeans also brought the domesticated horse into South Asia-this suggests the Indo-Europeans were at least semi-nomadic. Vedic Period

Around 1500 BCE, Indo-European people migrated to India. These people came from the area between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea (purple on the map on the left). Between 4000 and 1000 BCE, Indo-Europeans migrated all over Europe and Asia. Some went to Europe and influenced the Romans and the Greeks; some settled in Turkey and became the Hittites, others migrated southeast instead. Some stopped in Iran, later becoming Persian, while others continued southeast to Pakistan and India. The slow migration did not arrive in northern India until about 1500 BCE. In India, the Indo-Europeans are sometimes called the Aryans.

Hinduism were recorded in a collection of stories and songs called the Vedas.
There are many historians that believe the Hindu religion actually began in the Indus River Valley civilization. The Vedas were

Castes were very important to people's identities. There were four castes, but there was another group

The Indo-Europeans first settled along the Indus River, in the same place where the Indus Valley people had lived. They settled down and mixed with the local Indian people. They lived there and eventually expanded throughout the Indo-Gangetic Plain. It was at this time that the caste system got started in India. It is believed that the Indo-Europeans had a similar division of their society, but historians don't agree about how the caste system originated. The caste system is the permanent division of people into certain levels within society. Each level or caste has particular jobs such as merchant, warrior, or priest.
below the four castes known as Dalits or Untouchables. Untouchables usually did the worst jobs, like cleaning up people's poop from the gutters, collecting garbage, and dealing with dead bodies. The lowest of the castes was the Sudras - the servants and farmhands who did not own their own business or their own land, and who had to work for other people. The largest number of people belonged to this caste. Above them were the Vaisyas, or farmers and traders, who owned their own farms or businesses. Above these people were the Kshatriyas, or warriors. The most powerful caste was the Brahmins (pictured below), the priests and other leaders. Many historians believe that when the Indo-Europeans arrived they treated the native Indus Valley people as the Untouchables.

There were also dozens of smaller groups within each castes. People who came from different castes could not eat together. Usually people from one caste did not marry or make friends with people from another caste. Untouchables were not allowed in temples and were seen as "polluted" compared to Brahmins who were "pure". Today, the caste system is outlawed by the modern Indian constitution, and in urban areas most people ignore the caste traditions. However, in traditional rural areas caste divisions still exist. The developing Indian culture of the Indo-European mixed with native Indus Valley people began to grow quickly. Their civilization spread from the Indus River Valley to the Ganges River. Similar to other civilizations, kingdoms developed as the territory expanded.

Indian Kingdoms and Foreign Invasions

For about 1000 years the Indo-Europeans and native Indians mixed and migrated throughout the the northern part of the region. Cities began to grow in number, and size and by 600 BCE these slowly developed into 16 different kingdoms called Maha Janapadas. It was during this time period that Siddhartha Gautama gave up his title as a prince to search for truth and an end to the suffering. On his rare trips out of the royal palace, Siddartha noticed most people suffering through life. He also grew tired to the priests who dominated society. He gave up his royal life and started a quest to find real truth. After years of searching, he achieved " enlightenment" and became known as the Buddha or "enlightened one". The Buddha traveled throughout South Asia and taught others his new ideas-these teachings became known as the religion of Buddhism.

Another religion called Jainism also developed during this time. Both of these new religions clearly developed from Hinduism in the same way Christianity and Islam clearly developed from Judaism. These new religions were a rebellion against cultural ideas such as the caste system and importance of priests in religion. Some of the first significant architecture in South Asia also came from these new religions. Since many of the building of the Indus Valley have been lost to erosion, Buddhist architecture has become India's most famous architecture. The first development is called a stupa. A stupa (below, left picture) is a mound-like structure that contains the ashes and relics of a loved Buddhist leader. Later, the stupa transformed into a new Buddhist structure called a pagoda. A Pagoda (below, right picture) usually has many levels or "tiers" of roofs. It is also a Buddhist temple. Today Buddhist pagodas can be found all over China, Japan and Southeast Asia.

In 520 BCE, the Persians invaded and took control of northern Indian subcontinent. This conquest was under the mighty Persian leader Darius the Great. Persia controlled this region for about 200 years until Alexander the Great invaded South Asia. Alexander and his army were far from home and completely exhausted from years of constant war as they rampaged toward the east. It was in India that Alexander's army finally refused to fight, and Alexander the Great was forced to return to Greece. The pattern of Persia conquest followed by Greek conquest occurred in Ancient Egypt, Ancient Iraq (Mesopotamia), and Ancient India. The only ancient civilization that didn't suffer from the Persian and Greek conquest is ancient China. This is mainly due the the barriers of geography. Ancient China is separated from these other areas of civilization by vast deserts and high mountains. These obstacles are very difficult to pass even in today's society. This is the main reason that China developed in a unique way. The Silk Road trade route between China and the the rest of the world, over a 1000 years later would finally link all four major civilization areas.

The Persians and Greeks entered South Asia through the Khyber Pass, as did the Indo-Europeans, during their migration into South Asia. The Persians greatly influenced the style of government in India and some Greeks remained in northwest Pakistan and influenced the culture to this day, although the religion of Hinduism has had the greatest influence in India. The impact of the Indus Valley is not completely understood, but surely time and archeology will tell.

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Ancient India - Ancient Civilizations for Kids

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Some of the oldest human remains in South Asia date back to around 75,000 years ago. These early humans made tools and lived a nomadic hunter/gatherer life. Artifacts indicate that around 5000 BCE, farming developed in South Asia.

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earliest known precise celestial calculations

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Indian Achievements, Ancient Indian Inventions, Ancient India Achievements, Ancient India Inventions

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Indians acievements have been lauded all over the world. Lited here are Achievements of Ancient India, Inventions in Ancient India or Ancient Indian Inventions. Inventions Of Ancient India like Earliest known precise celestial calculations, Binary System of number representation, Invention of Zero.

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India for Kids and Teachers - Music, Dance, Art - Ancient India for Kids

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India is exceptionally rich in art, architecture, literature, music, and dance. From ancient Buddhist shrines to huge and ornate temples carved out of rock, to paintings, statues, sculptures, folk art, tapestry, embroidery, myths and stories, and more, the many arts of India have offered a wealthy of imagination, engineering, and artistry for thousands of years.

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Ancient Egyptian History for Kids: Inventions and Technology

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Kids learn about Ancient Egyptian inventions and technology including papyrus, writing, medicine, mathematics, ship building, and makeup.

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ЩΉӨ BЦIᄂƬ ƬΉΣ PYЯΛMIDƧ

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Who built the pyramids? The colossal geometric monuments found at Giza and elsewhere in Egypt are some of Earth's most impressive constructions. It's Okay To Be Smart gives us a closer look.

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When people think of Ancient Greece, they think of the citizens of this time period as either soldiers or farmers. This, in fact, barely scratches the surface of the jobs in the Grecian culture. There were a variety of opportunities for both men and women to have a career.

Money Changer

Men held the job of money changer in Ancient Greece. It can be compared to the modern job of bank teller or currency exchange associate, which is a job held by many females. The primary responsibilities of the money changer were to change currency from one country's rate to the next. This is an important position because it allowed commerce to run smoothly in Greece. Many people would travel from other lands to purchase goods in Greece.

Bard

A bard's job would be considered a nonpaid hobby in modern times. A bard would write poetry in epic style and perform it during public readings. Homer was considered a popular bard during this time period. These bards would commonly write melodramatic songs that influenced the people of that day.

