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A resource book for students

Joan Cutting

H Q U lltd g e E n g lish L a n g u a g e tn tr ù d u r tiu itS nover cote
h re a s

of la n g u a g e stu d y a n d are o n e -sto p re so u rca s

ffif stud e nts

University of Sunderland.

"T h is ¡9 u n id e a l b o o k f o r a n y o n e b e g in n in g t h e s tu d y O l
d is c o u rs " e n d p r a g m a tic s : il is t r i n i p * n i t l l | f w r it t e n
vu ittn w il b e in g s im p lis tic o r p d t r o n iu n q

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9

S a r i" fdUnr: P*lVT Slockurtll
$ a ria *

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PRAGM ATICS AND DISCOURSE

O TH ER T IT L E S IN TH E S ER IES:
S o c io lin g u is tic s
P e te r S to c k w e ll

ISBN 0-415-25357-8 (hbk)
ISBN 0-415-25358-6 (pbk)

R o u tled g e E nglish

L ang uag e In tro d u c tio n s have b e en

carefu lly

P R A G M A T IC S A N D D IS C O U R S E

In th is b o o k , six n u m b e re d su b -se c tio n s in S ection A in tro d u c e y o u to th e k ey c o n
c ep ts in p ra g m a tic s a n d d isc o u rse stu d y . T e rm s a n d ideas a re in tro d u c e d q u ick ly a n d

vi

H O W TO USE TH IS BO OK

T ra n sc rip tio n c o n v e n tio n s:

=

Interruption

//

Overlap

/.../

Lines from original om itted to make example quoted sim pler

(0.5)

Pause (number o f seconds in brackets)

CONTENTS

C o n te n ts c ro ss-re feren c ed

viii

List o f tab les

x

A ck n o w le d g e m e n ts

xi

A Introduction: concepts inpragmatics and discourse

1

1

C o n te x t

1

2

C o -te x t

3

Speech acts

4

C o n v e rsa tio n

23

5

T h e co o p e ra tiv e p rin c ip le

33

6

P o liten ess

44

B Development: studies in pragmatics and discourse

55

1

A naly sin g th e d isco u rse in c o n te x t

55

2

A nalysing th e c o -te x t

59

3

U sin g sp eech acts

63

4

T h e p ra g m a tic s o f c o n v e rsa tio n

66

5

C o o p e ra tio n a n d relev an ce

70

6

T h e p rin c ip le o f p o liten ess

73

C

Exploration: data for investigation

77

1

E x p lo rin g th e c o n te x t o f w ritin g

77

2

In v estig atin g c o -te x t

83

3

E x p lo rin g speech acts

87

4

T h e analysis o f c o n v e rsa tio n

93

5

F ollo w in g th e c o o p e ra tiv e p rin c ip le

6

A p p ly in g p o lite n e ss

D Extension: readings

108

1

C o n te x t: k n o w led g e a n d ste re o ty p e s

108

2

C o -tex t: re p e titio n a n d referen ce

113

3

Speech acts a n d p o w e r

119

4

C o n v e rsa tio n a n d race

123

5

C o m m u n ic a tio n a n d relev an ce

127

6

R eadings in p o liten ess

156

R eferences

181

G lo ssarial in d e x

185

LIST OF TABLES

D5.1

D 5.2

F re q u en c y d is trib u tio n o f A m e ric a n E nglish c o m p lim e n t
re sp o n se ty p es

166

F re q u e n c y d is trib u tio n o f Syrian A rab ic c o m p lim e n t resp o n se ty p es

170

ACKNOW LEDGEM ENTS

INTRODUCTION
C O N C E P T S IN P R A G M A T I C S A N D D I S C O U R S E

CONTEXT

U n d e rs ta n d in g c o n c e p ts

□

in tro d u c tio n

□

situ a tio n a l c o n te x t

□

c u ltu ra l a n d in te rp e rso n a l b a c k g ro u n d c o n te x t

□

e x o p h o ra , deixis a n d in te rte x tu a lity

In tr o d u c tio n to p ra g m a tic s an d d is c o u rs e

A 1 .1

CONTEXT

C o n te x t o u ts id e te x t

o ff th e w est co ast o f S co tlan d . W h a t k n o w led g e d o th ey a ssu m e th a t th e y share?
AF

(2) So you w e n t to Arran. A bit of a com e-dow n isn't it! ((laughing))

DM

It w as nice actually. Have you been to Arran?

AF

No I've not. (1) Like to go.

DM

Did a lot of climbing.

AF

// (heh)

DM

// I w e n t w ith Francesca (0.5) and David.

AF

Uhuh?

DM

AF

Uhm.
(Students on hill walking 1996)

T ypically, th e re a re th re e so rts o f co n te x t to o b serv e h ere:
□

th e s itu a tio n a l c o n te x t, w h at sp eak ers k n o w a b o u t w hat th ey can see a ro u n d th em

□

th e b a c k g ro u n d k n o w led g e co n tex t, w hat they know a b o u t each o th e r an d th e w orld

□

th e c o -te x tu a l c o n te x t, w h a t th e y k n o w a b o u t w h a t th e y have b e e n saying. W e
w ill co m e to th is last so rt in U n its A 2 -D 2 C o -te x t.

INTRODUCTION

A 1 .3

S itu a tio n a l c o n te x t

a t th e

m o m e n t o f sp eak

uses th e w o rd s 'like th is '. 'T h is' is a d e m o n stra tiv e

Forty-nine? W hy do you say forty-nine?

Pupil

Cos there's another one here.

Le cturer

CONTEXT

B a c k g ro u n d k n o w le d g e c o n te x t

T h e seco n d type o f c o n tex t is th a t o f assu m ed b a c k g ro u n d know ledge. T h is can b e e ith er
□

c u ltu ra l general k n ow ledge th a t m o st p eo p le carry w ith th e m in th e ir m in d s, a b o u t
areas o f life

□

in te r p e r s o n a l k n o w led g e, specific a n d po ssib ly p riv a te k n o w led g e a b o u t th e h is
to ry o f th e sp eak ers them selves

C ultural

Interpersonal

H ow are you?

Him

OK.

Her

Did you have friends in and get a video last night?

CONTEXT

H im

Oh, I had friends in, but w e just w atched a little TV.

Her

Ah right.

H im

That was great. H ow do you feel?

Her

OK.

// I w e n t w ith Francesca (0.5) and David.

AF

Uhuh?

DM

Francesca's room -mate. (2) And A lice's - a friend of A lice's from London (1).

There w ere six of us Yeah w e did a lot of hill walking.

W e are n o t a m u se d

-

So y o u w e n t to A rra n .

-

W e g o t b ack (1) er (2) M ich elle a n d I g o t h o m e s h e lo o k ed at h e r k n ees. (0.5)

-

T h e y w ere like this.

-

Yet, th o u g h h e feels so w eak a n d ill.

A 1 .5

a

INTRODUCTION

8

T h ey w ere like th is.

-

T h a t w as g reat.

-

C o s th e re 's a n o th e r o n e h e re .

-

R ight, w e've g o t fo rty -n in e th e r e , h av e n 't we?

v e rsa tio n o f th e m o m e n t is o n ly a p a rt (C o u lth a rd 1986).

C O -T E X T
U n d e rs ta n d in g c o n c e p ts

□

g ram m a tic a l c o h esio n
-

e n d o p h o ric referen ce

-

s u b s titu tio n a n d ellipsis

lexical c o h esio n

C o -te x tu a l c o n te x t

// I w e n t w ith Francesca (0.5) and David.

AF

Uhuh?

CO-TEXT

DM

Francesca's room-mate. (2) And Alice's - a friend of Alice's from London (1).
There w ere six of us. Yeah w e did a lot of hill walking.

/.../

AF

Uhm.

G ra m m a tic a l c o h e s io n

Reference

N o tic e h o w th e re p e titio n m ak es th e te x t n o w seem o v er-ex p licit; it s o u n d s as if th e
w rite r is a ssu m in g th a t read ers w ill n o t u n d e rs ta n d u n less it is all spelt o u t. It gives

INTRODUCTION

10

(Rees 1999: 30)

E xophora

E ndophora

A n a p h o ra

C ataphora

T h e re a re o ccasio n s w h en th e n o u n p h ra se s (th e se c a n b e n o u n s o r p ro n o u n s ) are
n o t lin k ed explicitly to each o th e r, b u t o n e n o u n p h ra se is lin k ed to e n titie s sim p ly
asso ciate d w ith th e o th e r n o u n p h rase. T h is is called a ss o c ia tiv e e n d o p h o r a . H e re is

Substitution

INTRODUCTION

12

W e u n d e rs ta n d 'm ak es th e m s o ' to m e a n 'm ak es th e m m o re c o n fid e n t th a n g irls'.
Ellipsis

W hat was he doing? Tell me, make m e cringe.

Jess

Oh nothing to make you cringe or anything. He was just, he was just like . . .
saying you know just s tu ff that w as really pretty w ell sick.

C atriona

Oh last night, last night he was as w ell w ith Romeo and Juliet.
(BNC: kp6 Catriona, 1993.)

CO-TEXT

13

A 2 .3

L e x ic a l c o h e s io n

G ram m atica l

Reference

S u b s titu tio n

Lexical

E llipsis

(endophoric)

R e pe tition

S yn o n ym s

S u p e ro rd in a te s

G eneral w o rd s

Repetition

INTRODUCTION

14

Synonyms

SP E E C H ACTS

15

G eneral words

SPEECH AC TS

U n d e rs ta n d in g c o n c e p ts

□

d ire c t sp eech acts

□

felicity c o n d itio n s

□

in d ire c t speech acts

□

in te ra c tio n a l / tra n sa c tio n a l fu n c tio n

A 3 .1

A 3 .2

INTRODUCTION

16

A 3 .3

S p e e c h a c ts

below .

social o c casio n at w h ich th e

I think I m ight go and have another bun.

AM

I was going to get another one.

BM

Could you get m e a tuna and sw eetcorn one please?

AM

Me as well?
(Students at bun lunch 1996)

I inform you that I was going to get another one.

BM

I request you to get m e a tuna and sw eetcorn one.

AM

I request you to get m e one as well.

T h ese a re w o rd s a n d e x p ressio n s th a t ch an g e th e w o rld b y th e ir v e ry u tte ra n c e , su ch
as 'I b e t', 'I d e c la re ', 'I re sig n .' O th e rs can be seen in: 'I b ap tise th is b o y Jo h n S m ith ',

SP E E C H ACTS

17

(Glasgow Herald: 28 Novem ber 2000)

I came; I saw; I conquered

(Julius Caesar)

M acbeth shall never vanquished be until / Great Birnam w ood to high Dunsinane hill /
Shall com e against him

(Shakespeare: M acbeth)

Commissives

(Mario Puzo, The Godfather)

I'll love you, dear, I'll love you / Till China and Africa m eet, / And the river jum ps over
the mountain / And the salmon sing in the street

(Auden)

Directives

T h is cate g o ry co v ers acts in w h ich th e w o rd s are a im e d a t m a k in g th e h e a re r d o so m e
th in g , su c h as 'c o m m a n d in g ', 're q u e s tin g ', 'in v itin g ', 'fo rb id d in g ', 'su g g e stin g ' a n d

so o n .
From ghoulies and ghosties and long-leggety beasties / And things that go bum p in the
night, / Good Lord, deliver us.

