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Dog Trick, Give a treat after every 5th time of shaking paw

Fixed ratio schedule

Because fixed in how its every 5 and its based on how many times the action is repeated for ratio

Washing Machine Cycle

Fixed Interval

Because after a certain amount of time it happens and its based on time so it is interval

Door to Door salesman

Variable Ratio

Variable because you never know after how many it is and ratio based on how the behavior is based on how many times it happens

Fishing

Variable ratio

You never know when youll get the fish and its based on how many times you cast you rod out

Report Card

Fixed Interval

You get if after a certain amount of time like every quarter

Putting coins in a vending machine for candy

Continuous

You get candy every time you put coins in

Calling a mechanic to see if your car is fixed

fixed ration since you know it will be finished by a certain time

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John Garcia Taste Aversion

Purpose

To test if humans or animals could make a quick association w taste and illness

Done with classical conditioning w putting something that tastes bad w illnesses and thus making organism not eat said thing

Tested importance of the correct combo of controlled stimulus and uncontrolled stimulus to learn a connection

Procedure

One group that got x radiation

Experimental got saccharine solution and then x radiation

IV was receiving the saccharine prior to injection of x radiation

Dependent variable If rats drank the solution later

X radiation would make them sick and thus they might not drink it again

Results

Uncovered patterns in both the rats and humans

Showed associations that can be made by us

Many of these habits came from evolution as it may have been developed as a defense mechanism

Ethical since the rats were not affected for a long time or too badly

Examples

raw chicken that caused sickness would lead the person to feeling sick when seeing chicken

When a predator eats an animal that makes them sick will cause them to not eat that animal again

Relevance

Connects with how organisms learn in what they do and how they do it

John B. Watson Little Albert Experiment

John Watson main contributor

Established the school of behaviorism and was president of APA

Rosalie Rayner also heled

Purpose

To show that emotional reactions are from the outside and can be learned instead of from the Freudian thought

Procedure

Used 11 month orphan

Let the kid play w a white rat as a neutral stimulus

Then made loud sound right when albert would touch it and would cry

Then the rat became the conditioned stimulus after a while

And then let it generalized for white things which kept Albert very scared

Never debriefed or really gave consent

Results

Showed that emotions could be conditioned and happen from the outside instead of what was thought of before

Fear could be conditioned

Was not ethical as it clearly violated conduct but did not exist at the time which made it ok

Albert was emotionally and psychologically hurt and never helped back to normal

Relevance

Showed that human behavior is from their environments around the organism (behaviorism)

Support nurture over nature as what develops us

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30-2: What is the impact of prosocial modeling and of antisocial modeling?

Models from our fams, neighborhood or on TV might be what we learn from as well

Prosocial Effects

Prosocial models have prosocial effects which means good seen in many businesses as good employees model their behavior to the newer ones learning for the job

People can also learn morality from it as seen w many people like Gandhi and MLK and from parents to kids as well

Best when the models actions and words are consistent but some say and do differently which will also be learned in making a hypocrite

Antisocial Effects

Modeling can also bring out bad as seen w husbands beating wives after their fathers did the same

TV shows and the internet are also examples of this as they can impose these bad ideas to children which they learn

TV show viewers learn from a narrator that focuses on the culture's mythology, not reality

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30-1: What is observational learning, and how do some scientists believe it is enabled by mirror Neurons?

Cognition is definitely necessary in observational learning where the person learns only from seeing w no direct experience

Seen w Albert Bandura's experiment where adult would hit bobo doll as kid watched and when kid had the chance it would do the same even repeating words

This shows vicarious reinforcement or punishment where we anticipate a behavior's consequences in situations like those we are observing

We are likely to learn from people we perceive as similar and successful and we even feel good when someone like that gets a reward

Mirrors and Imitation in the Brain

In an Italian lab, a monkey whos motor cortex was hooked up to sensors saw a man lick ice cream and motor cortex was active though, the monkey did not move