Musician

Musicians were male or female just like modern times. They were hired to play instruments popular at the time, such as the flute and lyre, during public events. Some wealthy Grecians also would hire musicians for private performances. Musicians still perform in these types of situations. Sometimes dancers were hired in conjunction with musicians to expand the performance.

Druggist

Druggists in Ancient Greece were females. It was a job that was held in high regard by the citizens of Ancient Greece. They were responsible for gathering herbs and making them into various medications. This required a high knowledge of chemistry as well as botany. In modern times, both men and women work as druggists or chemists to make various drugs.

Baker

Women were responsible for baking bread in Ancient Greece. Men considered anything remotely resembling domestic service to be better suited for women. They would bake various types of breads and other treats and sell them to various customers. This is a profession that is occupied in modern times by men and women.

Photo Credits

Hemera Technologies/AbleStock.com/Getty Images

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The Jobs of the Ancient Greeks | Synonym

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When people think of Ancient Greece, they think of the citizens of this time period as either soldiers or farmers. This, in fact, barely scratches the surface of the jobs in the Grecian culture. There were a variety of opportunities for both men and women to have a career.

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Ancient Greece can be credited with many inventions and discoveries, although many of these have been developed and adapted by subsequent generations.

The ancient Greeks' findings in the areas of astronomy, geography, and mathematics made them pioneers in the field of science. The Greeks' interest in the scientific specification of the physical world can be seen as far back as the sixth century BC, and they have often been hailed as the fathers of science, medicine, zoology, and many other areas.

Remarkable leaders like Alexander the Great and Pericles, and their innovative and philosophical ideas have motivated thousands of other intellectuals throughout history.

Here is a list of the top 10 inventions and discoveries of ancient Greece that are still used today:

10. The Water Mill

Water mills were a revolutionary invention and have been used all over the world for the purpose of metal shaping, agriculture and, most importantly, milling. To mill means to grind, and that invariably means to grind grain. This in turn led to the production of edible food staples like rice, cereals, pulses, flour, and so on.

Ever since its invention, the water mill has seen a number of adaptations, which have enabled people to use it to mill different raw materials. These mills are still used in many parts of the world and serve a similar function.

This useful invention takes its origins from the earliest known Perachora wheel, created way back in the third century BC in Greece, most likely invented by the contemporary Greek engineer Philo of Byzantium. Earlier, the portions of the mechanical treatise on this particular water mill written by Philo himself were regarded to have Arab origination. However, recent research by British historian M.J.T. Lewis has proved that the water mill was an ancient Greek invention.

9. The Odometer

One of the most widely used instruments in the present day, the odometer, measures the distance traveled by a vehicle such as a bicycle or automobile. Even though modern odometers are digital, not so long ago they were more mechanical, slowly evolving into electro-mechanical with the rise of technology. This omnipresent instrument was also being used in ancient Greece.

Vitruvius first described the odometer as being used for measuring distance around 27 BC, but evidence points towards Archimedes of Syracuse as its inventor sometime around the First Punic War. Some historians also attribute its invention to Heron of Alexandria. Regardless of who invented it, the odometer was widely used in the late Hellenistic period and by the Romans for indicating the distance traveled by a vehicle. It helped revolutionize the building of roads by accurately measuring distance. The Romans were then able to carefully mark distances with milestones.

8. The Alarm Clock

One of the most commonly used gadgets these days is the alarm clock, and it too had its origins in ancient Greece. Over time, the alarm clock has undergone a number of changes and improvements from the mechanical alarm to modern gadgets like cell phones, which come with an inbuilt alarm.

But the first alarms used by the ancient Greeks were nothing like today. The Hellenistic engineer and inventor Ctesibius (285-222 BC) fitted his clepsydras or water clock with a dial and pointer to indicate the time, and added an elaborate alarm system which involved pebbles dropping on to a gong, or the blowing of a trumpet by forcing bell jars down into water and taking the compressed air through a beating reed at pre-set times.

The ancient Greek philosopher Plato (428-348 BC) was said to possess a large water clock with an unspecified alarm signal similar to the sound of a water organ. He used it at night, possibly for signaling the beginning of his lectures at dawn.

7. Cartography

Cartography is the study and practice of making maps. It has played an important role in travel and navigation since ancient times. Even though the earliest known evidence of cartography points towards ancient Babylon as early as the ninth century BC, the Greeks took what they had at their disposal and brought cartography into a new light.

Anaximander was one of the first pioneer cartographers to create a map of the world. Born between 611 and 610 BC, he made important contributions to the science of astronomy and geography.

Anaximander is mentioned in Aristotle's work, who categorized him as a pupil of the physical school of thought, propounded by Thales. Anaximander included all inhabited areas of the world in his map. The map appeared in tablet form and featured Ionia in the center. It was bounded on the east by the Caspian Sea and stretched to the Pillars of Hercules in the west. Middle Europe borders the map in the north while Ethiopia and the Nile feature at the southern end.

Anaximander made immense contributions in the fields of cartography and geography and his map of the world was indeed a marvelous achievement of that time.

The modern Olympics are one of the greatest sporting spectacles of the modern age. But when Pierre de Coubertin, the founder of the international Olympic committee, started the first modern Olympics in 1896, he was inspired by the ancient Olympics that were held in Greece more than 2,700 years ago.

According to historical records, the first ancient Olympic Games can be traced back to 776 BC. They were dedicated to the Olympian gods and were staged on the plains of Olympia.

The Isthmian Games was staged every two years at the Isthmus of Corinth. The Pythian Games took place every four years near Delphi. The most famous games held at Olympia in the southwest of Greece took place every four years.

People from all over the Greek world came to witness the spectacle. The victors were given olive leaf wreaths or crowns as prizes.

5. Basis of Geometry

Geometry is doubtless one of the oldest branches of mathematics, possibly older than arithmetic itself. And its practical necessity demanded the use of various geometric techniques way before any of these were recorded in history.

The Egyptians, Babylonians, and the Indus were among the first to incorporate and use many such techniques but they never worked out the rules and axioms governing geometry. The Babylonians assumed value of Pi to be 3 and never challenged its accuracy.

Then came the age of Greek geometry and everything changed. The Greeks insisted that geometric facts must be established by deductive reasoning, much as it is done today. Thales of Miletus, regarded as the father of geometry, proposed a number of axioms and rules that were truly based on reasoning (called mathematical truths) in the sixth century BC. Then came the likes of Pythagoras, Euclid, and Archimedes whose geometrical axioms and rules are still taught in schools today.

There were many more Greek mathematicians and geometers who contributed to the history of geometry, but these names are the true giants, the ones who developed geometry as we know it today.

4. Earliest Practice of Medicine

The ancient world did not fare too well when it came to the curing of disease. Back then, diseases were supposed to be the gods' way of punishing humans and all possible remedies were surrounded by superstition.

That all changed when Hippocrates of Cos started to collect data and conduct experiments to show that disease was a natural process; that the signs and symptoms of a disease were caused by the natural reactions of the body to the disease process.

Born in 460 BC, Hippocrates was an ancient Greek physician of the Classical age and was considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of medicine. He was referred to as the father of Western medicine in recognition of his lasting contributions to the field and was the founder of the Hippocratic School of Medicine.