(Scottish prayer)

B etter remain silent and be thought a fool, than open your m outh and remove all
possible doubt.

(Ancient Chinese proverb)

Do not do unto others as you w ould they should do unto you. Their tastes may not be
the sam e

(Shaw)

Expressives

INTRODUCTION

18

A 3 .4

F e lic ity c o n d itio n s

I think I m ight go and have another bun.

AM

I was going to get another one.

BM

Could you get m e a tuna and sw eetcorn one please?

AM

M e as well?

b u n s: h e h as fu n c tio n in g legs a n d th e

SP E E C H ACTS

19

A 3 .5

In d ire c t sp ee ch a c ts

INTRODUCTION

20

tiv e in v itin g , a n d ig n o re d th e d ire c t re p re se n ta tiv e a sk in g w hy.
A 3 .6

S p e e c h a c ts a n d s o c ie ty
Social dimension

SP E E C H ACTS

21

c e n tre o f M r Perez. B, a C u b a n w h o w o rk e d w ith M r Perez, p ick ed u p th e p h o n e :
A

Is M r Perez there?

B

Yes, he is.

A

Em . . . can I speak to him, please?

B

Yes, w a it a minute.

L im ita tio n s o f s p e e c h a c t th e o ry

INTRODUCTION

22

L

w ell umm, tha t's an argum ent although it is slightly odd isn 't to base criminal
liability on a duty tha t's m erely implied //

51

// yeh

52

when I say im p li. ..

L

you may not realise you have outset
(Listening to lectures, BASE 2000)

M a c ro -fu n c tio n s

CONVERSATION

23

□

B ro w n a n d Y ule p o in t o u t th a t m u c h o f everyday h u m a n in te ra c tio n is ch a ra c te rise d
b y th e p rim a rily in te rp e rso n a l ra th e r th a n th e p rim a rily tra n sa c tio n a l u se o f language.

C O N V E R S A T IO N

U n d e rs ta n d in g c o n c e p ts

□

ex ch an g e m o v es a n d IRF

□

co n v e rsa tio n analysis

□

in te ra c tio n a l so cio lin g u istics

In tr o d u c tio n

You do you do Language Planning d o n 't you?

DM

Yeah. I've stopped doing that though. I did stop doing that last week. SLA?

BM

I'm not doing that.

DM

Ah. W e haven't got many things in com m on then.

A 4 .1

A 4 .2

24

INTRODUCTION

BM

W ow . W e 've parted ways.

DM

That's right. That's right. Yes. (2)

BM

W e 'll have to go out som etim e.

DM

Yeah.

BM

Before w e forget each oth er's faces. // (heh heh) It's true.

DM

// (heh heh heh)
(Students on parting ways 1996)

E xc h an g e s tru c tu re

T his is th e ap p ro a ch taken by Sinclair a n d C o u lth a rd (1975) a n d th e B irm in g h am School
o f D isco u rse A nalysis. T h ey stu d ie d p rim a ry sch o o l lesso n s a n d fo u n d a re g u la r s tru c

1

T

The mountain ranges brown. How w ill you know the mountain ranges?

2

C

They are brown.

3

T

How can you spot the m ountain ranges? W hat's the clue from the

4

C

The mountain ranges are brown.

5

T

key?

Only brown? Any other colours?
C Purple.

T

W hy do you think som e are purple?

8

C Because som e are smaller than the others.

9

T And the purple ones are what?

C Inaudible.

T

Are they going to be the taller mountains or the shorter mountains?

12

C

Shorter.

13

T

They're actually inaudible. The purple ones are the taller ones. These

14

are very tall ones called the Alps, and the y're purple. You've got to put

15

the m on this map. Now, are you sure you know w h at to do here? I'll

16

leave you to get on w ith it.
(McPake 2000)

Function

Example

Initiation
Inform

gives information

'The purple ones are the taller ones'

Direct

gives orders

'You've got to put them on this map'

Elicit

requests response

'Any other colours?'

Cue

encourages hearer to contribute

'Hands up', 'D o n 't call out'

Nominate

names responder

'Christine?' 'Johnny'

Check

checks progress

'Finished?' 'Ready?'

Prompt

reinforces directives and elicitation

'Go on', 'Hurry up'

27

CONVERSATION

So how long have you been having these sym ptom s?

P

This morning.

D

W hat did you eat yesterday?

P

W hat did I eat?

D

Uhuh.

P

Er. I do n't really remember.

N

Er his tem perature's 38.5. Pulse 1/10

D

W ell have a think, because you may be suffering from food poisoning.

S

Food poisoning?
(Casualty, 16 Decem ber 2000)

m a s te r is C h ris T a rra n t a n d , o n th is o c c a sio n , th e a sp ira n t m illio n a ire is G ary.
CT

W hich of these countries is not a m em ber of the Com m onw ealth: Ghana,

G

It's the Philippines.

Malaysia, India, the Philippines?
CT

Sure?

G

Yeah.

CT

Final answer?

G

Final answer.

CT

It's the right answer. You've got eight thousand pounds.
(W ho wants to be a millionaire?, 14 Decem ber 2000)

T h is tra n sa c tio n has su ch a fo rm u la ic s tru c tu re

th a t th e m o v es u sed a re

able: I (elicit w ith a q u e stio n w ith fo u r o p tio n a l an sw ers), R (rep ly

allp re d ic t

w ith o n e o f th e

A 4 .4

It is n o t p rim a rily n ecessita ted b y a p rac tic a l task

2

A ny u n e q u a l p o w er o f p a rtic ip a n ts is p a rtia lly su sp e n d e d

3

T h e n u m b e r o f th e p a rtic ip a n ts is sm all

4

T u rn s are q u ite sh o rt

5

T alk is p rim a rily fo r th e p a rtic ip a n ts n o t fo r an o u ts id e a u d ie n c e

29

CONVERSATION

yes. Tell, tell me w hat it // is you w a nt

A

// umm. Um, may I first of all request the introduction please?

But not no more. Yeah =
= W hat happened to them?

INTRODUCTION

30

A

Did you have a good tim e last night?

B

(3) Yeah.

A

So he asked you out then?

B

He did.

a question

has the preferred response o f an answer

an offer

an acceptance

an invitation

an acceptance

an assessm ent

an agreem ent

a proposal

an agreem ent

a greeting

a greeting

a com plaint

an apology

a blame

a denial

CONVERSATION

W ife

Do you w ant to te s t the potatoes?

H usband

Can I just finish this sentence?

W ife

Of course.

31

You know that French film tha t's on in the Odeon?

B

Yes?

A

Do you w ant to go and see it tonight?

B

Yeah, w h y not?

You know that French film tha t's on in the Odeon?

B

Yes?

A

Do you w ant to go and see it tonight?

B

W hat tim e does it start?

A

Eight thirty-five

B

Yeah, w h y not?

Do you w ant to te st the potatoes?

H usband

W ife

There certainly has.

H usband

Yeah.

W ife

Potatoes.

H usband

Fork.

T h e se c o n d p a rt, a b o u t racism , is n o t a re sp o n se to th e first, u n less th e irrele v an ce o f
h is a n sw e r can b e in te rp re te d as im p ly in g th a t h e is refu sin g to ch eck th e p o ta to e s.

Hi, Lee.

Lee

Hi. Hi, Jean.

Jean

Hi, hi.

Brenda

H ow are you?

Lee

Not bad. I'll be in, in a minute.
(BNC: kbf Brenda, 1991)

Anyway, I'm gonna have to go

B

Yeah. See you.

A

See you tom orrow .

C

W hat tim e is it?

D

Oh. I've le ft m y lights on.

E

Half three.

C

Three.

E

Tarrah.
(BNC: k b l Albert, 1992)

Lim itations o f CA

THE C O O P E R A T IV E P R IN C IPL E

33

T H E C O O P E R A T IV E P R IN C IP L E
U n d e rs ta n d in g c o n c e p ts

□

o b se rv in g m ax im s

□

flo u tin g a n d v io latin g

□

relev an ce th e o ry

A 5 .1

34

INTRODUCTION

In tro d u c tio n

X

Do you find the place is w arm enough?

Y

Yes, oh yes. Very com fortable I think. It's all that you

need really, you don't

And you say that the warden is a nice person.

Y

Oh yes, you w ill get other opinions, but tha t's m y opinion.

X

W ell you can't please everybody can you?

Y

She's been very good to me.

X

W hat w ould the other people say?

Y

Ah w e ll I do n't know. I w o u ld n 't like to repeatit because I d o n 't really
believe half o f w hat they are saying. They just get a fixed thing into

their

Right, sort of 24 hrs, 7 days a week.
(W ilson and M urie 1995)

O b s e rv in g th e m a x im s

THE C O O P E R A T IV E P R IN C IPL E

35

A

Bye-bye, bye.
(BNC: kc8 Gillian, 1991)

There's som ebody at the door.

B

I'm in the bath.

I mean, just going back to your point. I mean to me an order form is a contract.
If w e are going to put som ething in then let's keep it as general as possible.

A

Yes.
(BNC: j97 British M arket Research M onthly M eeting, 1994)

INTRODUCTION

36

A 5 .4

F lo u tin g th e m a x im s

Let us lo o k at an ex am p le, n o w , o f m a x im s no t b e in g o bserved:
W hen Sir M aurice Bowra was W arden o f W adham College, O xford, he was interviewing
a y o ung m an for a place at th e college. H e eventually cam e to the conclusion th at the
y o ung m an w ould n o t do. H elpfully, how ever, he let him dow n gently by advising the
y o ung m an, 'I th in k you w ould be h appier in a larger - o r a sm aller -college'.
(Rees 1999: 5)

THE C O O P E R A T IV E P R IN C IPL E

37

W ell, how do I look?

B

Your shoes are nice . . .

Yes I'm starving too.

M a rtin

Hurry up girl.

Lynn

Oh dear, stop eating rubbish. You w o n 't eat any dinner.
(BNC: kd6 Martin, 1992)

BM

// (heh heh heh heh)

AF

N ow I know w h y I w as never w anted after October.

BF

Yeah tha t's right, (heh)
(Students on EFL schools 1996)

THE C O O P E R A T IV E P R IN C IPL E

39

So w h at do you think of Mark?

B

His flatm ate's a wonderful cook.

W e expected a better play.

C o w a rd

I expected better manners.
(Sherrin 1995: 29)

W here are you o ff to?

B

I w as thinking of going out to get som e o f that funny w h ite s tu ff for somebody.