The buzzing from the sensor was seen before as the monkey saw humans eat peanuts and thus gave evidence for the mirror neuron

This neuron would be used whenever the monkey saw something it could replicate which would fire in the brain

Imitation happens a lot in animals but easily seen in monkeys as one experiment saw that older more forgiving monkeys led to smaller fights and more forgiveness among the younger monkeys

Further seen in chimps as they imitate new foraging methods to make most of what they have

Imitation is important in humans too as when they begin to develop after birth, they imitate more and more which leads to them learning alot from others as they age

Its so strong that 2-5 year olds over imitate as seen in experiments where opening something was simple, but they over complicated it with what they saw

How do they do it? Through mirror neurons? or distributed brain networks? regardless, kids brains enable empathy and ability to infer another's emotions through theory of the mind

Brain's response to observing others makes emotions contagious and through this, we vicariously experience what we observe seen w how we yawn and laugh when others do so

When observing others, we feel what they feel as even similar parts of the brain are activated showing this is based off brain activity

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Classical Conditioning

UCS=UCR

UCS+CS=UCR

CS=CR

Conditioning

Acquisition- acquiring the new knowledge

As the response is not strengthened it goes through extinction

When it comes back after a while of on strengthening, its called spontaneous recovery

Terms:

Generalization: The same stimulus gives the same response

Discriminating: No response to similar or like stimulus

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29-4: How does a perceived lack of control affect people's behavior and health?

Uncontrollable threats trigger the strongest stress responses

Feeling helpless and oppressed may lead to a state of passive resignation called learned helplessness where one might feel unable to do things when they really can

Humans do the same as when they are faced w repeated traumatic events they become helpless, hopeless, and depressed

A loss of control leads to more susceptibility to stress and ill health

Self control noticeably improves health and morale

Also shows how higher classes socially can live more due to less stress but could go the opposite way in some cases

Losing control releases stress hormones and thus control is needed to ensure an organism is fully healthy

Internal Versus External Locus of Control

Are you in control or not? Do you feel that way because of your fam or culture?

External believe it is not on them while internal believes the opposite and usually internal is better off as they take responsibility and control over their lives

Now there is more external control which shows why there is depression and other psychological disorders in the new generation

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29-3: In what two ways do people learn to cope with personal problems?

Problems in life are unavoidable so then we must learn how to cope with them

Some problems, stressors, we address directly w problem-focused coping as we try to change circumstances or ourselves to make things better as we feel we have control

We turn to emotion-focused coping when we cannot or believe we cannot control the situation and can be adaptive but also bad as we might do it wrong but a problem focused strategy can usually help

When challenged some might be cool w problem focused while others use emotion which can affect our ability to cope

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29-2: How do cognitive processes affect classical and operant conditioning?

Cognitive Processes and Classical Conditioning

Pavlov and Watson ignored the cognitive of the animals they tested and can be seen as though a rat could get a light and a tone before it gets shocked, it will react more to the tone since it is before and adds new info

Associations can also influence the attitudes of the people as seen w kids and cartoons whose characters were either w ice cream or brussel sprouts as they liked ice cream characters more

Also, when people know of these associations in their head they are made stronger, thus showing that cognition really matters

This is why experiments that ignore the cognition of the subject are not as effective as cognition does have a big part to do with the response that occurs

Cognitive Processes and Operant Conditioning

B.F. Skinner acknowledged biological underpinnings of behavior and existence of private thought processes, but psychologists still say it was bad he truly didn't go w these influences

Skinner never believed in mental processes of the brain thinking it was too much like the introspection he had not agreed w before

This is seen w a fixed interval reinforcement schedule and thus shows that what the animals think is important as well

Latent Learning

Seen with how rats in a maze w no obvious rewards make a cognitive map of the maze and once given food as a goal, try to escape using the map as quick as they can

This shows latent learning as the rat learns it but only demonstrates it much later as needed and thus shows cognition is important too