The most famous of his contributions is the Hippocratic Oath, which bears his name. It was this document that first proposed an ethical standard among doctors. It covers many important concepts which are still used today such as doctor-patient confidentiality.
Learn more about the discoveries of Hippocrates.
3. Modern Philosophy

Before the age of ancient Greece, the world did not see philosophy as we see it today. It was more shrouded in superstition and magic than it ever would be. For instance, the Egyptians believed that if the Nile rose and flooded, making the soil dark and fertile, their pharaoh had commanded it.

But the Greeks approached philosophy from a different direction. They developed philosophy as a way of understanding the world around them, without resorting to religion, myth, or magic. In fact the early Greek philosophers were also scientists who observed and studied the known world, the earth, seas, mountains, solar system, planetary motion, and astral phenomena.

Their philosophy, based on reasoning and observation of the known world, played a pivotal role in the shaping of the Western philosophical tradition. Philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle were such influential philosophers that their studies were used to teach subsequent ages of Romans and other Western cultures.

2. Concept of Democracy

The idea of every citizen having equal opportunity and a say in government constitutes the concept of democracy. It is one of the most widely used styles of governance in the modern world. And even more fascinating is the fact that democracy also had its origins in ancient Greece. In fact, the concept and the implementation of democracy can be traced back from the present day to ancient Athens.

Although there is evidence that democratic forms of government, in a broad sense, may have existed in several areas of the world well before the turn of the fifth century, it is generally believed that the concepts of democracy and the constitution were created in one particular place and time - in ancient Athens around 508 BC. For this reason, Athens is regarded as the birthplace of democracy. This transition from exploitation by the aristocracy to a political system where all members of society have an equal share of formal political power had a significant impact on future civilizations.

1. Discoveries in Modern Science

It would only be fair to say that, given the evidence, the ancient Greeks made some outstanding contributions in various branches of science. They made some astounding discoveries in the fields of astronomy, biology, and physics that broke with contemporary stereotypes. Many ancient Greek intellectuals excelled in mathematics, physics, and astronomy.

Aristotle introduced the idea of the earth as a globe. He also classified animals and is often referred to as the father of zoology. Theophrastus was the first botanist that we know of in written history. The Pythagoreans not only made the earliest advances in philosophy and geometry, but they also proposed the heliocentric hypothesis of the earth revolving around the sun and not the other way around as was believed at that time. This idea was so ahead of its time that it was regarded as blasphemy.

Archimedes discovered that submerging a solid object in water would displace the same amount of liquid as the object's volume. The Greeks had so much influence in the early concepts of science that most symbols used in physics and math equations are derived from the Greek alphabet.

See also:

Conclusion

Without a doubt, Greek society inspired the achievements that shaped the foundation of ancient Western civilization. They were daring enough to go in directions no other civilization had ventured into before.

They went on to accomplish great feats in the arts, philosophy, science, architecture, and many more. Although some of their ideas may have been discarded over time, many of the ancient Greeks' discoveries and inventions are still used today.

The major discovery that the sun is in the center of the solar system was once ignored, but later rediscovered and agreed upon. From cannons to plumbing, urban planning, wheelbarrows, showers, lighthouses, canals and many more, ancient Greek inventions and discoveries are numerous and widespread. A single list cannot do them justice.

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Top 10 Inventions and Discoveries of Ancient Greece

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Top 10 inventions and discoveries of ancient Greece that are remarkably still used today.

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"Greece: the cradle of Western civilization", "Athens: the birthplace of democracy", "Greece: home to the Olympic Games", we're all familiar with these quotes and sayings, right?

We've heard, maybe, that Hippocrates is the father of Western medicine, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle are the father's of Western philosophy, Thespis was the first recorded actor (hence The Thespians), and Homer, (The Iliad and The Odyssey) and Herodotus (The Histories), were the first historians, and surely, we all know a bit about Greek mythology.

Did you know though, how many useful inventions, still in use today, have ancient Greek origins?

Yes! The Greeks did it first (and better!), and here are twenty amazing Greek inventions to prove it!

In no particular order

1. Alarm clock

Before the Romans came up with the hypocaust system, the ancient Minoans of Crete had already invented the first, underfloor central heating.

Slaves kept roaring fires burning, which produced hot air to force hot water through clay pipes under the floor.

One example of ancient central heating was discovered at the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, (Today modern Turkey).

5. Plumbing

Again, as with central heating, the ancient Minoans of Crete, were the first civilizations to have underground pipes, carrying water.

Excavations have also uncovered vast plumbing systems, baths and fountains at ancient Olympia.

6. Shower

Showers, in the form of communal shower rooms, cold water only, the Greeks believed cold water toughened the skin, have been found at the ancient site of Pergamon, an ancient Greek city of Aeolis (along the west and northwest coast of Asia Minor).

The Romans refined the ancient Greek shower system and made use of it in their many baths and spas.

7. Automatic doors

Heron of Alexandria, of vending machine fame, came up with the idea for automatic doors; a steam powered hydraulic system, using air heated by fire, opened the very first automatic doors belonging to a temple in Alexandria.

8. Urban planning

The first spiral staircase ever to be discovered was found in one of the five temples of Selinunte an ancient Greek city, one of the most important Greek colonies in Sicily, founded in around in 654 BC.

12. Clock tower

Cartography, the art of map making, was first practiced by Anaximander of Miletus (610 - 546), who created the first map of the world, and was the first to approach the use longitude and latitude.

14. Odometer

The world's first odometer, "Heron's odometer", used to measure distance travelled by car or bicycle, or, in those days, I suppose, a donkey, was first described by Vitruvius, a Roman military engineer.

Vitruvius thought it to be the work of Heron of Alexandria, but evidence shows it was actually invented by Archimedes of Syracuse (287 - 212 BC), ancient Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, astronomer and inventor.

15. Watermill

"The Hydraulic Wheel of Perahora"

Excavated in Perahora, Loutraki (on my doorstep!), which used a horizontal wheel and two millstones.

This is the earliest known water driven mill, and was attributed to Philo of Byzantium (280 - 220 BC), also known as Philo Mechanicus, a Greek engineer and physicist.

16. Archimedes screw

The Greek mathematician, of "Eurika" fame, Archimedes, invented a screw pump; used to transfer and lift low lying water into irrigation canals, and to remove bilge water.

17. Anchor

It's not surprising, that the ancient Greeks, famous seafarers and builders of some of the first boats, known for their long sea voyages, in boats that could not be brought to shore, were the first to create anchors, using buckets filled with boulders, and later metal, that eventually took on today's anchor-shape.

18. Catapult

The catapult, which dates back to the third century, and various other ancient Greek artillery, such as the ballista, a Greek projectile weapon, used in the wars of Ancient Greece, so ahead of its time, it was used until the middle Ages.

The cannon, associated with Ctesibius of Alexandria and the Gastraphate (the forerunner of the catapult) a hand held large crossbow, were all invented by the ancient Greeks.

19. Astrolabe

Hipparchus of Nicaea (190 - 120), Greek astronomer, geographer and mathematician (he was the founder of trigonometry), invented several astronomical instruments( as well as cataloguing 850 stars).

Hipparchus invented the celestial globe and the equatorial ring, used to observe solar equinoxes, but his most famous invention was the astrolabe, used to identify stars and planets.

20. Cheesecake

I left the best until last, the delicious dessert, well-known the world over, and still enjoyed today by millions; the cheesecake, was invented by the ancient Greeks!