A

OK, but d o n't be long - dinner's nearly ready.

th e re b y im p ly in g th a t she ag reed w ith th e first p o in t o f view , even th o u g h she h a d ju s t
said th a t sh e d id n o t agree w ith it.

INTRODUCTION

40

A 5 .5

V io la tin g th e m a x im s

Does your dog bite?

B

No.

A

¡Bends dow n to stroke it and gets bitte nI O w ! You said your dog doesn't bite!

B

That isn't m y dog.

H ow much did that new dress cost, darling?

W ife

Less than the last one.

41

THE C O O P E R A T IV E P R IN C IPL E

W hat would the other people say?

Y

Ah w e ll I d o n't know. I w o u ld n 't like to repeat it because I d o n 't really believe half
o f w h at they are saying. They just get a fixed thing into their mind.

O th e r fo rm s o f n o n -o b s e rv a n c e o f m a x im s

ing decisions.
(L ederer 1987: 77)

A 5 .7

W hat did you have to eat?

B

Oh, som ething masquerading as chicken chasseur.

H ow 's it going w ith Phil?

M elan ie

One of us thinks it 's OK.

THE C O O P E R A T IV E P R IN C IPL E

43

A 5 .S

R e le v a n c e th e o ry

W ell there's a shuttle service sixty pounds one way. W hen do you w a nt to go?

B

A t the weekend.

A

W hat weekend?

44

INTRODUCTION

L im ita tio n s o f re le v a n c e th e o ry

n ities h av e th e ir o w n w ays o f o b se rv in g a n d ex p ressin g m ax im s.

P O L IT E N E S S
A 6 .1

A 6 .2

U n d e rs ta n d in g c o n c e p ts

□

n egative p o liten ess

□

p ositiv e p o liten ess

□

m a x im s o f po liten ess

In tro d u c tio n

POLITENESS

45

A 6 .3

In d irectn ess in th e fo rm o f in d ire c t speech acts a n d m ax im flo u tin g allows a speaker
to m ak e su g g estio n s, req u ests,

offers o r in v ita tio n s q u ite casually, w ith o u t a d d re ssin g

Well, how do I look?

B

Your sh o e s are nice . . .

I c o u ld n 't b o rro w $30, c o u ld I, if y o u d o n 't n eed it rig h t now ?

2

C o u ld I b o rro w $30?

You know that French film tha t's on in the Odeon?

B

Yes?

A

Do you w ant to go and see it tonight?

B

Yeah, w h y not?

INTRODUCTION

48

d isa g ree m en t. O n e w ay o f a v o id in g d isa g re e m e n t is to use a p s e u d o -a g re e m e n t as in:
Jean

Don't wash them and put them on the rack.

R aym ond

But all //

Jean
R aym ond

POLITENESS

A

H ow do I look?

B

Good! (Thinks: 'A w ful.')

49

P o lite n e s s m a x im s

T h e p a ra d o x is th a t if th e h e a re r is to ac c ep t th e o ffer o f th e b ird tab le, th e y are d e p riv ed

Yes - yes but if you do that, your - your - your tea-tow el's soaking, and at
the end o f the night, nothing's getting dried.

POLITENESS

51

O v e rla p s an d gaps

P o lite n e s s an d c o n te x t

[The Older Woman: BBC Radio 4 1994)

So, if you'd be as kind as to shut up, I'd appreciate it.

(Elmore: Hom bre 1989)

Does the h o n o u rab le m em b er for Craw ley wish to intervene?

NS

N o.

BW

T he last tim e I saw a m o u th like th a t it had a h o o k in it.
(H o u se o f C om m ons: 28 M arch 1988)

(BASE 2000)

18

DM

No,

19

AF

Is it still not there? (2) Oh M M ! 1 (0.5) brought the w h at w h a t's a

21

MM

Yeah. Tell you w h a t ((unintelligible)).

22

DM

How are you?

23

BM

All right.
1 haven't seen you very much.

20

name back.

24

DM

25

BM

No 1 haven't seen you very much.

26

DM

W e m ust not fit at all.

27

BM

You do you do language planning do n't you.

28

DM

Yeah. I've stopped doing that though.

29

BM

Are you er (0.5) are going to do w hat you thought you'd do about

your project.
DM

32

I'm going to give out a questionnaire. And I'll give you one as well.
Som etim e this w eek 1 hope t- tom orro w I'll get them all done.

33

AF

W hat your core project?

34

DM

Yeah. (0.5)

35

CM

Did he like did he like the idea?

36

DM

W ell you know w h a t he's like. It's difficult to tell isn't it? Yeah. He said

37

it w a s n 't terrible anyway. He said go ahead so (0.5) I'm going to go

38

ahead.

39

CM

Yeah he said this isn't terrible?

40

DM

No no he didn't tell m e that. // (heh heh)

(Students on questionnaire 1996)

A N A L Y S I N G T H E D I S C O U R S E IN C O N T E X T

□

57

□

□

T h e th ird ex am ple co m es in lines 36-42. T h ey are talk in g a b o u t a lectu re r th a t D M

□

DEVELOPMENT

58

□

□

T h ese stretch e s o f lan g u ag e d e p e n d e n t o n th e in te rp e rso n a l c o n te x t a re th e m o st

B1.2

F u rth e r re a d in g
□

For good examples of the influence of context on meaning, see J. Mey (1993), P. Grundy (2000)
and G. Brown and G. Yule (1983).

□

For a further exploration of the relationship between context and deixis, see J. Thomas (1995)
and A. Cruse (2000).

□

P. Grundy (2000) has a deep and complex discussion of deixis, inference and common ground.

A N A L Y S I N G THE CO-TEXT

59

A N A L Y S IN G T H E C O -T E X T

A n a ly s in g t e x t u sin g c o n c e p ts

□

□

g ra m m a tic a l co h esio n
-

e n d o p h o ric reference

-

su b s titu tio n a n d ellipsis

lexical co h e sio n

h e r d e a th .

1

It was a sum m er's night and they w ere talking, in the big room w ith the

2

w indo w s open to the garden, about the cesspool. The county council had

3

prom ised to bring w a te r to the village, but they hadn't.

4

M rs Haines, the w ife of the gentlem an farm er, a goose-faced wom an w ith

5

eyes protruding as if they saw som ething to gobble in the gutter, said

6

affectedly: 'W hat a subject to talk about on a night like th is !'

7

Then there w as silence; and a co w coughed; and that led her to say how odd

8

it was, as a child, she had never feared cows, only horses. But, then, as a

small child in a perambulator, a great cart-horse had brushed w ithin an inch
of her face. Her family, she told the old man in the arm-chair, had lived

11

near Liskeard for many centuries. There w ere the graves in the churchyard

12

to prove it.

13

A bird chuckled outside. 'A nightingale?' asked M rs Haines. No,

14

nightingales didn't com e so far north. It was a daylight bird, chuckling over

15

the substance and succulence of the day, over w orm s, snails, grit, even in

16

sleep.

17

The old man in the arm-chair - M r Oliver, of the Indian Civil Service, retired

18

- said that the site they had chosen for the cesspool was, if he had heard

19

aright, on the Roman road. From an aeroplane, he said, you could still see,

20

plainly marked, the scars made by the Britons; by the Romans; by the

21

Elizabethan manor house; and by the plough, w hen they ploughed the hill

22

to grow w heat in the Napoleonic wars.

B 2 .1

60

DEVELOPMENT

Text analysis
The cesspool
A nalysis o f th is sim p le little passage sh o w s h o w very closely w o v en it is in te rm s o f
b o th g ra m m a tic a l a n d lexical co h esio n .
Let u s s ta rt w ith g ra m m a tic a l c o h e sio n , a n d e n d o p h o r ic referen ce. T h e re a re at
least six in sta n ce s o f a n a p h o ric referen ce a n d o n ly o n e in sta n ce o f c a ta p h o ric . T h is,
as w e h ave said, is a fairly ty p ical ratio . Let us s ta rt w ith a n a p h o r ic referen ce, a n d list
so m e exam ples.
□

□

□

□

□

A N A L Y S I N G THE CO-TEXT

61

T h e re a re n o ex am p les o f s u b s titu tio n , b u t at least fo u r o f e llip sis.
□

□

□

□

1

It was a sum m er's night and they w ere talking, in the big room w ith the

2

w indo w s open to the garden, about the cesspool. The county council had

3

prom ised to bring w a te r to the village, but they hadn't.

4

M rs Haines, the w ife of the gentlem an farm er, a goose-faced w om an w ith

5

eyes protruding as if they saw som ething to gobble in the gutter, said

6

affectedly: 'W hat a subject to talk about on a nioht like th is !'

7

Then there was silence; and a co w coughed; and that led her to say how

DEVELOPMENT

62

8

odd it was, as a child, she had never feared cows, only horses. But, then,

9

as a small child in a perambulator, a great cart-horse had brushed within an

10

inch of her face. Her family, she told the old man in the arm-chair, had lived

11

near Liskeard for many centuries. There w ere the graves in the churchyard

12

to prove it.

13

A bird chucked outside. 'A nightingale?' asked M rs Haines. No,

14

nightingales didn 't com e so far north. It was a daylight bird, chuckling over

15

the substance and succulence o f the day, over w orm s, snails, grit, even in

16

sleep.

17

The old man in the arm-chair - M r Oliver, of the Indian Civil Service, retired

18

- said that the site the y had chosen for the cesspool was, if he had heard

19

aright, on the Roman road. From an aeroplane, he said, you could still see,

20

plainly marked, the scars made by the Britons; by the Romans; hy the

21

Elizabethan manor house; and bv the plough, w hen they ploughed the hill to

22

grow w heat in the Napoleonic wars.

□

DEVELOPMENT

64

9

10

Boss
Dalziel

11

12

Boss

W atch it superintendent! I'm not asking you to kow -to w to the

13

gentry. I'm telling you to go by the book. (0.5) You see I know

14

how you work.

□

□

USING SPEECH ACTS

□

65

□

□

DEVELOPMENT

65

All in all, it is a sh o rt b u t in te re stin g little ex cerp t, w ith a g reat d eal g o in g o n u n d e r
th e surface.

B 3 .2

F u rth e r re a d in g ►►►►
□

□

For a thorough, yet still accessible, explanation of indirect speech acts, looking at idioms, literal

□

D. Schiffrin (1994) provides an advanced, careful explanation of the development of Austin's and

□

Q

For those needing guidance in speech act analysis, and suggestions for research projects in speech

□

Finally, D. Tannen (1994) reports on a specialised study report of indirect speech acts in male-

T H E P R A G M A T IC S O F C O N V E R S A T IO N

B 4 .1

A n a ly s in g te x t u sing c o n c e p ts

□

c o n v e rsa tio n analysis

□

in te ra c tio n a l so cio lin g u istics

1

M other

I don't know what you're doing on that.

2

Daughter

Oh no.

3

M other

No.