Insight Learning

Insight doesn't need interaction w environment as the organism or person gets the answer in an aha like moment

Intrinsic Motivation

Excessive rewarding can lead to the destruction of intrinsic motivation or the will to do something cuz you like it

This is seen as they believe it is more externally controlled rather than internally which is called overjustification

The difference between this and extrinsic is that this is inside while the other is motivated from outside sources like grades

Seen in many ways as youth coaches don't focus too much on winning but fun and how more choices =more intrinsic motivation and rewards showing good job can be effective as welll

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26-4: Why does Pavlov's work remain so important, and what have been some applications of his work to human health and well-being?

Pavlov's ideas are still in psych today as classical conditioning is a basic form of learning, but is sort of incomplete

His work is really important since it can be applied to all species as we have succeeded in all species tested so far

Pavlov's work also great since it showed a way to measure psychological experiments in the real world and that it was all not just in the dogs brain

Applications of Classical Conditioning

A taste of a medicine that helps immune response could help someone's immune system fight disease

Pavlov was a base for Watson's work to show that emotions were also conditioned as seen in little albert experiment

Many years later no one knew what happened to either albert or watson and were unsure what had gone on

Treatment of little albert was terrible but the fear he did learn was not quick and difficult to repeat but helped shed light on some concepts of psych

This theory of emotions as conditioned responses could help others get over fears they have as well

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26-3: In classical conditioning, what are the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination?

Acquisition

To understand this, the experimenters had to know how much time between the NS and the US

Asked if the US could go before the NS, but that was unlikely as it would usually not work  as the tone would not prep the animal or help at all

Seen w Japanese male quails that shows how a CS can signal another important event, reproduction as females came in w red light and just the light would already get the males excited

Same can happen in humans which shows that conditioning can help animals survive and reproduce by responding to cues that help to gain food, mates, safety or offspring

Higher order conditioning is when a new NS becomes a CS connected to something old, like you get bitten by a guard dog and get scared seeing it, but whenever you hear a dog bark you also get scared

Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery

Pavlov then studied how the the CS would do without the US and thus stopped giving food which lowered salivation, but when he put food back in, he saw that the CR came back in spontaneous recovery and that extinction was suppressing the CR

Generalization

Pavlov also noticed that different pitched tones or new tones also did the same to an extent showing this concept of generalization

Can be adaptive as a toddler learns to fear big trucks or motorcycles from fear of cars or could be from what they've seen before

Similarly seen w naturally disgusting objects and w human faces as when we meet new people, we like them more if they look like someone we like

Discrimination

The dogs didn't salivate to very different sounds though as they could discriminate which was the one they saw before or not

Seen w humans as heart may race from guard dog but not guide dog

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26-2: What are the basic components of classical conditioning, and what was behaviorism's view of learning?

Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning in his research in the early twentieth century

Pavlov's work laid the foundation for John B. Watson to get away from introspection which was popular at the time

Pavlov and Watson both didn't like internal concepts of psych and wanted something based on the environment which they found but now its a bit of both

Pavlov's Experiments

Started out w medical degree and then studied the digestive system which led him to his learning experiments as he saw dogs salivated seeing the food or person bringing it not just eating

Pavlov and associates didn't know what to think and tried to experiment and did so using harness and seeing how the dogs reacted to stimuli over time if they were associated with the food

The dogs did salivate more w the stimulus even after there was no food involved as the dogs had associated the unrelated stimulus w the food they got

The dog didn't learn to salivate so it was called an unconditioned response caused by the unconditioned stimulus of food

Salivation from the tone was learned and therefore a conditioned response while the tone was a conditioned stimulus

After this, Pavlov studied acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination

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26-1: What is learning, and what are some basic forms of learning?