Cheesecake was eaten by the ancient Greeks as far back as the fifth century BC, thought to be a source of energy; it was given to athletes, competing in the first Olympic Games, 776 BC, to give them strength.

Ancient Greek physician, Aegimus even wrote a book about the art of making cheesecake.

The the oldest known surviving Greek cheesecake recipe was made by the writer Athenaeus in 230 A.D:
"Pound the cheese until it is smooth, mix it in a brass pan with honey and spring wheat flour, heat the cheesecake in one mass, allow to cool, and then serve."
After conquering Greece, the Romans adopted the Greek cheesecake, modified it and called it "libuma".

So, the next time you are caught up in an automatic door, your plumbing goes on the blink, or your alarm clock fails to wake you, you know what to do:

Blame it on the Greeks!

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20 Amazing Ancient Greek Inventions Still in Use Today - The Greeks Did it First - Greeker Than The Greeks

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"Greece: the cradle of Western civilization", "Athens: the birthplace of democracy", "Greece: home to the Olympic Games", we're all familiar with these quotes and sayings, right?

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From Interesting Engineering Magazine

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The Roman Empire is considered to be one of the most influential civilizations of all time. From the Colosseum to aqueducts, the impact of the Roman Empire in shaping western history is extremely significant.

While many historical developments and innovations have survived the test of time, some remain a part of our daily lives. These 18 ancient Roman inventions still have an impact today.

1. Roman Numerals

Roman numerals originated in ancient Rome, but survived for some uses after the end of the Roman Empire. The numbers in the system are represented by combinations of letters from the Latin alphabet. Some practical examples can be seen at the entrances to the Roman Colosseum, which are labeled with Roman numerals - XXIII (23) to LIIII (54).

Starting in the 14th century, Roman numerals began to be replaced by Arabic numerals, which benefitted from the use of the zero, making them much more useful for arithmetic and counting. Still, Roman numerals are still seen today - most often on clock faces or representing years on architecture.

2. An Early form of Newspaper

While Romans cannot be credited with creating a modern system of daily, paper newspapers, they did have something similar. They often inscribed news of current affairs unto stones, papyri, or metal slabs, which were placed in public spaces.

This publication was called Acta Diurna or 'daily acts' and originated as early as 131 B.C.

This Roman invention had much the same purpose as modern newspapers, giving Roman citizens information about military victories, births and deaths, and even human interest stories. Unfortunately, there are no surviving intact copies.

3. Modern Plumbing and Sanitary Management

Romans were very knowledgeable when it came to their engineering excellence is highlighted by their civil engineering. But their talent wasn't limited to building large structures like the Colesseum or roadways. While it may seem less visually impressive, sewage and sanitary plumbing systems.

The drainage pipes were connected and were flushed regularly with the water running off from streams. Romans also had covered gutter systems and public 'bathrooms' that ensured that the streets stayed clear of human waste.

4. Using Arches to Build Structures

While Romans weren't the ones who actually invented the arch, they did develop the architectural arch to allow them to build bridges, large buildings, and better aqueducts.

In the first centuries BC, Romans discovered how to use arches in the construction of bridges, aqueducts, and buildings, allowing the expansion of infrastructure across the Roman Empire. The Roman arch became a foundational aspect of Western architecture and generated new systems of building across Europe.

5. The Hypocaust System

The hypocaust system was a heating mechanism somewhat similar to modern-day central heating, or radiant floor heating. These systems distributed heat from an underground fire throughout a space beneath the floor raised by a series of concrete pillars. In addition, Romans also built flues into the walls, ensuring the heat had a path to warm higher floors, and could eventually escape safely through the roof.

This was an impressive engineering feat at the time - especially as the risks of poor construction included carbon monoxide poisoning, smoke inhalation, or fire hazards.

It's important to note that these systems were expensive, and were usually only used in public buildings, large homes owned by wealthy Romans, and in the thermae, or Roman baths, which featured heated floors and walls.

6. Aqueducts

Romans built aqueducts to bring fresh water in from neighboring sources into their growing cities and towns. While earlier civilizations in Egypt and India also used aqueducts, the Romans greatly improved on the structure. The whole process needed no external energy, as it was achieved by the use of gravity alone.

The aqueducts were connected to a large water holding area, which would then distribute the water to public baths, fountains, farms, and more. What may seem easy to accomplish today was a remarkable feat of engineering as early as 312 B.C.

7. The First Surgical Tools

Romans weren't just about spears and daggers, they also developed precision medical instruments that influenced many modern-day surgical tools. In fact, the design of some tools, such as the vaginal speculum, did not change significantly until the 19th and 20th centuries. Romans also used tools such as forceps, syringes, scalpels, and bone saws made by specialist manufacturers that resemble their 21st-century equivalents.

In addition to using these tools in hospitals or medical centers, leaders were intrigued to see how they could be used to help soldiers on the battlefield. Some R oman armies employed a trained chirurgus (essentially, a medic trained in surgery) to staunch blood loss, remove arrows, sew up wounds, and administer medicines.

8. Developing Concrete to Strengthen Roman Buildings

Concrete may not seem as alien or impressive as many of the entries on this list, but it played an important role for Romans. Romans were the first ones to use this material in a widespread manner.

Using a mixture of volcanic ash, lime, and seawater, they developed a mix that they used to add structural integrity to their buildings. Obviously, they did something right, as many of their buildings still stand today. In fact, some types of Roman concrete were able to be set underwater.

9. Roads That Can Withstand Time

All roads the roads may lead to Rome, but all roads aren't created equally. Romans built roads that weren't just a mix of gravel and rocks. The Romans used a combination of dirt and gravel with bricks made from hardened volcanic lava or granite, making immensely strong no matter the weather.

They also constructed perfectly straight roads with slight banking to them. The banking ensured that water doesn't sit on the road after it rains. B y 200 AD, the Romans had built more than 50,000 mi (almost 80,400 km) worth of road. These roads were then completed with directions and stone marks. The proof of their workmanship is evident, as many of the old roads in Rome are in use even today.

10. The Codex: The First Bound Book

During the Roman Empire, writings were typically either carved into clay slabs or written on scrolls. As you can imagine, these texts were difficult to transport, brittle in nature, and challenging to store.

Instead of a scroll that could be up to 32 feet (10 meters) in length, and had to be unrolled to be read, Julius Caesar commissioned the very first bound book - a collection of papyrus - to form a codex. This provided a safer and more manageable way to keep the information secure. The codex could hold many volumes, had a built-in cover for protection, and the pages could be numbered for reference, allowing the use of a table of contents and index.

This Roman invention was widely used by the early Christians to make codices of the Bible and later spread to other areas along with Christianity.

11. Developing the Julian Calendar

Source: The Roman Republic: Class handouts, Calendar of Numa, Vassar College/Wikimedia Commons

The Roman republican calendar contained 355 days. It was basically a lunar calendar to make up for the discrepancy between the calendar and the solar year, an intercalary month consisting of 27 or 28 days was added once every two years. The Intercalation was the duty of the Pontifices, and over time, due to negligence and corruption, the intercalations became irregular. As a result, b y the 40s B.C., the Roman civic calendar had become out of sync with the seasons and the holy festivals, it was about three months ahead of the solar calendar.

To correct this, in 46 B.C., Julius Caesar introduced The Julian calendar was more accurate and remained in use until 1582, when the Gregorian calendar was introduced to correct for the fact that the year is not exactly 365 and ¼ days long. a new form of calendar system which had 12 months, and used a cycle of three years of 365 days, followed by a year of 366 days (leap year). The Julian Calendar also moved at the beginning of the year from March 1 to January 1.