THE P R A G M A T I C S OF C O N V E R S A T I O N

4

Daughter

No fear I should say =

5

M other

= Well, do it somewhere else. I mean, look there's plenty of other

places to put it. How about here? / / 1 like it like that.
Daughter

// Uhm it's OK. Oh God you don't -

8

First of all you don't score so much, and secondly you only get rid of

9

tw o letters // and you make your chances of picking up anything better

10

M other

11

Daughter

12

M other

13

Daughter

14

15

M other

16

Daughter

17

M other

I didn't really like that sandwich.

18

Daughter

(laughs) I wouldn't have noticed (laughs). You've // packed away most

// Yeah. I'm busy eating as a matter of fact
Oh.

19

M other

20

Daughter

of it (laughs) all the same.

21

M other

kept hoping it would get better and it got worse, (laughs) Salty. Don't

22

// No but I

like salty things.

23

Daughter

No.

24

M other

Have some banana bread.

25

Daughter

Look. I'm not that much of a banana bread eater // and I wish you'd

26

M other

27

Daughter

// Oh I forgot //
stop bothering.

28

M other

Never mention it again.

29

Daughter

Yes, I mean, you know, I know where these things are. If I'm that

30

67

interested I'll ask if I may have a piece and then you can tell me you

31

haven't made any for months or don't make it any more (laughs) I've

32

got a whole load of my own banana bread in the fridge. I don't know.

33

M other

34

Daughter

35

M other

Mm. Mm.

38

Daughter

You're now eighty behind. If you'd listened to me (laughs) you'd only

40

M other

Oh a lot. Never left off. When she's // finished with the kids, she

41

Daughter

42

M other

39

be seventy behind. Anyway what else did Linda have to say for herself

goes back to Felicity and all her achievements. Actually you probably
wouldn't have enjoyed it here, (laughs)

Daughter

What do you mean about Felicity and her achievements, is it?
Oh no // I have been inured to that // for years.

//O h .

M other

// How wonderful she is, you know // how she talks.

(ICE-GB: Spoken dialogue, private, direct conversation: S1A-010, 1991)

68

DEVELOPMENT

□

THE P R A G M A T I C S OF C O N V E R S A T I O N

□

69

□

o r in v ita tio n . It c o u ld be said th a t th e re a re in s e r tio n seq u en ces, how ever:
□

In lines 1 5 -3 2 th e san d w ic h a n d th e b a n a n a b re a d to p ics c o m e as an in se rtio n
se q u e n ce w ith in th e m a in to p ic o f play in g Scrabble.

□

L ine 39 o n w a rd s a b o u t L in d a a n d h e r fam ily c o m e as a n o th e r.

DEVELOPMENT

70

B 4 .2

F u rth e r re a d in g "

"

□

For a simple check on classroom scripts, see E. Hatch (1992).

□

For a simple explanation of IRF, see M. McCarthy and R. Carter (1994) and for a more thorough
discussion, see M. Coulthard (1985) and S. Eggins and D. Slade (1997).

J

You will find that P. Levinson (1983), J. Mey (1993) and M. Stubbs (1983) provide an in-depth explana
tion of turn-taking, TRP, adjacency pairs and sequences.
For a comprehensive exploration of the history of conversation analysis and examples of the methodo
logy, go to D. Schiffrin (1994).
For an early paper on conversation analysis, try H. Sacks. E. A. Schegloff and G. Jefferson (1974).
For a collection of lectures on conversation analysis, read H. Sacks (1992a and 1992b).
For recent developments in conversation analysis and interactional sociolinguistics, try E. Ochs,
E. A. Schegloff and S. A. Thompson (1996).

C O O P E R A T IO N A N D R E L E V A N C E
B 5 .1

A n a ly s in g te x t u sing c o n c e p ts

□

o b serv in g m ax im s

□

flo u tin g /v io latin g

□

relevance th e o ry

T h e fo llo w in g te x t is real d a ta ta k e n fro m th e B ritish N a tio n a l C o rp u s. It is p a rt o f a
casu al c o n v e rsa tio n b e tw een Lisa, a 3 0 -y ear-o ld h o u sew ife fro m th e S o u th M id la n d s,

Lisa

Oh your m um and dad er popped round last night to see Louise.
Guess w h at tim e they w e n t round?

M e lvin

About nine - ten o 'clock?

Lisa

M e lvin

Yeah.

Lisa

So she didn't have to cook.

71

COOPERATION AND RELEVANCE

10

M e lv in

11

Ah they w ould have had to wash up the plates and the knives and
forks. But she's just one o f those w om en w h o do n't like leaving

12

stuff around, you know w h at I mean? Once they've had something,

13

they've got to do it before they go, can you believe? She's a right

14

pain in the arse som etim es, m e m um . That's w h y they do n't go

15

anywhere, you see. Yeah, tha t's w h y they don't com e out and

16

visit his brother very often. So w h y did they w a nt to see Louise?

17

Lisa

It w as her birthday.

18

M elvin

Oh yeah. They should have gone as soon as they got out o f work.

19

Lisa

Yeah. And they could have got fish and chips on the w ay home,

couldn't they?
M e lv in

Yeah.

(BNC: kd3 Lisa, 1992)

Text analysis
V isitin g Louise
B ecause M elvin a n d L ouise seem to sh a re su c h a lo t o f c u ltu ra l b a c k g ro u n d k n o w
ledge a n d in te rp e rso n a l know ledge, w e c a n assu m e th a t th e y k n o w each o th e r a n d each
o th e r 's w o rld s fairly well, a n d becau se o f th e ir sh a red k n o w led g e, th e y can f lo u t th e
m a x im s freely, in th e c e rta in ty th a t th e y will each b e able to in fe r th e o th e r's im p lied
m ean in g .
□

DEVELOPMENT

THE P R I N C I P L E OF P O L I T E N E S S

73

F u rth e r re a d in g ►►>■>■
□

For a discussion of conversational implicature, with ample examples and explanations, see J. Thomas

□

P. Grundy (2000), G. Leech (1983) and S. C. Levinson (1983) provide an extensive discussion of

□

D. Schiffrin (1994) looks at maxims and reference.

Q

For a more advanced explanation of the cooperative principle and an introduction to relevance

B 5 .2

(1995) and for an advanced, critical discussion of implicature, try A. Cruse (2000).
kinds of implicature and the limitations of each.

theory, read J. L. Mey (1994).
□

For a classic explanation of the principle of relevance, read D. Blakemore (1992).

□

For an in-depth discussion of the most advanced explanation of the theory of relevance, study D.
Sperber and D. Wilson (1982, 1987, 1995).

T H E P R IN C IP L E O F P O L IT E N E S S
A n a ly s in g t e x t u sin g c o n c e p ts

□

n eg ativ e a n d p o sitiv e p o liten ess

□

m a x im s o f p o liten ess

by D r Iain S m ith .

1

M any o f you here today are not fro m Africa but you are, many o f you,

2

from parts of the w orld that have been affected by one o f the great global

3

forces at w o rk in w orld history - w h at w e loosely call imperialism. And

4

that is w h y I thought w hat I should try to talk to you about today is this

5

phenom enon o f imperialism, not ju st in term s of the nineteenth and

6

tw e n tie th centuries, and as you w ill see, not ju st in term s of the impact

7

of Europe on the non-European world.

8

Because w hat w e are grappling w ith in the phenomenon of imperialism is

9

a phenomenon that in various form s is as old as the form ation o f state

10

system s by human beings. So I'm going to, er, at considerable risk er to

11

m yself, try to set this phenom enon in a much wider, er, m ore global

12

perspective. I hope that m ight be o f interest to many of you w ho have

13

either been subjected to w h at you consider imperialism, or indeed have

14

been part of states and societies that have them selves been im perialistic

15

or are still being s o ./.../

16

I think w e have to begin by facing up to the fact that today w e live in an

17

age of anti-imperialism. All over the w orld there is a reaction against the

B 6 .1

74

DEVELOPMENT

18

things w hich w e associate w ith the phenomenon of imperialism: the

19

dom ination of the w eak countries or societies by the strong; the economic

20

exploitation of the natural resources of often poorer countries er in the

21

world, by the rich industrialised parts o f the world; the gross, and in many

22

parts o f the w orld, the widening gap in term s of political, m ilitary and

23

economic pow er and standards of the living betw een the rich and the poor

24

countries; the belief, in one society, of the absolute superiority of its

25

culture, its values and its beliefs and the attem pt to impose these upon the

26

people of other cultures and often of different races.

27

Today in Europe and America, in the countries o f the ex-Soviet Union and

28

in Asia, as w e ll as in all those areas of w hat used to be called, the Third

29

W orld w hich w ere until so recently under European influence or indeed

30

colonial rule, imperialism is regarded as a bad thing. To call som eone an

31

imperialist is a term o f abuse, like calling him a racist or a fascist.

32

The very w ord imperialism, I think you'll agree, is loaded w ith emotional

33

and ideological overtones. If I say, for instance, that recently I have been

34

studying and contributing to a new Oxford History o f the British Empire,

35

w hich I have, that is a clear, concrete and perfectly respectable historical

36

subject to study. It w as indeed the m ost powerful and extensive empire in

37

world history. But if I say I'm studying and w riting about the history of

38

British Imperialism, th a t's already a som ew hat different thing. The kind of

39

books that are w ritte n about it are different too.

Text analysis
Im perialism

THE P R I N C I P L E OF P O L I T E N E S S

□

75

□

u sin g 'h ere to d a y ' (lin e 1) to b rin g o u t th e closeness a n d so lid arity b y d ra w in g th e ir
a tte n tio n to th e fact th a t th ey have c o m m o n g ro u n d to g e th e r in tim e a n d space.

H e th e n a p p e a rs to a tte n d to th e h e a re rs' in terests, w a n ts a n d needs:
□

□

b y u sin g e x p ressio n s th a t c a p tu re th e ir a tte n tio n , as in: 'I h o p e th a t m ig h t b e o f
in te re st to m a n y o f y o u . . (line 12).

H e ex p lo its th e p o lite n e s s m a x im s:
□

□

□

o f g e n e ro s ity , saying: 'So I'm g o in g to , er, at c o n sid e ra b le risk e r to m yself,
try to . . .' (lin es 1 0 -1 1 ), a n d m ax im isin g th e ex p ressio n o f c o st to h im self, w ith

A n d th a t is w h y I th o u g h t w h a t I sh o u ld try to ta lk to y o u a b o u t . . . (lin es 3 - 4 )

□

So I'm g o in g to , er, at c o n sid e ra b le risk e r to m yself, try to set th is p h e n o m e n o n

□

I th in k w e have to b eg in b y facing u p to th e fact t h a t . . . (lin e 16)

in a m u c h w id er, er, m o re g lobal p ersp ectiv e, (lines 1 0 -1 2 )

E X P L O R I N G THE C O N T E X T OF W R I T I N G

79

□

T h in k b ac k to o ccasio n s w h e n y o u h a v e v isited a d o c to r. T o w h a t e x te n t d o y o u
feel th a t th e w ay h e o r sh e speaks to y o u show s th e p o w er o f k n o w led g e, as in ,
'I'm o n ly g o in g to tell y o u th is m u c h , becau se y o u are ju s t a p a tie n t'? D o y o u th in k

EXPLORATION

80

about it is that it doesn't need any baking. It's just going to go into the refrigerator.