Learning is the process of getting new, enduring information or behaviors and we do so in Operant conditioning, classical conditioning, and cognitive learning

Locke and Hume followed Aristotle saying we learn by association as our minds connect information that is in sequence

Learned associations work subtly and we might not even notice them

These associations also go into habitual behaviors as we repeat behaviors, the behaviors become associated w the contexts and thus habits can be created

Other animals do this too, like the sea slug that habituates (decreases response to stimulus after repeated exposure) after being squirted w water repeatedly but if it gets shocks w the squirt, it's response will be stronger

Complex animals will associate their behavior w its outcomes like seals slapping or barking to get food

Both the slug and seal are showing associative learning where they link two events that are close to each other

Learning associations is called conditioning and can be seen as

Classical Conditioning

We learn to associate two stimuli and anticipate events through that

Operant Conditioning

We learn to associate a response and its consequence seen as we repeat acts that have good results

They often occur together seen in Japanese farm w pager cows that when beeped go get food (classical) and associate hustle to the food w pleasure of eating (operant)

There is cognitive learning when we get info like in observational learning where we learn from seeing others

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Positive Reinforcement

How alex reinforces claire to be proud and powerful before she goes to give her speech

How the Dunphys cheer on Claire as she does things right when she speaks

Punishment

How the alex, luke and Haley keep telling their mom what to do on the podium

Negative Reinforcement

When Gloria hits Jay after they realize why the dog was jumping in the pool

Social Learning

When lily's parents try to get her to learns words from her parents

How the lily's says a bad word around her parents

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Seligman and Maier

Two psychologists that helped find the theory of learned helplessness

Purpose of Study

Find out how helplessness is able to be learned

Could be connected to depression

It is the behavioral state of a person who believes they have ittle or no control of their life even when control is possible

Procdeure

Two parts

3 groups

1 not shocked

2 and 3 shocked

2 could stop shocks if put head on lever

3 could not do so

Then paired 2 w 3

Tested in box to see how they would react to shocks on both sides and what they would do

the 3rd group did not move because of how they had learned the helplessness from the day before

Very unethical

this is because of how the animals were not treated well and could have possibly been done on humans in a better alternative

Relevance

Led to the discovery of learned helplessness and how it could lead to possible depression in humans

Locus of control

Rotter responsibility or excuses?

External and internal

Location of control and source of success and happiness

Internal are looking into mirror

External is looking out a window

External acts like the victim

External:

I failed a test because the teacher is bad

I didn't see the red light since my dad was talking to me

I woke up late because my friends were talking to me

Internal:

I failed the test since I didn't study enough

I didn't see the red light since i was not focusing on me

I woke up late because I didn't try to sleep enough

Bandura

Albert Bandura, Dorothea Ross, and Sheila Ross

Purpose

To see if children imitated what they saw in adults did things and whether gender had an affect on this imitation

Procedure

Had the some adults attack one of the toys and then others who didn't

Then children told to play in other area

Results

Boys were more aggressive than the girls and further seen w men rather than women

Boys usually more violent than the girls

the control group was more calm and didn't hurt anything

The Ethics

Ethical as nothing really wrong but didn't say that parents gave consent but principal did gave it to them and did not debrief the kids

which is bad since they might not fully know that violence is not good

Relevance

shows how people earn through what they see around them especially as a child

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I can understand the 5 schedules of reinforcement

Continuous

The behavior is reinforced every time but has a high chance of extinction

Partial

Fixed Ratio

Reinforce every amount of times the behavior is done

Fixed Interval

Reinforce after a time

Variable Ratio

Reinforced after a random amount of times the behavior is done

Variable Interval

Only reinforced after varying times

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Know Operant Conditioning

Negative and Positive Reinforcement

Negative and Positive Punishment

Edward Lee Thorndike:

Make experiment called the problem box

Purpose:

Show how animals learn to escape from a box (puzzle box)

Doing a certain action would get it out

Procedure:

Cat put in box and once escaped, would be rewarded with food and thus found the law of effect (how behavior changes because of consequences)

Called latency learning as the cat did not know that they learned how to get out, but then over time with how it got reinforced it became conditioned to it