12. Apartment "Islands"

Due to population pressures, Rome was perpetually in need of more space for housing. Instead of building new homes outward, architects introduced the idea of stacking six to eight apartment blocks around a staircase and central courtyard.

The result was apartments or " insulae" (islands), named as such because they occupied whole blocks, with roads flowing around them like water. By the fourth century A.D., there were around 45,000 insulae in Rome. The higher-value apartments on the lower floors were called cenacula, while the apartments for poorer tenants on higher floors were called cellae.

Overall, the apartments were reserved for medium to lower-class citizens, as the upper classes preferred their own separate housing spaces in certain areas of the city. Tennants had issues with waste falling from floors above, slumlords, and fires.

13. The Postal System

Around 20 B.C. Emperor Augustus established the cursus publicus, a system by which messages and notices could be transferred between provinces with the help of horses and vehicles such as the horse cart called rhedæ.

The average speed of a mounted messenger over the Roman road system was about 50 mi per day (80 km). With their vast network of well-engineered roads, the Roman postal service was a success.

14. The Corvus and Harpax

The Corvus was a moveable bridge used to board an enemy ship. When attached, the Romans could even engage in combat across the structure. The Roman engineers invented the Corvus to have the upper hand in naval battles because, at that time, Rome was a novice in regards to waterborne warfare.

Despite its advantages, the bridge had its setbacks - for example, it couldn't be used in rough seas. By the end of the First Punic War, Rome was no longer using the Corvus. By 36 B.C. the Roman navy was using a different kind of device to facilitate boarding attacks, a harpoon and winch system known as the harpax.

15. Testudo: The Tortoise Approach

The Roman army was well-known for its various battle formations. Testudo, meaning "tortoise" is a Latin word that describes a formation effective against projectiles or missiles.

This formation required the Roman soldiers to position their shields in such a way that they formed a roof-like barrier above their heads. The soldiers in the front would use their shields to form a wall. With this innovative move, Roman soldiers were able to protect themselves from all sides during battle.

However, the formation did have its drawbacks. B ecause of its density, the men found it more difficult to fight in hand-to-hand combat and needed to sacrifice speed.

16. Pioneers of Siege Warfare

Romans didn't invent siege warfare, but their contributions towards broadening its scope and perfecting the techniques were key.

They adapted and improved on Greek weapons like the ballista, a catapult that amplified the range and power of the crossbow, and the scorpion and onager, which was a torsion powered siege engine usually shown as a catapult with a bowl, bucket, or sling at the end of its throwing arm.

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16 Historical Roman Inventions That Helped Shape the Modern World

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The Roman Empire is considered to be one of the most influential civilizations of all time. From the Colosseum to aqueducts, the impact of the Roman Empire in shaping western history is extremely significant. While many historical developments and innovations have survived the test of time, some remain a part of our daily lives.

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The Kingdom of Aksum ( Lua error in Module:Unicode_data at line 15: attempt to call field 'length' (a nil value). ), also known as the Kingdom of Axum or the Aksumite Empire, was an ancient kingdom centered in what is now Eritrea and the Tigray Region of northern Ethiopia. Axumite Emperors were powerful sovereigns, styling themselves King of kings, king of Aksum, Himyar, Raydan, Saba, Salhen, Tsiyamo, Beja and of Kush. Ruled by the Aksumites, it existed from approximately 80 BC to AD 825. It was centered in the city of Axum and grew from the proto-Aksumite Iron Age period around the 4th century BC. It became important by the 1st century AD. Aksum became a major player on the commercial route between the Roman Empire and Ancient India. The Aksumite rulers made trade easier by minting their own Aksumite currency. The state also assumed its hegemony over the declining Kingdom of Kush. It also regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on the Arabian Peninsula and eventually extended its rule over the region with the conquest of the Himyarite Kingdom. The Manichaei prophet Mani (died 274 AD) regarded Axum as one of the four great powers of his time; the others were Persia, Rome, and China.

The Aksumites built monumental stelae, which served a religious purpose in pre- Christian times. One of these granite columns is the largest such structure in the world, at 90 feet. Under Ezana ( fl. 320-360) Aksum adopted Christianity. In the 7th century, early Muslims from Mecca sought refuge from Quraysh persecution by travelling to the kingdom, a journey known in Islamic history as the First Hijra.

The kingdom's ancient capital, also called Axum, is now a town in Tigray Region (northern Ethiopia). The Kingdom used the name "Ethiopia" as early as the 4th century. Tradition claims Axum as the alleged resting place of the Ark of the Covenant and the purported home of the Queen of Sheba.

Images for kids

The Ezana Stone records negus Ezana's conversion to Christianity and his subjugation of various neighboring peoples, including Meroë.

Coins of king Endybis, 227-235 AD. British Museum. The left one reads ΑΞΩΜΙΤΩ BICIΔΑΧΥ, possily "man of Dachu, (king) of Axumites", linguistically mixed(?). The right one reads in Greek ΕΝΔΥΒΙC ΒΑCΙΛΕΥC, "King Endybis".

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The Kingdom of Aksum ( Lua error in Module:Unicode_data at line 15: attempt to call field 'length' (a nil value). ), also known as the Kingdom of Axum or the Aksumite Empire, was an ancient kingdom centered in what is now Eritrea and the Tigray Region of northern Ethiopia.

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The Kingdom of Aksum was named as one of the four great powers of its time, along with the Sasanian Empire, the Roman Empire, and the Three Kingdoms of China.

The rulers of Aksum sailed all the seas and traded with India, Africaand Alexandria.

This powerful Kingdom full of riches was around from 80BC to 825 AD and it was at its peak between the 3 rd and the 6 th centuries.

Where was Aksum?

The capital of Aksum, which was called Axum, was in Tigray. This is in the modern-day country of Ethiopia, in the north east of Africa.

Its territory stretched across modern-day Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, Dibouti, Sudan, Egypt, Yemen and Saudi Arabia.

The Greatest market of north-eastern Africa

Like all great Empires in the Ancient world, this Empire was also built on trade. In Aksum you could find almost anything you wanted, from almost anywhere in the world.

They had cloth, robes, and cloaks from Egypt. You could find wine and olive oil from Italy. People even had Indian iron, steel and cloth.

Some of this iron was used to make spears to hunt elephants and fight wars. Silk and spices came from Asia and ivory and salt came from the rest of Africa.

In exchange for all these fancy goods from abroad, Aksum sold ivory, tortoise shell, gold and emeralds. Aksum was the main supplier of goods for the Roman Empire.

Aksum was an important part of the Silk Road. The Silk Road was not an actual road but was a trade route, where goods and ideas travelled from China, India and the Mediterranean.

The Aksum port of Adulis was the main trading port for a millennium, even though Aksum did not rule this long.

The Kingdom of Aksum traded so much they even made their own currency. Only the biggest empires and civilisations make such fancy currency.

These coins were stamped with important stories and messages to spread around the world, with anyone who traded with the Aksumites. They had Greek and Aksum legends on them.

These coins told people at the time what was happening. You can imagine that historians quite like these coins too, because they are like documents telling us about Aksum and what was important to them at the time.

Ancient Ge'ez

The Aksum also developed their own script, called Ge'ez. To this day, some of the church services in traditional churches use Ge'ez, although it is not widely spoken or understood anymore.