Q

E X P L O R I N G THE C O N T E X T OF W R I T I N G

81

T h e b re a k d o w n o cc u rs becau se th e sp ea k er im p lies o n e th in g a n d th e h e a re r infers

a n o th e r. E xplain it in te rm s o f b a c k g ro u n d k n ow ledge.
□

82

EXPLORATION

o

A c tiv ity
In T ex t E, E lizabeth an d D arcy finally refer to th e ir in tim a te in te rp e rso n a l co n tex t.
□

C an y o u find ex am p les o f in tertex tu ality ? H o w a re th ey expressed?

□

IN V E ST IG A T IN G CO-TEXT

83

I N V E S T IG A T IN G C O -T E X T
S tu d y in g fu r th e r a n d e x p lo rin g

□

co h e sio n

Shark takes leg
T h is is th e b eg in n in g o f an article fro m th e Syd n ey M o rn in g H erald (7 N o v e m b e r 2000).

C 2 .1

EXPLORATION

84

Q

A c tiv ity
T ex t A c o n ta in s sy n o n y m s a n d a n a p h o ric reference.
□

W h e re are they?

□

W h y a re th ey necessary?

INVESTIGATING CO-TEXT

85

T h e re a re very few fe atu res o f g ra m m a tic a l c o h esio n : w h ich ty p e o f g ra m m a tic a l
c o h e sio n o c c u rs m o st frequently?

□

T h e co h e sio n is m a in ly lexical; w h a t is th e m a in device?

□

W h y d o y o u th in k th e c h arac te ristic s d escrib ed h e re in (a) a n d (b ) are p re s e n t in
th is text? W h a t d o es it tell y o u a b o u t th e text?

list.

R ich a rd L ed erer's a m u s in g M ore

EXPLORATION

86

©

A ctivitie s
□

□

T ak e each o f th e sen te n c e s in T ex t D an d
a

E xplain th e ir a m b ig u ity in te rm s o f co h esio n ,

b

R ew rite th e m so th a t th e m e a n in g is clear.

F in d a sh o rt tex t, o f th e sa m e so rt as T ex ts A a n d B, in th a t it c o n ta in s p o p u la r
w ritte n E nglish w ith a jo u rn a listic flavour.
a

List th e g ra m m a tic a l a n d lexical cohesive devices th a t p re d o m in a te ,

b

C o m p a re th e devices th a t p re d o m in a te in y o u r tex ts w ith th e devices th a t p re

c

T o w h at e x te n t can y o u say th a t th e g en re (ty p e o f tex t) d e te rm in e s th e so rt

□

A nalyse th e co h esiv e d evices o f a page o r tw o th a t y o u re m e m b e r h a v in g to

b

D ecid e w h e th e r y o u c a n say y o u r d ifficu lty in u n d e rs ta n d in g is p a rtly d u e to

re ad a n d re re a d in o rd e r to u n d e rs ta n d ,
th e p resen ce o f so m e devices o r th e ab sen ce o f o th ers.
□

D o y o u th in k th a t c h ild re n o f 7 -9 y ears u se g ra m m a tic a l c o h esio n efficiently?
a

F in d a c h ild o f a b o u t th a t age a n d re c o rd th e m .

b

A sk th e m to relate to y o u a n in c id e n t th a t th e y w itn essed o r to tell y o u a sto ry
(n o t a w ell-k n o w n o n e ),

c

A sk th e m to keep it s h o rt, so th a t th ey sp eak for o n ly th re e o r fo u r m in u te s,

d

e

L ook a t each o f th e g ra m m a tic a l co h esio n devices a n d see if th e y are u sed
correctly.

EXPLORING SPEECH ACTS

87

E X P L O R IN G S P E E C H A C T S
S tu d y in g fu r th e r a n d e x p lo rin g

□

S peech acts a n d c u ltu ra l variables

C 3 .1

88

EXPLORATION

Text B
W innie the Pooh

th e hig h ly lovable b e a r o f very little b ra in his advice.

EXPLORING SPEECH ACTS

89

Text C

b T o d in n e r p a rtie s
T h is tex t is fro m w eb site o f th e O ffice o f In te rn a tio n a l S tu d e n ts A ffairs, th e U n iv e rsity
o f Illin o is, USA, w h ich a im s to p re p a re s tu d e n ts to in te ra c t w ith th e ir A m e ric a n h osts.

90

□

EXPLORATION

L o o k in g at th e te x ts in d iv id u ally
a

W h ic h m acro -class, d ire c t speech acts a n d in d ire c t sp eech acts a re involved
th e m o st, in T exts A, B a n d C?

b

In th e th re e texts, w h a t rea so n s c a n y o u see fo r th e in d ire c t speech acts b ein g
used? C o n sid e r th e so cial differen ces a n d c o n te x tu a l c o n stra in ts,

c

d

W o u ld y o u say th a t T e x t B, 'W in n ie th e P o o h ', sh o w s a p o w er-stru g g le? Is
th e in d ire c t speech a c t a n d th e w ay it is re s p o n d e d to a p p ro p ria te fo r a b o o k
for ch ild ren ?

□

Speech acts are governed b y social c o n v en tio n s d ep e n d e n t o n th e co n tex t o f culture,
a

T h e tw o T ex t C 'In v ita tio n s' e x cerp ts a re a b o u t th e sp eech acts o f in v itin g
a n d a c c e p tin g in v ita tio n s, a n d c o n ta in ex am p les o f a series o f w ays o f

c

d

W rite a b rie f d e sc rip tio n o f y o u r resu lts a n d a d d a d isc u ssio n , ex p lain in g w hy
yo u th in k y o u g o t th e answ ers th a t y o u d id .

□

R e m e m b e r th a t speech a c t th e o ry has lim ita tio n s.
a

EXPLORING SPEECH ACTS

b

91

D o y o u feel th a t sp eech act th e o ry is a satisfacto ry w ay o f co d in g th e fu n c
tio n o f language? C an y o u th in k o f an im p ro v e m e n t o r b e tte r altern ativ e?

□

T h in k o f a lo c u tio n th a t c o n stitu te s a d e c la ra tio n speech a ct in y o u r cu ltu re ,
a

E xp lain th e felicity c o n d itio n s u sin g A u stin 's m o d e l a n d th e n S earle's.

b

W h ic h m o d e l d o y o u prefer? W hy?

Text D

□

P ow er distance: this is defined as "th e extent to w hich the less powerful
m em bers of institutions and organizations accept that pow er is distributed

□

For m ore inform ation see Cultures and Organizations by Geert Flofstede
(HarperCollins).

Activities

□

T ex t D lists social d im e n sio n s th a t v a ry fro m c u ltu re to c u ltu re a n d can affect a
sp eak er's ch o ice o f d irect a n d in d ire c t speech acts. T o w h at e x ten t w o u ld y o u agree

o

□

EXPLORATION

92

H o w o fte n d o w e really use in d ire c t sp eech acts?
a

O v er th e n e x t w eek, d o o n e o f th e follow ing altern ativ es:
□

□

b

See w h ich y o u have m o re o f - d ire c t o r in d irect.

c

E x am in e h o w th e in d ire c t directiv es a re ex p ressed , to see w h ich w o rd s a n d

d

C o n sid e r th e e x te n t to w h ich th e c o n te x t affects th e d ire c tn e ss o f th e act.

e

D raw co n clu sio n s,

f

W rite u p y o u r stu d y .

g ra m m a tic a l fo rm s a re u sed m o st,

□

L ook at all th e tex ts to d e cid e w h e th e r th ey h av e a m a in ly tra n sa c tio n a l o r m a in ly

□

M ake a re c o rd in g o f tw o frie n d s o r relatives h av in g a lo n g casual c o n v e rsa tio n .

D ivide th e re c o rd in g u p in to th re e -m in u te c h u n k s, reg ard less o f w h a t is h a p

b

Listen to each th re e -m in u te c h u n k a n d decid e w h e th e r its fu n c tio n is p rim arily

c

C alcu late w h a t p ro p o r tio n o f th e 20 c h u n k s is p rim a rily tra n sa c tio n a l, w h a t

p e n in g at th e th r e e -m in u te in terv al; d o n o t b o th e r tra n sc rib in g all th is d a ta,

L ook a t each o f th e th re e g ro u p s o f c h u n k s a n d see w h a t d ire c t sp eech acts
are th ere.

e

W rite u p y o u r fin d in g s u n d e r th e title 'T h e o verall fu n c tio n o f a casual
c o n v e rs a tio n '.

T H E A N A L Y S IS O F C O N V E R S A T IO N
C4.1

S tu d y in g fu r th e r an d e x p lo rin g

□

c o n v e rsa tio n analysis

□

in te ra c tio n a l so cio lin g u istics

□

social c o n te x t

T h e d a ta th a t y o u are in v ite d to w o rk w ith in th is se c tio n is all to d o w ith sp o k e n la n
guage, sin ce e x ch an g e s tru c tu re a n d c o n v e rsa tio n analysis lo o k at h o w p eo p le speak

THE A N A L Y S I S OF C O N V E R S A T I O N

93

94

Q

EXPLORATION

A ctivity

R ew rite th e d ialo g u e p a rts o f T e x t A as a play sc rip t, as in:
T eacher

Read your next sentence, M r Kaplan.

Kaplan

De second void, ladies an' gentleman, is 'fascinate' - . . .

Jo

Did she see the photos in her coz*?

Je n n y

She walks in . . . She stopped me she stopped me and she said, umm
"O h, by the way, have you have you seen any photos o f = = m e?" I

thought, you know, you're a bit sort of, you know . ..
Jo

= = No one told her there w ere photos.

Je n n y

Donna

= = I w o u ld n 't be taking any photos. = = I mean, I w ould have asked.

Je n n y

= = I mean, if anyone had taken any of m e at the fancy dress I'd w ant

Jo

W hy does she always w a nt to get her picture? ()

Je n n y

She said, "I just w anted to see how w e ll the costum e turned ou t."

Jo

She's pretty insecure, that girl.

to = = burn them .

* As Slade explains 'Coz' is com m on Australian slang for costume.

o

Activity

THE A N A L Y S I S OF C O N V E R S A T I O N

95

Text C
Greetings in a lift
T h is e x c e rp t is fro m Jan et H o lm e s' (2000: 39) d atab a se. H ere, M a tt a n d B ob a re m ale
colleag u es o f eq u al sta tu s in a N ew Z e a la n d g o v e rn m e n t d e p a rtm e n t. T h e y m e e t a n d
g re e t in th e lift a n d th e ex ch an g e is b ro u g h t to an e n d w h e n th ey reach B o b 's floor.
T h is is social talk w ith a referen ce to th e sh a re d c o n te x t o f w o rk . N o te th a t in H o m e s'
tra n s c rip tio n system , th e re are n o cap itals, c o m m a s o r full sto p s, a n d sh e o n ly uses?
to in d ic a te a risin g in to n a tio n . T h e sy m b o l + in d ica tes a p a u se o f u p to o n e seco n d .