Results

The cat over time got quicker and quicker to doing what it needed to get out

And the experimenters over time made the time from doing the thing needed to getting out got lower to then be able to show the connection

Ethical

Yes

Impact

Showed psych could be quantitative

First study of animal learning and processing

Law of Effect

Positive reward gets repeated action

Law of Exercise

Things that are repeated are most often remembered but not necessarily perfectly but as a habit

Insight: remembering the right answer or having an idea

B.F. Skinner

Had Skinner box

Purpose

Operant Conditioning

Form of learning in which behaviors are dependent on, or controlled by its rewards or consequences

Procedure

take birds or rats and put in skinner box

Subjects left w nothing but a lever or button

button/ lever would give them food or water

Rewards were given in certain ratios or intervals

Everything was recorded autonomously as to keep results as good as possible

Results

If a response is followed by a reinforcing stimulus, then the strength of the response will increase

If not followed then it would become weaker

Scheduled reinforcement reinforcement is only given to participant some of the time

Ethical?

Yes it was

Importance

The animal had to learn patience and repetition to wait for if and can apply to us as well as seen with people in jobs

Seen with paycheck and jobs which was positive reinforcement

Negative Punishment- Avoid swearing in a swear jar to not lose money in the end

Positive and Negative like math

Positive means addition

Negative means subtraction

Reinforcement is supposed to increase behavior

Punishment is supposed to decrease behavior but usually only for a time

Positive Reinforcement

Add something you like

Negative Reinforcement

Take away something you don't like

Positive Punishment

Add something you don't like

Negative Punishment

Take away something you like

Shaping

Slowly approximating towards the wanted behavior

Shoe tying

When we get the bunny ears you get candy

As you keep getting more and more you get candy

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4 Methods of Learning:

Trial and Error

"If at first you don't succeed"

Operant Conditioning

Behaviors have consequences

Negative Punishment

Positive Reinforcement

Negative Reinforcement

Positive Punishment

Classical Conditioning

Associative Learning

Unconditioned Stimulus Chicken wings

Unconditioned Response vomit from bad chicken wings

Conditioned Stimulus Chicken wings again

Conditioned Response Nausea or adversity to wings

Observational Learning (modeling)

"Monkey see, Monkey do"

1) Touching hair too much

2) Stop trying to be my bridge partner

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27-5: Why did Skinner's ideas provoke controversy?

B.F. Skinner said that the environment around an organism was more important than its own thoughts inside it and we should use this idea all the time

Some said this dehumanized people as they didn't seem to have personal freedoms or by seeking control over them, but Skinner said why not use it for good instead of the punishment so commonly seen in many areas

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27-4: How does punishment differ from negative reinforcement, and how does punishment affect behavior?

Punishment

Reinforcement increases a behavior and punishment does the opposite as it decreases the frequency of the preceding behavior

Criminal behavior is influenced by this as the swift and sure punishments are more of a threat than the slower ones

Seen with how if laws are made more harsh not much changes, but if more cops are around to catch people, crime drops

Physical punishment in parenting has 4 major drawbacks:

Punished behavior is suppressed not forgotten, but this temporary state can negatively reinforce parents' abuse

Punishment teaches discrimination among situations, so kids know its fine to curse away from family instead of not curse at all

Punishment can teach fear, kids can become fearful of the people or place that or where they are punished

Physical punishment can increase aggression in the children as it will be seen as a model

Some researchers see a problem though as the physically punished children may be more aggressive because of how they have pre existing problems within them

Thus, just physical punishment is not ok, but only if it is a backup or last resort and it has reasoning and reinforcing involved

But other researchers say that frequent spankings predicts aggressiveness in the children

These problems also seen with how the punishments are told and can be positively reinforcing instead of negatively reinforcing

Thus, reinforcement is better than punishment as it tells you what to do while punishment just says what not to do

Punishment only teaches how to avoid it so reinforcement is better

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27-3: How do different reinforcement schedules affect behavior?