Christianity

Between 320 and 360, the Aksum rulers adopted Christianity under King Ezana.

Ethiopia has been home to Christianity for centuries and there are also Muslims and many other religions in the country now.

It was very famous in ancient times because the Arc of the Covenant was thought to be there. The Arc of the Covenant is an ancient Christian scroll in a golden chest.

It was supposed to have been brought by the Queen of Sheba. Aksum was also the first ever state in history to have a cross on its coins.

A hidden town...

The Aksum kings and queens were fine builders and constructed palaces, churches and homes on mounds of rocks. The largest palace was Ta'akha Maryam.

In 2009, archaeologists made a fascinating discovery with the help of some local people in modern-day Ethiopia.

These people told archaeologists that there was an ancient Aksum town on a hill and they were right!

This hill contained layers and layers of civilisation that were otherwise unknown. It was called Beta Samati.

It must have been quite a fine place because an excavation (dig) uncovered one of the oldest churches in Africa, a basilica, gold rings, coins, inscriptions and pottery.

Decline of Empire

Around the fourth century, writers began to describe the Kingdom as Ethiopia, not Aksum.

Arab writers continued to describe Ethiopia as being big and powerful in the 7 th century even though they had lost control of many of their towns and had stopped making coins by this point.

A mystery Queen takes the throne

There are a few stories about how the Kingdom ended. One thing seems certain: a woman took the throne.

One possibility is that it was a Jewish queen named Yodit who defeated all her enemies to take the crown.

The other possibility is that it was a southern queen named Bani al-Hamiya. Historians now think that the reason the Empire ended was because of climate change which led to a long rainy season, making it difficult to grow things.

The end of Empire did not mean that Aksumite traditions ended. If you visit Ethiopia today, you will see many influences in old buildings of Aksum style.

Name two products in the Aksum Empire and where they were from.

What did the Aksum have on their coins?

What was the hidden town called?

What was found in the hidden town?

What were the two possible mystery queens?
Ancient Africa

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Kingdom of Aksum - Ancient Africa For Kids

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Kingdom of Aksum The Kingdom of Aksum was named as one of the four great powers of its time, along with the Sasanian Empire, the Roman Empire, and the Three Kingdoms of China. The rulers of Aksum sailed all the seas and traded with India, Africaand Alexandria.

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Aksum, or Axum, was a powerful trading empire that flourished in northeastern Africa hundreds of years ago. Aksum also was the name of the kingdom's capital. It remains a city in northern Ethiopia.

Aksum's location between the Red Sea and the Nile River helped to make it one of the most important and wealthy trading centers of its day. The items that moved in and out of its ports included ivory, hippopotamus hides, perfumes, gold, and animals.

The kingdom was also known for its architecture. Still standing in the central square of the city of Aksum are some of the carved granite obelisks made in the kingdom. An obelisk is a tall, thin pillar with a pyramid at the top. (The Washington Monument is an obelisk.) Some Aksum obelisks may have marked underground tombs of the kingdom's rulers.

Aksum expanded as it grew more powerful. In the ad 300s Aksum conquered the kingdom of Kush to the north. Aksum's rulers then pushed west across the Red Sea into southern Arabia. In the 600s and 700s the kingdom weakened as the Muslim Arabs emerged as a power.

The Aksum people had been Christian since the 300s. The Arabs allowed them to keep the Christian religion because they had once given refuge to followers of Islam's founder, the prophet Muhammad. Today Aksum is considered a holy city of the Ethiopian Orthodox church.

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Aksum, or Axum, was a powerful trading empire that flourished in northeastern Africa hundreds of years ago. Aksum also was the name of the kingdom's capital. It remains a city in northern Ethiopia. Aksum's location between the Red Sea and the Nile River helped to make it one of the most important and wealthy trading centers of its day.

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Higher Level Reading Overview and Religion

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Higher Level Reading Overview and Religion

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The kingdom of Aksum (article) | Ethiopia | Khan Academy

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Aksum

The ruins of the ancient city of Aksum are found close to Ethiopia's northern border. They mark the location of the heart of ancient Ethiopia, when the Kingdom of Aksum was the most powerful state between the Eastern Roman Empire and Persia. The massive ruins, dating from between the 1st and the 13th century A.D., include monolithic obelisks, giant stelae, royal tombs and the ruins of ancient castles. Long after its political decline in the 10th century, Ethiopian emperors continued to be crowned in Aksum.

Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

Axoum

Près de la frontière nord de l'Éthiopie, les ruines de la ville ancienne d'Axoum marquent l'emplacement du cœur de l'Éthiopie antique, lorsque le royaume d'Axoum était l'État le plus puissant entre l'Empire romain d'Orient et la Perse. Les ruines massives, qui datent du I au XIII e siècle, comprennent des obélisques monolithiques, des stèles géantes, des tombes royales et les ruines de châteaux anciens. Longtemps après son déclin politique vers le X e siècle, les empereurs d'Éthiopie vinrent se faire couronner dans cette ville.

Description is available under license CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0

Aksum

Aksum ontstond enkele eeuwen voor de geboorte van Christus, als de hoofdstad van een staat die handel dreef met het oude Griekenland, Egypte en Azië. De ruïnes van de oude stad liggen dichtbij de noordelijke grens van Ethiopië. Ze markeren het hart van het oude Ethiopië, toen het Koninkrijk van Aksum de machtigste staat was tussen het Oost-Romeinse Rijk en Perzië. De massieve ruïnes dateren van tussen de 1e en 13e eeuw na Christus en bestaan uit monolithische obelisken, reusachtige stèles, koninklijke graven en ruïnes van oude kastelen. Lang na het politieke verval van Aksum in de 10e eeuw, werden er nog Ethiopische keizers gekroond.

Source: unesco.nl

Outstanding Universal Value
Brief Synthesis
Situated in the highlands of northern Ethiopia, Aksum symbolizes the wealth and importance of the civilization of the ancient Aksumite kingdom, which lasted from the 1st to the 8th centuries AD. The kingdom was at the crossroads of the three continents: Africa, Arabia and the Greco-Roman World, and was the most powerful state between the Eastern Roman Empire and Persia. In command of the ivory trade with Sudan, its fleets controlled the Red Sea trade through the port of Adulis and the inland routes of north eastern Africa.

The ruins of the ancient Aksumite Civilization covered a wide area in the Tigray Plateau. The most impressive monuments are the monolithic obelisks, royal tombs and the palace ruins dating to the 6th and 7th centuries AD.

Several stelae survive in the town of Aksum dating between the 3rd and 4th centuries AD. The largest standing obelisk rises to a height of over 23 meters and is exquisitely carved to represent a nine-storey building of the Aksumites. It stands at the entrance of the main stelae area. The largest obelisk of some 33 meters long lies where it fell, perhaps during the process of erection. It is possibly the largest monolithic stele that ancient human beings ever attempted to erect.

A series of inscription on stone tablets have proved to be of immense importance to historians of the ancient world. Some of them include trilingual text in Greek, Sabaean and Ge'ez (Classical Ethiopian), inscribed by King Ezana in the 4th century AD.

The introduction of Christianity in the 4th century AD resulted in the building of churches, such as Saint Mary of Zion, rebuilt in the Gondarian period, in the 17th century AD, which is believed to hold the Ark of the Covenant.