M

hi ho w 's things

B

hi good good + haven't seen you for ages how are you

M

fine busy though as always + m ust m eet m y performance objectives eh [laugh]

B

[laughl yeah me too

yea bye

A ctivity

©

N

ITo Gazl It's m y money. I w a nt it. ITo the assistantl A hundred pounds please.

G

[To Nathanl W ell, w hen you're eighteen, you-you-you you can w alk in and
get it yourself, can't you?

EXPLORATION

96

N

o

You said you'd get it back.

G

I know. (0.5) but you do n't w a nt to listen to w hat I say. (0.5)

N

You said so. (0.5) I believe you. (0.5)

G

You do? (1)

N

Yeah. (2.5)

G

Blimey, Nath.

Activities

lo c a tio n th a t th e ex c h an g e tak es place in

ii

re la tio n sh ip b e tw een th e p e o p le (lo o k a t roles, sta tu s a n d p o w er)

iii

h isto ries th e y sh are

iv

p u rp o s e in sp eak in g

affect th e
i

ex ch an g e s tru c tu re

ii

tu rn -ta k in g

iii

ad jac en cy p airs

iv

seq uen ces

v

g ra m m a r

vi

lexis.

W h a t are th e fa c to rs th a t d e te rm in e w h e th e r th e IRF s tru c tu re is follow ed?

ii

W o u ld y o u like to suggest a d iffe re n t m o d e l fo r cla ssro o m in te ra c tio n ?

D esign a q u e stio n n a ire to see w h at language p eo p le use in p re-seq u en ces. A w ay to
d o it w o u ld b e to d escrib e a s itu a tio n a n d ask th e m w h a t th e y w o u ld say, as in:

F O L L O W IN G THE C O O P E R A T IV E P R IN C IP L E

97

F O L L O W IN G T H E C O O P E R A T IV E P R IN C IP L E

S tu d y in g fu r th e r a n d e x p lo rin g

□

c o o p e ra tiv e p rin c ip le

□

relev an ce th e o ry

□

c u ltu ra l v ariables

w ife, a n d it show s ev id en c e o f m a x im v io latio n .
Text A

C 5 .1

EXPLORATION

98

* Scots English meaning sm elly

Q

A ctivity

T am sin

Parkinson

A - and also too you doing this er this drama series

// called Redcap.
T am sin

// It's a film actually It's a BBC1 film =

Parkinson

= BBC1 film .

T am sin

And - er - it's about the special investigation branch w ith in the
army.

Parkinson

Yes.

T am sin

Parkinson

Have you got to learn to be a soldier?

T am sin

Got to learn ho w to hold a gun, and I've got to be three weeks

Parkinson

That'll be fun eh?

T am sin

Can't wait.

Parkinson

|heh heh heh)

T am sin

Not like that.

training in the army.

F O L L O W IN G THE C O O P E R A T IV E P R IN C IP L E

99

©

A c tiv ity

M r B lair

C o m m e n ta to r

Does this mean the General Election's in June, too? W ell o f
course it does and he can't say so.

In te rv ie w e r

M r B la ir

A ctivity

Australian Bach
T h is is an ex cerp t fro m a n e w sp ap er article e n title d 'P laying it straig h t: A u stra lia n Bach
E n sem b le ' fro m T he S yd n ey M o rn in g H erald, 19 M arch 2000. T h e review er, H a rrie t

©

EXPLORATION

100

C u n n in g h a m , discu sses p e rfo rm a n c e s o f B ach, th e G e rm a n e ig h te e n th -c e n tu ry c o m
p o ser, w h ich a b o u n d b ecau se it is th e 2 5 0 th a n n iv e rsa ry o f his d eath .

o

A ctivity

T his excerpt is fro m th e o p e n in g scene fro m D eath o f a Salesm an (1949) b y th e A m erican
p lay w rig h t A rth u r M iller. T h e ch ara c ters, W illy a n d L in d a L o m a n live in N ew Y ork.

W illy is sixty a n d h as to d riv e to N ew E n g lan d every w eek to w o rk .

Linda

[hearing W illy outside the bedroom, calls w ith som e trepidation]: W illy!

W illy

It's all right. I came back.

Linda

Why? W hat happened? [Slight pause ] Did som ething happen, W illy?

W illy

No, nothing happened.

Linda

You didn't smash the car, did you?

W illy

[w ith casual irritation] I said nothing happened. D idn't you hear me?

Linda

D on't you feel well?

W illy

I'm tired to death. [The flute has faded away. He sits on the bed beside

Linda

[very carefully, delicately]: W here w ere you all day? You look terrible.

W illy

I got as far as a little above Yonkers. I stopped for a cup o f coffee.

Linda

What?

W illy

[afte r a pause] I suddenly couldn't drive any more. The car kept going

her, a little numb.] I couldn't make it. I just couldn't make it, Linda.

Maybe it was the coffee.

o ff on to the shoulder, y'know ?

APPLYING POLITENESS

Linda

101

Ihelpfully] Oh. Maybe it was th e steering again. I do n't think Angelo
knows the Studebaker.

W illy

Linda
W illy

Linda

I resigned]: W ell, you'll just have to take a rest, W illy, you can't
continue this way.

A ctivity

o

T ra n sc rib e p a rt o f a s p o n ta n e o u s, u n g u id e d casual c o n v e rsatio n b etw e e n a
h u sb a n d a n d w ife, o r lo n g -te rm g irlfrie n d a n d b o y frien d .

ii

iii

analyse th e lan g u ag e th a t is u sed to in frin g e o r o p t o u t, to see if th e re are a n y

-

have a lo o k at th e p o w e r re la tio n sh ip b etw een speakers, a n d d escribe th e social

in te re stin g fe atu res o f n o te
fa c to rs involved.

□

EXPLORATION

102

A P P L Y IN G P O L IT E N E S S
C 6 .1

S tu d y in g fu r th e r an d e x p lo rin g

□

p o liten ess a n d social v ariab les

R obert
Joa n

You are m y first w ro ng number te xt message.

R obert

Why? W ho are you? Not pete i assume?

Joa n

No. Do you mean Smith?

R obert
Joa n

Hi, any chance of getting a copy of 2000 today at som e point? Rob.

Yes.
I'm M ary's mum.

R obert

I'm robert, petes m um s partner. Sorry to bother y o u :)))

Joa n

How funny! OK - now tell m e w h at a copy of 2000 is. [message sent
twice]

R obert

Do you w a nt the answ er twice?? : )) 2000 is an operating system
for the com puter. Just like w indow s 98 but better and m ore secure.

Joa n

I w ish I hadn't asked. How did you get m y number? Can I put this
conversation into a book on linguistics I'm writing?

R obert

It's the num ber ive had for peter for a w hile. Not had call to use it till
now. You m ust have his old phone or sim card. Yes, feel free to use
it: ))

Joa n
R obert

R obert

Sorry again. I really dont know where igot your number from .

Joa n

XXXX XXXX. Have a nice day!

R obert

Thanks. And you.

APPLYING POLITENESS

A ctivity

o

□

103

C O N TE X T: KN O W LEDG E A N D STEREO TYPES

R e a d in g a n d re s e a rc h in g

R. W ardhaugh (1985) H o w Conversation Works, pp. 16-20, Oxford: Blackwell.

CONTEXT: KNOW LEDG E AND STEREOTYPES

109

CONTEXT: KNOW LEDG E AND STEREOTYPES

111

o

H ave a lo o k a t th e W a rd h a u g h rea d in g , a n d
a

ex p lain , in te rm s o f c o n te x t, w h y te m p e rs m ay b e c o m e frayed if a sp eak er

b

su m m a rise th e p a ra g ra p h b e g in n in g 'In p e rio d s o f ra p id social c h a n g e . . . '

c

ex p lain th e p a ra g ra p h b e g in n in g 'F o r a n y p a rtic u la r c o n v e rs a tio n . . . ' a n d

d

E xplain th e p o in t th a t h e m ak es a b o u t th e language o f d isco u rse co m m u n ities;

f

w ith in each c o n c e n tric circle, say w h a t so rt o f p e rso n sh o u ld b e e x p ected to

h ave th a t so rt o f kno w led g e;
g

p ick o u t ex am p les o f very in ex p licit o r vague lan g u ag e a n d suggest w h y y o u
th in k th e w rite r ch o se to use su ch v ague reference;

h

i

fin d ex am p les o f in te rte x tu a l referen ce a n d say w h at y o u th in k it refers to.

If y o u go in to th e b u sh in A u s tr a lia ,. . .

ii

If y o u sta n d by m ista k e o n a n E n g lish m a n 's f o o t , . . .

iii

If y o u eat in a F ren ch r e s ta u r a n t ,. . .

P ut, at th e to p o f each sheet, spaces fo r th e m to w rite th e ir sex, age a n d o c cu p a
tio n . T h is is th e social d a ta o f y o u r subjects.

k

T h e n give o u t ty p e d -u p co p ies o f th e ten h a lf-sen ten ces fo r p e o p le to c o m

1

M ake a n o te o f all th e an sw ers received fo r each q u e stio n ,

o

p

W rite u p ju s t th e m a in fin d in g s o f y o u r test in a 2 5 0 -w o rd le tte r as y o u m ig h t
fo r th e o p in io n c o lu m n o f a n ew sp ap er, a d d in g a sh o rt c o m m e n t o f y o u r ow n.