Reinforcement schedules vary and only w continuous reinforcement does learning occur rapidly

When reinforcement stops though, extinction happens rapidly

Real life usually doesn't do this, but does it through partial (intermittent) reinforcement that usually works every now and then and brings up hope a lot in organisms seen in how gamblers keep gambling

Seen in children as occasionally giving in to the children's tantrums reinforces them as this is the best way to get a behavior to persist

Skinner and collaborators compared 4 schedules of partial reinforcement

Fixed Ratio schedule:

Reinforce behavior after set number or responses seen with coffee shops that reward free coffee after 10 bought

Once conditioned animals pause only briefly after a reinforcer before returning to a high rate of responding

Variable Ratio Schedule:

provide reinforcers after seemingly unpredictable number of responses

Gets people to keep going as the reinforcers increase the number or responses increases making a high rate of responding

Fixed interval Schedules

Reinforce the first response after a fixed timed period

Animals on this schedule tend to respond more frequently as the time of the reinforcement gets closer and closer

Makes a choppy stop start pattern rather than a steady rate

Variable-interval schedules

Reinforces the first response after varying time intervals

Makes slow steady responding as there is no knowing when the wait will end

Response rates are higher when reinforcement is ratio schedule compared to interval schedule

Responding is more consistent w unpredictable variable schedule than with predictable fixed schedule

Animals and humans differ, but Skinner said it would be the same in all species and true as behavior shows astonishingly similar properties

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27-2: how do positive or negative reinforcement differ, and what are the basic types of reinforcers?

Now theres only been positive reinforcement, which strengthens response by presenting a pleasurable stimulus after a response

negative reinforcement is when a punishing event is removed by a behavior causing that behavior to become more and more likely

Both can coincide but for sure reinforcement is just any consequence that strengthens behavior

Primary and Conditioned Reinforcers

Primary reinforcers are those that are already naturally within us, like getting food or relieving pain

Conditioned or secondary reinforcers are those that we are conditioned to follow like good grades or money based on more basic rewards

Immediate and Delayed Reinforcers

If you do not reinforce a behavior within 30 seconds, you will probably reward the wrong behavior and lead to more incidental behaviors going forward

Humans though can take delayed reinforcers like a paycheck, good grades, or a trophy and those that do are able to become functioning adults

But small but immediate consequences that are good sometimes seem more important than the big delayed ones and can lead to not the best results

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27-1: What is operant conditioning, and how is operant behavior reinforced and shaped?

Operant Conditioning

Classical Conditioning only works with dogs salivating or kids fearing cars

Operant conditioning applies to getting children to say please or getting an elephant to walk on hind legs

Classical conditioning- associations between stimuli become automatic in respondent behavior

Operant Conditioning- organisms associate their own actions with consequences or rewards coming from them

Skinner's Experiments

B.F. Skinner studied this as he started out with law of effect (rewarded behaviors are more likely and punished ones less likely)

This allowed him to get the principles of behavior control and how to get organisms to change their ways

To start Skinner made an operant chamber (Skinner box) that had a lever that when pushed by a rat would give it food or water

Over time the animal associated the food or water with the lever and would press it whenever it wanted that

Shows the concept of reinforcement- any event that strengthens a preceding response

Reinforcing can be anything from a paycheck, praise or attention for humans to food or water for a hungry rat

Shaping Behavior

To condition a hungry rat you must first shape it by gradually getting it close to what you want it to do such as in skinner's box get it closer and closer to the lever until it presses to get food and ignores all other responses

Also helps understand what non verbal organisms perceive as we can condition them to respond to certain stimuli

Seen in pigeons that were made to recognize human faces and pecked when they saw one and all worked

The human face was the discriminative stimulus in this experiment as it signals a response to be reinforced

Skinner said we do this all the time, we just do not really know that we do it

Also seen in teachers that give gold stars to students that get 100 on spelling tests and thus rewards them to keep them interested but wouldn't work for those who didnt get rewards