Criterion (i): The exquisitely carved monolithic stelae dating from the 3rd and 4th centuries AD are unique masterpieces of human creative genius.

Criterion (iv): The urban ensemble of obelisks, royal tombs and churches constitute a major development in the cultural domain reflecting the wealth and power of the Aksumite Civilization of the first millennium AD.
Integrity
The boundaries of the property, which encompass the entire area of ancient Aksum town, need to be adequately delineated and approved by the Committee.

One obelisk, removed from the site and taken to Rome as a war trophy during the Italian occupation, was returned to Aksum in 2005 and re-erected in in 2008.

Furthermore, at the time of inscription, it was noted that small, modern houses were built over most of the site, obscuring the majority of the underground Aksumite structures. Some of them still remain covered by modern houses. In 2011, the construction of a new museum began in the main Stelae Field and, unless amended, the height of the museum will have a highly negative visual impact on the property. Flooding has also become a major problem in the 4th century AD Tomb of the Brick Arches and other monuments.

For the reasons mentioned above, the integrity of the property remains vulnerable.
Authenticity
The authenticity of the obelisks, tombs and other monuments remain intact, although they are vulnerable due to lack of conservation. However, the authenticity of the whole property in terms of its ability to convey the scope and extent of ancient Aksum and its value is still vulnerable to lack of documentation, delineation and lack of planning controls. The monuments need to be related to the overall city plan, in spatial terms.
Protection and Management Requirements
The city of Aksum was put under the jurisdiction and protection of the National Antiquities Authority in 1958. No special legal framework is provided to protect the Obelisks of Aksum, except the general law, Proclamation No. 209/2000, which also established the institution in charge, the Authority for Research and Conservation of Cultural Heritage (ARCCH).

The property is managed at three levels - the site; the region; and the Federal administration. ARCCH prepared a proclamation that mapped and identified the precise area to be protected with local site authorities. It is reviewing the components and may wish to suggest changes to the number and/or size of the property.

The boundary and the property's management plan are not yet established. There is a need to submit an up-dated map of the property to clearly indicate the boundary, to produce and submit a management plan and to delineate and submit a buffer zone. There is also a need for adequate legal protection to be put in place.

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Aksum The ruins of the ancient city of Aksum are found close to Ethiopia's northern border. They mark the location of the heart of ancient Ethiopia, when the Kingdom of Aksum was the most powerful state between the Eastern Roman Empire and Persia.

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the corniest are  Latitude36.7358 and Longitude: 117.3542

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Ancient China held leading positions in many fields in studying nature in the world. Besides the four great inventions : paper-making, printing, gunpowder and the compass, Ancient China contributed countless other inventions to the world, How many other Chinese creations do you know? Below is a list of the 20 inventions created by ancient Chinese and some may surprise you.

1. Paper Making (105 A.C)

The invention of the paper greatly affects human history. Paper already existed in China since 105 A.C, however, a eunuch named Cai Lun (ca. 50 AD - 121) made significant innovation and helped make widespread adoption. His advanced paper-making technology then spread to central Asia and the world through the Silk Road.

2. Movable Type Printing (960-1279 AD)

Woodblock printing was already a widely used technique in the Tang Dynasty(618 to 906 A.D). However, this kind of printing tech was expensive and time-consuming. Until the Song Dynasty (960-1279), a man named Bi Sheng (990-1051) invented movable type printing, making it quicker and easier. He first carved individual characters on pieces of clay and then harden them with fire. These movable type pieces were later glued to an iron plate to print a page and then broken up and redistributed for another page. This kind of printing tech rapidly spread across the Europe, leading up to the Renaissance, and later all around the world.

3. Gunpowder (1000 A.D)

Gunpowder was invented by Chinese Taoist alchemists at about 1000 A.D. when they tried to find a potion to gain human immortality by mixing elemental sulfur, charcoal, and saltpeter. It is generally believed that gunpowder spread to Europe during the Mongol expansion of 1200-1300 A.D.. The interesting fact is that Chinese used this discovery mainly for firecrackers while Europeans created cannons and guns and dominated China in the mid-1800s.

4. Compass (1100 A.D.)

A compass is a navigational instrument that shows directions. The compass was invented by Chinese between the 2nd century BC and 1st century AD. It was first used in Feng Shui, the layout of buildings. By 1000 AD, navigational compasses were commonly used on Chinese ships, enabling them to navigate. Arab traders sailing to China might learned of the the tech and brought it to the West, and this became an very important factor of the success of Age of Discovery.

5. Alcohol About (2000 BC－1600 BC)

The inhabitants of the Arabian peninsula were widely believed to be the first brewers. However, in 2013, a 9000-year-old pottery found in Henan province revealed the presence of alcohol, 1000 years before Arabian. Alcohol is known as Jiu in Chinese and is often used as a spiritual offerings to the Heaven and the Earth or ancestors in ancient China. Study shows that beer with an alcoholic content of 4% to 5% was widely consumed in ancient China and was even mentioned on oracle bone inscriptions of the Shang Dynasty (1600 BC-1046 BC).

6. Mechanical Clock (725 A.D.)

The world's first mechanical clock Water-driven Spherical Birds - was invented by Yi Xing, a Buddhist monk in 725 A.D.. It was operated by dripping water which powered a wheel that made one revolution in 24 hours. Hundreds of years later, the inventor Su Song developed a more sophisticated clock called the Cosmic Empire in 1092, 200 years earlier than the mechanical clock was created in Europe.

7. Tea Production (2,737 BC)

According to old Chinese legend, tea was first discovered by Shennong, Chinese Father of Agriculture, around 2,737 BC. In the Tang Dynasty (618－907) tea became a popular drink enjoyed by all social classes. Cha Jing (or The Book of Tea), written by Lu Yu in the Tang Dynasty, explicated ways to cultivate tea, tea drinking and different classifications of tea in details. The book is considered as the world's first monograph about tea. And the world's oldest and largest living tea tree can be found in Lin Cang, China, about 3,200 years old.

8. Silk About 6,000 years ago

Silk, one of the oldest fibers, originated in China as early as 6,000 years ago. The earliest evidence of silk was discovered at Yangshao culture site in Xiaxian County, Shanxi Province, China. where a silk cocoon was found cut in half, dating back to between 4000 and 3000 BC. Chinese people mastered sophisticated silk weaving tech and closely guarded secret, and the West had to pay gold of the same weight for the silks. In ancient times the silk was a very important item made in China and for many centuries businessmen transported this precious item from China to the West, forming the famous Silk Road.

9. Umbrella (1,700 years ago)

The inventions of umbrella can be traced back as early as 3500 years ago in China. Legend has it, Lu Ban, a Chinese carpenter and inventor created the first umbrella. Inspired by children using lotus leaves as rain shelter, he created umbrella by making a flexible framework covered by a cloth.

10. Acupuncture (2300 years ago)

The oldest Chinese medicine book "Neijing", also known as "The Classic of Internal Medicine of the Yellow Emperor", shows that acupuncture was widely used as a therapy in China much before the time it was written. Besides, various kinds of acupuncture needles were discovered in the tomb of Prince Liu Sheng who died around 200 B.C. This is a further proof that acupuncture were already in use in China more than two thousand years ago

11. Iron smelting (1050 BC－256 BC)

Archaeological evidence revealed that iron smelting technology was developed in China as early as 5th century BC in the Zhou Dynasty (1050 BC－256 BC). During The Spring & Autumn and Warring States periods (776-221 BC) China went into a flourishing period for iron smelting. In the Han Dynasty (202 BC－220 AD) central government monopolized the iron smelting, seeing remarkable development.