□

r

M ake su re th a t th e p e o p le k n o w th a t y o u a re re c o rd in g th e m a n d th a t th e y
d o n o t m in d y o u d o in g it. If th e y d o m in d , tak e th e m a c h in e aw ay, an d fin d
a n o th e r g ro u p o f reco rd e e s, a n o th e r tim e , a n o th e r place,

s

t

D o n o t tell th e m th a t y o u are in v estig atin g c o m m o n b a c k g ro u n d know led g e
a b o u t 'p ro p e r' b e h a v io u r a n d th e 'rig h t' w ay to d o th in g s; o th e rw ise y o u

m ig h t m a k e th e m ta lk a b o u t to p ic s th a t th e y m ig h t n o t h av e ch o se n , a n d in
a n u n n a tu ra l way. Just say th a t y o u a re stu d y in g th e ir la n g u ag e in general,
u

T ell th e m to talk as n a tu ra lly as p ossible, a b o u t a n y th in g th e y w an t. D o n o t

v

K eep o u t o f th e co n v e rsa tio n , b u t close e n o u g h to th e sp eak ers to b e ab le to

w

R eco rd a b o u t 10 m in u te s ' c o n v e rsa tio n w h e n th e sp ea k e rs a re in full flow.

y

N o w go b a c k to W a rd h a u g h 's p o in t a b o u t u s h a v in g c o m m o n b a c k g ro u n d
know ledge a b o u t 'p ro p e r' b eh av io u r a n d th e 'right' way to d o things, a n d answ er
th e follo w in g q u e stio n s:

CO-TEXT: RE P ETITIO N A N D R E F E R E N C E

i

113

A re th e re an y in sta n ce s o f so m e p e o p le k n o w in g m o re a b o u t o n e p a r
tic u la r to p ic th a n o th e rs do?

ii

D oes th is u p se t th e c o n v e rsa tio n o r e n h a n c e it fo r th e o th e rs, a s far as
y o u ca n see?

iii

iv

D oes a b rie f b re a k d o w n in c o m m u n ic a tio n o c c u r as a resu lt o f th is
in ex p licitn ess, o r d o e s it s o u n d as if th e y let it pass by?

v

Is th e re a n ex a m p le o f s o m e o n e w ro n g ly a ssu m in g th e ir h e a re rs d o n o t
share know ledge o f a co n tex t, a n d giving m o re in fo rm a tio n th a n th ey need
in o rd e r to follow h im /h e r?

vi

C O -T E X T : R E P E T IT IO N A N D R E F E R E N C E

114

D 1.2

EXTENSION

R e a d in g a n d re s e a rc h in g
M. Hoey (1991) Patterns o f Lexis in Text, pp. 242-5, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

R e pe tition a n d w ritin g

CO-TEXT: RE P ETITIO N A N D R E F E R E N C E

115

EXTENSION

116

R e fe re n c e an d th e n e w s

W odak, R. (1996) Disorders o f Discourse, pp. 100-2, London: Longman.

CO-TEXT: RE P ETITIO N A N D R E F E R E N C E

117

W h at differences did Skuja find betw een th e w riting o f native speakers o f English
a n d th a t o f ad v an c ed le a rn e rs o f E nglish in S ingapore?

W h a t p o in t d o es H o ey m a k e a b o u t to p ic -o p e n in g sentences?
W h a t tw o rea so n s d o es H o ey give fo r th e d esire o f lin g u ists a n d teac h ers o f
w ritin g skills to m a k e in e x p e rie n c e d w riters av oid rep etitio n ?

o

d

If we d o advise s tu d e n ts n o t to use re p e titio n a n d p a d d in g , w h a t sh o u ld we
tell th e m to use in th e ir place?

e

W h a t d o y o u th in k h e m e an s b y 'le a rn e rs w ill n e e d re m in d in g th a t n ew in fo r
m a tio n alw ays a c c o m p a n ie s re p e titio n in m a tu re w ritin g .'?

□

D o y o u agree w ith e v ery th in g th a t H o ey says? E xplain y o u r an sw er.

□

□

L ook n o w at th e W o d a k ex c e rp t, a n d th in k a b o u t th e follow ing:
a

W h a t exactly do es she m e a n b y 'im precise references, p ro n o m in a lisa tio n s, a n d
a lack o f feed b ack ', d o y o u th in k ? G ive exam ples,

b

D o y o u agree th a t it is im p o ssib le to u p d a te in fo rm a tio n , in te g ra tin g n ew

c

D o y o u agree th a t ra d io new s b ro a d c a sts a re o n ly accessible to th e elite? W h o

C o u ld th e sam e b e said o f telev isio n new s bro ad casts?

□

□

W h ic h d o th ey use m o st: re p e titio n , c o m p le x re p e titio n , sy n o n y m s, s u p e r
o rd in a te s a n d general w ords? W h ic h d o y o u th in k m ak es fo r b e tte r reading?

b

c

G ive co p ies o f th e te n essays to ten p eo p le, a n d ask th e m to ra te th e m (a n d
o rd e r th e m ) a c c o rd in g to h o w well th e y th in k th e y are w ritte n ,

d

P u t th e essays in th e m o s t p o p u la r o rd e r, ta k in g in to a c c o u n t all th e an sw ers,
a n d go back to y o u r analysis o f th e m fro m th e p o in t o f view o f lexical cohesion,

e

D iscover w h ich fe a tu re s a re m o s t u sed in th e m o st p o p u la r essays, a n d w hich
featu res are m o s t u se d in th e least p o p u la r essays,

f

D iscuss w ith co lleagues to see if th e y h a d th e sam e fin d in g s an d th e n d raw
c o n c lu sio n s a b o u t th e po ssible reaso n s fo r this,

g

Finally, give so m e th o u g h t to w h a t im p lic a tio n s y o u r fin d in g s a n d y o u r c o n
c lu sio n s h av e for th e te a c h in g o f w ritin g to n ativ e sp eak e rs o f English.

SPEECH ACTS AND POWER

119

in tro d u c tio n : w h a t lexical co h esio n is a n d w hich device yo u th o u g h t w o u ld

ii

m e th o d : h o w y o u analysed th e essays, w h o y o u gave th e m to , h o w y o u

d iscu ssio n : w hy y o u th in k th is is so;

v

SPEEC H A C TS A N D POW ER

D3.1

SPEECH ACTS AND POW ER

121

Conversation analysis and discourse analysis

EXTENSION

122

described, so the question becomes why business executives and other powerholders systematically avoid too much overt marking of their power.

©

Activities

□

□

T ak e a lo o k at th e re a d in g a n d discuss
a

w h at his criticism s o f p ra g m a tic s are;

b

w hy h e says th a t n o tio n s like 'speech a c t' a re p ro b le m atic;

c

w h a t h e m ea n s b y th e te rm 'm e m b e rs re so u rc e s' (M R );

d

w h a t he says c o m p re h e n sio n is;

e

w h e th e r y o u agree w ith w h at h e is saying.

G o n o w to th e re a d in g a n d
f

su m m a rise w h at h e says a b o u t th e p o w e r h o ld e r u sin g b o th e lab o ra te a n d less

g

th in k o f a n o th e r s itu a tio n in w h ich a p o w e r h o ld e r m ak es a re q u e st a n d list

'S peech acts c a n n o t b e assigned sim p ly o n th e b asis o f fo rm a l featu res o f an

b

'D isco u rse types d iffe r in th e ir c o n v e n tio n s fo r th e d irec tn e ss o f e x p ressio n

u tte ra n c e .'
o f speech acts.'
c

T h e p a ra g ra p h b eg in n in g 'Let us take as a fu rth e r ex am p le th e first tw o tu r n s ',
a n d e n d in g 'o n e th a t ju s t gives th e in fo rm a tio n asked fo r'.

□

e d u c a tio n a l b a c k g ro u n d s.
a

T h in k b a c k to th e te a c h in g a p p ro a c h u sed in y o u r sch o o l,

b

D efine th e teaching a p p ro a c h as trad itio n al o r liberal, a n d th e level o f ed ucation,

c

T h in k a b o u t th e e x te n t to w h ich in d ire c tn e ss w o u ld have b e e n used , a n d in
w h at s itu a tio n s a n d to d o w hat,

d

e

T h in k a b o u t w h e th e r th e re a n y o th e r facto rs a p a rt fro m id eo lo g y in th e class
ro o m th a t m ig h t h av e in flu en c ed w h e th e r in d ire c tn e ss w as used,

h

W rite a b o u t y o u r c la ssro o m lan g u ag e a n d th e use o f in d ire c tn e ss a n d say to
w h a t e x te n t y o u agree w ith F airclo u g h (b e su re n o t to in c lu d e a n e c d o te s).

□

CO N V E R SA T IO N AND RACE

123

C O N V E R S A T IO N A N D R A C E

University Press.

D4.1

CO NV ERSATIO N AND RACE

125

EXTENSION

126

Activities

R ead th ro u g h th e first tw o pages o f th e first e x c e rp t a n d s u m m a rise
i

w h at is m e a n t by 'c o n te x tu a lisa tio n c u e s'

ii

w h a t G u m p e rz m e a n s by 'm is c o m m u n ic a tio n '.

F ro m y o u r re a d in g o f G u m p e rz , w h a t w as it th a t se p a ra te d th e in te rv ie w e r fro m
th e in terv iew ee, socially? D iscuss th e ex ch an g e b e tw een th e m in te rm s o f a d ja
cency p a irs a n d say w h e th e r y o u feel th a t c o n v e rsa tio n analysis can ex p lain w h at
h a p p e n e d , a n d w hy. Is it p o ssib le to ex p lain it fro m th e p o in t o f view o f in te r
a ctio n al sociolinguistics?
D iscuss th e fa c to rs th a t c au sed th e su p e rv iso r a n d carg o h a n d le rs to th in k th a t
th e In d ia n a n d P a k ista n i cafeteria a ssista n ts w ere b ein g surly. D o y o u agree w ith
G u m p e rz 's in te rp re ta tio n o f w h at w en t w ro n g o r d o y o u th in k th a t th e re w as m o re
to it th a n that?
O v er th e n e x t w eek, m a k e a n o te o f a n y m isc o m m u n ic a tio n o f th is so rt, th a t y o u
h a p p e n to o v erh e a r. It c o u ld be th a t y o u have to sit o r sta n d q u ite close to th e
p e o p le w h o are talk in g a n d in a g o o d lig h t b ecau se th e m isc o m m u n ic a tio n s m ay
b e q u ite sm all o r a m b ig u o u s, a n d o n ly d ete c tab le in a h e sita tio n o r a slig h t flinch
b efo re th e next speaker talks. W h a t linguistic features are involved, a n d w h a t socio-

CO M M UNICATIO N AND RELEVANCE

127

tic ip a n t a n d o b serv e th e pauses.
i

A re th e re an y differences?

ii

W h a t seem s to b e th e fu n c tio n o f each?

iii

A re th e re an y m isu n d e rs ta n d in g s o r b re a k d o w n in c o m m u n ic a tio n th a t

iv

W h y d o y o u th in k th is is?

o c c u r as a resu lt o f th e differences?

C O M M U N IC A T IO N A N D R E L E V A N C E

EXTENSION

128

D5.1

R e a d in g a n d re s e a rc h in g
D. Sperber and D. W ilson (1995) Relevance, pp. 3 6 -6 4 , Oxford: Blackwell.

Problems o f explanation: Grice's th e o ry of conversation

COMM UNICATIO N AND RELEVANCE

129

Maxims o f quality
Supermaxim: Try to make your contribution one that is true.

Do not say what you believe to be false.
Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

¿Maxim o f relation

Peter:

Do you want some coffee?
would keep me awake.

Mary:Coffee

S u p p o se th a t P eter is aw are o f (33). T h e n fro m th e a ss u m p tio n explicitly ex p ressed
b y M a ry 's an sw er, to g e th e r w ith a ss u m p tio n (33), h e c o u ld in fe r c o n c lu s io n (34):

Mary does not want to stay awake.
Mary does not want any coffee.

COMM UNICATIO N AND RELEVANCE

131

In just the same way, if Peter is aware of (35), he could infer conclusion (36):

Mary's eyes remain open when she is awake.
Coffee would cause Mary's eyes to remain open.

Some of the arguments are convincing.
Not all of the arguments are convincing.

COMM UNICATIO N AND RELEVANCE

133

(40)

COMM UNICATIO N AND RELEVANCE

135

COMM UNICATIO N AND RELEVANCE

137

Peter and Mary share cognitive environment E.
The phone is ringing.

(48)

(49)

I 've been inside that church.

It's the sort of scene that would have made Marianne Dashwood swoon.

COMM UNICATIO N AND RELEVANCE

139

Relevance and ostension

COMM UNICATIO N AND RELEVANCE

141

COMM UNICATIO N AND RELEVANCE

143

Ostensive-inferential com m unication

COMM UNICATIO N AND RELEVANCE

145

COMM UNICATIO N AND RELEVANCE

147

COMM UNICATIO N AND RELEVANCE

149

Peter: Do you want some coffee?
Mary: Coffee would keep me awake.

(51)

Peter: What do you intend to do today?
Mary: I have a terrible headache.

Informative intention: to make manifest or more manifest to the audience a set

COMM UNICATIO N AND RELEVANCE

(53)

151

Passenger: When does the train arrive at Oxford?
Ticket-collector: At 5:25.

The com m unicative in tention

Communicative intention: to make it mutually manifest to audience and
communicator that the communicator has this informative intention.

COMM UNICATIO N AND RELEVANCE

153

R E A D I N G S IN P O L I T E N E S S

155

(55)

o

□

EXTENSION

156

□

E xp lain in y o u r o w n w o rd s, w ith ex am p les, w h at th ey m e a n b y each o f th e
follow ing:

□

-

co g n itiv e e n v iro n m e n ts a n d m u tu a l m a n ifestn ess

-

o ste n sio n

-

o ste n siv e-in fe re n tial c o m m u n ic a tio n

-

th e in fo rm a tiv e in te n tio n

-

th e c o m m u n ic a tiv e in te n tio n

(42) T h e p h o n e is r i n g in g . . .

-

(49) I've b ee n in sid e th a t c h u rc h . . .

-

M ary a n d P ete r o n th e p a rk b e n c h , a n d h e lean s b a ck . . .

-

T h e girl in lig h t clo th es, a n d th e o ld m a n lo o k s u p at th e sky . . .

-

□

(32) D o y o u w a n t so m e c o ffe e ? . . .

-

M ary c o m e s h o m e , sto p s at th e d o o r a n d s n if f s . . .

-

M ary a n d P eter at th e seaside, M ary o p e n s th e w in d o w a n d s n if f s . . .

-

(53) W h e n d o e s th e tr a in arriv e a t O x fo rd ? . . .

-

M a ry yaw ns . . .

□

-

co g n itiv e e n v iro n m e n ts a n d m u tu a l m a n ifestn ess

-

o ste n sio n

-

o ste n siv e-in fe re n tial c o m m u n ic a tio n

-

th e in fo rm a tiv e in te n tio n

-

th e c o m m u n ic a tiv e in te n tio n

W h a t is y o u r o p in io n as re g ard s th e c o o p erativ e p rin c ip le a n d relevance theory?
D o y o u th in k th a t S p e rb e r a n d W ilso n 's th e o ry o f c o m m u n ic a tio n cancels th a t

R E A D IN G S IN P O L IT E N E S S

R e a d in g a n d re s e a rc h in g

1Women

and indirectness

D. Tannen (1994) Gender and Discourse, pp. 3 2 -4 , Oxford: Oxford University Press.

R E A D I N G S IN P O L I T E N E S S

157

Indirectness

158

EXTENSION

trib u te to a n aw aren ess o f c ro s s-c u ltu ra l m isu n d e rs ta n d in g s fro m p ra g m a tic tran sfer.
D6.2

C o m p lim e n t resp o n ses
G. L. Nelson, M . Al-Batal and E. Echols (1996), pp. 411-33, Applied Linguistics 18/3.

R E A D I N G S IN P O L I T E N E S S

159

INTRODUCTION

2.

THEORETICAL FRAMEW ORK: CONTRASTIVE PRAGM ATICS

R E A D I N G S IN P O L I T E N E S S

161

PREVIOUS W O RK ON C O MPLIMENT R ESP O N SES

Principle 1:
Principle II:

Agree with and/or accept compliment.
Avoid self-praise.

THE PRESENT STU D Y

R E A D I N G S IN P O L I T E N E S S

163

R E A D I N G S IN P O L I T E N E S S

165

R ESU LTS A N D DISCU SSIO N

Table D5. 7

F requency d is trib u tio n o f A m e rica n E nglish c o m p lim e n t response typ e s
N u m b e r Percentage

A. A ccept
1. A p p re c ia tio n token

25

29

12

14

6

07

0

00

43

5

28

32

11

13

39

45

3

03

3

03

B. M itig a te
1. D e flectin g o r Q u a lify in g C o m m e n t
(e.g. I b o u g h t it a t REI.)
2. Reassurance o r R e pe tition Request
(e.g. Do yo u re a lly like them ?)
S ub to ta l
C. Reject
1. D isagreeing U tterance
(e.g. F,: Y ou look g o o d and healthy.
F2: I feel fat.)
S ub to ta l
D. No response

T otal

2

02

87

100

n = 87

R E A D I N G S IN P O L I T E N E S S

167

You look great.
So do you. (A52)

I canactually

(10)

F,: I like your dress.
F2: Y o u don't think it's too bright? (A62)

(12)

F,: Nice shoes.
F,: Do you really like them? (A54)

(14)

F,: You look so good and healthy.
F,: I feel fat. (A 12)

R E A D I N G S IN P O L I T E N E S S

169

Table D5.2

Frequency d is trib u tio n o f S yrian A ra b ic c o m p lim e n t response type s
N um ber

Percentage

A. A ccept
1. A p p re c ia tio n Token

1

02

6

12

7

13

21

40

35

67

13

25

4

08

17

33

0

0

52

100

n = 52

l-'een ( 'may the evil eye be thwarted') is used in many countries in the eastern

(17)

M ,: jismak halla'Saar m niH \\r-khaaSSatan'aDalaat ktaafak.
(Your body now has become fit, especially your shoulder muscles.)

R E A D I N G S IN P O L I T E N E S S

171

F:

inta nashiiT w-shugblak nDiiJ w-mustaqiim bi-'amalak, maa fii daa'i la-Hada
yraaji

shughlak waraak, y.aki w-SariiH w-Habbaab.

EXTENSION

172

F,: 'a 'dik ktiir Hilu, Ha-yaakul min ra'btik sha'fe.

(Your necklace is very beautiful; it will eat a piece of your neck.)
F ,: shukran ruuHii! m'addam, maa b-yighla aleeki shii.

(Thank you! It looks much nicer on its owner.) (S20)
(2 1 )

F ,: Mabruuk! shu shaarye bluu/c jdiide?

(Congratulations! Have you bought a new blouse'?)
F>: ee waLLa, Marrecl bi-S-SaalHiyye w-shifta

ala l-waajha Ja-ajabitni ktiir, shtareeta, m 'addame!

F ,: Tithanni Jiiha. InshaaLLaah tihriiha bi-l-hana.

(May you enjoy it. May you, God willing, wear it out in happiness.)
F ,: Al.l.aah yiH fa/ik!

R E A D I N G S IN P O L I T E N E S S

(22)

173

F, : wishshik Daawi w-mnaivivar y a a imm ayman, yim kin la 'innik mirtaaHa l-yuum
Ja-H ilyaane.

F:

shuu Halyaan lak Ghayyaath, shuu aamil b-Haalak?

F:

inta insaan naajiH la-innu shughlak m niiH w-shakhSiyytak 'awiyye maa bitkhalli Hada y iH k i aleek w -bi-lw a't nafsuu maHbuub w-waasiq min nafsak.

(You are a successful person because you do your job well and (because)
your personality is strong, you do not allow anyone to say anything

I am tired today). (SI 5)

(28)

F:

shuu! shu h a -T a 'm l-H ilu haad, taariik m izw i'y a Saamir!

(Wow! What a beautiful suit. You have good taste Saamir.)

M : leesh? Aaiabik ?
(Whv? Do you like it?) (S22)
6.3.3 Rejection: Disagreeing Utterance
None of the Syrian data was coded as rejections. If, as has been assumed, com
pliments function as 'social lubricants' and 'increase or consolidate the solidarity
between the speaker and the addressee' (Holmes 1988: 486), it may be that, among
Syrians, rejecting compliments decreases that solidarity to such a degree that it is
seldom used.
6.4

C o m p lim e n t responses: g e n d e r o f S yrian recipie nts

R E A D I N G S IN P O L I T E N E S S

175

8 . FOCUS ON SECO ND LANGUAGE LEARNERS

R E A D I N G S IN P O L I T E N E S S

177

R e fe re n c e s

R E A D I N G S IN P O L I T E N E S S

179

c o m p a re th e m to T a n n e n 's o p in io n . If th e y a re d ifferen t, say w h y th a t m a y be.
D escrib e th e p ro je c t th a t N elso n , A l-B atal a n d E chols c arrie d o u t, say in g briefly:
i

w h a t th e ir h y p o th e s is/th e o ry w as

ii

w h a t m e th o d th e y used

iii

w h a t th e ir resu lts w ere

iv

h o w th e y in te rp re te d th e re su lts

C h o o se o n e o f th e social fa c to rs involved in p o w e r a n d in d ire ctn ess: statu s,

ii

T h in k o f a th e o ry o r h y p o th e sis th a t y o u w o u ld like to test. E xpress it as

o

iv

T h in k o f a w ay th a t y o u r fin d in g s c o u ld be o f use in society. W h o m ig h t be

v

W rite u p y o u r p ro jec t; d e scrib e y o u r m e th o d o f d a ta c o lle ctio n a n d analysis

□

T h in k a b o u t ev e ry th in g th a t w e have b e e n lo o k in g at in th is b o o k :
i

ii

H o w d o e s y o u r a n sw e r to (i) h ere, relate to th e c o n te x t o u ts id e th e tex t, a n d

th e c o n te x t w ith in th e text?

REFERENCES

182

REFERENCES

REFERENCES

183

184

REFERENCES

Y ule G. (1996) Pragm atics, O x fo rd : O x fo rd U n iv e rsity Press.

G L O S S A R IA L IN D E X

accessibility 43
act 7, 9, 16, 26
adjacency pairs 30-3, 45-8, 59, 69, 96,
126, 161
agreement maxim 50, 63-6, 75, 87-106,
162
anaphora 10, 60, 119-23, 160
approbation maxim 49 -50 , 54
associative endophora 10-11

186

G L O SS A R IA L INDEX

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[Joan Cutting(2002)] Pragmatics and Discourse a Resource

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'This is an ideal b o o k for anyone b eg in n in g th e stu d y o f discourse an d pragmatics; it is tran sp a ren tly w ritten w ith o u t being simplistic o r pa tro n isin g , an d is th o ro u g h and detailed w ith o u t being o b scure o r mystifying'.