12. Porcelain (581 - 618 AD)

Porcelain is a great invention of ancient China. The earliest porcelain emerged in Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 BCE) and matured during the Tang Dynasty (618-906). During the Song Dynasty (960-1279), porcelain production technology reached an unprecedented height due to its focus on shape and the tactile experiences of the glaze. Chinese porcelain was highly prized in the world and many artworks had been introduced to the West through the Silk Road.

13. Earthquake Detector (132 A D)

According to court records of the later Han Dynasty, a seismograph was created by the brilliant inventor Zhang Heng (78-140 AD) in 132 AD. Its function is to determine the direction of an earthquake. In 138 AD, this instrument indicated an earthquake occurring in Longxi a thousand kilometers away. It was the first time that mankind to detect an earthquake. Modern seismographs only began development in 1848 in Europe.

14. Rocket (228 A. D.)

China is hometown of rockets, ancient Chinese inventors created rockets by applying counter-force produced by ignited gunpowder. According to history, in 228 A.D. the Wei State already used torches attached to arrows to guard Chencang against the invading troops of the Shu State. Later the Song Dynasty (960-1279) had adapted gunpowder to make rockets. A paper tube stuffed with gunpowder was attached to an arrow which can be launched by a bow. This kind of ancient rockets and improved ones were widely used in military and entertainment activities in China.

15. Bronze (1700 B.C.)

The skill of produce bronze was mastered by ancient Chinese by 1700 B.C. The Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 B.C.) and Zhou dynasties (1046-256 BC) brought China into the Bronze Age and the making of bronze wares reached its peak in this period. Bronze was mainly used to make weapons, bronze tools and ritual vessels at that time. Compared to counterparts in other regions of the world, the Chinese bronze wares stand out for their inscriptions and delicate decorative patterns.

16. The Kite (About 3, 000 years ago)

The kite was developed around 3,000 years ago by ancient Chinese. The earliest kites were made of wood, called Muyuan (wooden kite). In early times kites were mainly used for military purposes such as sending a message, measuring distances, testing the wind and signalling. Over time kite flying developed into playthings and kite flying is now enjoyed worldwide.

17. The Seed Drill （3500 years ago）

The seed drill is a device that plants the seed into soil at a uniform depth and covers it. If without this device farmers had to plant the seeds by hand, resulting in waste and uneven growth. According to records, the Chinese using of seed drills can be dated back to the 2nd Century BC. The device made farmers' job easier and highly improved the agricultural output in China.

18. Row Crop Farming （6 Century BC）

In other parts of the world, farmers still scattered seed onto the fields randomly. While ancient Chinese started planting crops in rows from the 6th century BC. They planted individual seeds in rows, thus reducing seed loss and making crops grow faster and stronger. This technology was not used in the western world until 2200 years later.

19. Toothbrush （1498 in China）

The bristle toothbrush was invented in 1498 by Chinese who made toothbrushes with coarse horse hairs attached to bone or bamboo handles. It was later brought to the new world by Europeans.

20. Paper Money （9 century A.D.）

Paper money were first developed by the ancient Chinese, who started using folding money at the end of the 8th or beginning of the 9th century AD. Paper bills were originally used as privately issued bills of credit or exchange notes. A merchant could deposit his cash in the capital, receiving a paper "exchange certificate" which he could exchange for metal coins in other cities.

Actually Chinese are responsible for countless inventions that have helped shape the world history. Without these inventions by the ancient Chinese, the humankind would have taken more centuries to develop to the current phase. Do you know any other influential Chinese inventions? Please share with us by adding comments below.

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Ancient China held leading positions in many fields in studying nature in the world. Besides the four great inventions : paper-making, printing, gunpowder and the compass, Ancient China contributed countless other inventions to the world, How many other Chinese creations do you know?

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Today's a day to celebrate India, and what better way than to remember all the times we've contributed to the scientific and technological advancement of the human race.

Let's celebrate some of the ancient Indian mathematicians, engineers, and scientists that made the world a better place.

Ancient Dentistry (7000 BC)

According to historians, the Indus Valley Civilization has revealed evidence of dentistry being practiced as far back as 7000 BC. One dig site in Mehrgarh even showed evidence of healers curing tooth disorders with bow drills.

Ayurveda (5000 BC)

Ayurveda, obviously, came from the Indian subcontinent, having been tracked as far back as 5000 BC. Therapies generally include complex herbal compounds, minerals and metal substances.

Ancient flush toilet systems (2500 BC)

Another feature of the Indus Valley Civilization was water-flushed toilets. Both in Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, almost every home had a flush toilet, connected to a sophisticated sewage system.

Ruler (2400 BC)

Areas of the Indus Valley Civilization in both now-Pakistan and Western India have had rulers of ivory uncovered from ruins. One such specimen was even calibrated to 1/16 of an inch-less than 2 millimeters. Tese kinds of rulers were clearly very prominent, as even bricks of the valley's buildings were found to follow the same measurements.

Weighing scale (2400BC)

The earliest existence of weighing scales also date back to between 2400 BC-1800 BC in the Indus valley civilization, where balances were used to compare measure and compare goods in trade.

Plastic surgery (2000 BC)

Historians believe plastic surgery was being carried out in India as early as near 2000 BC. To clarify, plastic in this phrase doesn't refer to the petroleum byproduct but to plastikē or "the art of modelling" malleable flesh. Eventually, it was ancient Indian physician Sushruta who was credited with being the father of plastic surgery around 600 BC, whose books and teachings eventually made their way to Europe centuries later.

Pythagorean theorem (700 BC)

Mesopotamian, Indian and Chinese mathematicians all discovered Pythagoras' namesake theorem independently long before he ever did. In India, the Baudhayana Sulba Sutra between about 800 BC to 500 BC contains a statement of the Pythagorean theorem as well as geometrical proof for an isosceles right triangle.

Crucible steel (200BC)

Historians now know that by at least 200 BC (a conservative estimate) South India was producing high quality steel, using a method Europeans would later call the crucible technique. Wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed together and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon, forming high grade steel.

Cataract surgery (200 AD)

Indian physicians were known to practice a different kind of cataract surgery that that known to the Greeks in about 200 BC. It was performed with a tool called the Jabamukhi Salaka, a curved needle used to loosen the lens and push the cataract out of the field of vision. Greek scientists of the time travelled to India to see these surgeries, and the technique was even introduced into China from our country.

Spinning wheel (500 AD)

This mechanised method of spinning yarn was invented in India, between 500 and 1000 AD, eventually replacing hand spinning across the world. The Charkha, as it came to be called, eventually went on to become the symbol of India's independence movement.

Earth's orbit (700 AD)

Hindu cosmological time cycles found in the Surya Siddhanta, written between 700 BC to 600 AD, give the time it takes the Earth to revolve around the Sun at 365.2563627 days. This is just a miniscule 1.4 seconds longer than the modern value of 365.256363004 days, and was the most accurate estimate in the world for over a thousand years.

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11 Ancient Inventions & Discoveries Of Science That India Gifted To The Rest Of The World

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Today's a day to celebrate India, and what better way than to remember all the times we've contributed to the scientific and technological advancement of the human race. Let's celebrate some of the ancient Indian mathematicians, engineers, and scientists that made the world a better place.