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197.979 godina pne
Човек (Homo sapiens, првенствено подврста Homo sapiens sapiens), живо биће које има високо развијен мозак способан за апстрактно размишљање, говор, решавање проблема, интроспекцију и сл. Данашњи човек развио се пре око 200.000 година на простору Африке.[3] Људска популација је у 2011. години премашила број од 7 милијарди становника.[4] Човек је мисаоно биће (може закључивати, цртати, размишљати), друштвено биће (живи у друштву), духовно биће (разликује добро од зла) и природно биће (део је живе природе). Сви људи заједно називају се човечанство или људски род.[5][6]

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Autor : Luka Novakovic

Prvi izum koji je drastično promenio tok čovečanstva i ljudima obezbedio svetliju budućnost, svakao je bio točak. Najstariji dokazi o postojanju vozila sa točkovima vraćaju nas šest i po milenijuma u prošlost, oko 3.500 godine pne.
Prva vozila sa točkovima najverovatnije su izumeli stari Sumeri.
Međutim, osim za pokretanje vozila, točak se od drevnih vremena koristi i kao osnovni princip rada većine mehaničkih sistema ikada napravljenih, od čekrka u drevno doba, do složenih satnih mehanizama danas.  Razvoj točka kao jedne od najkorisnijih sprava. Danas, točak je deo našeg načina života – od satova, preko automobila, pa do turbina za proizvodnju električne energije, točak je prisutan svuda.

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Keopsova piramida ili Velika Keopsova piramida je najveća od tri velike egipatske piramide.

Sagrađena je oko 2900 godine pne. Nalazi se u egipatskom gradu Gizi, na zapadnoj obali reke Nila blizu Kaira.U njoj se nalazi sfinga.
Smatra se da je oko 100 000 ljudi gradilo Keopsovu piramidu punih 20 godina. Svaki kamen bio je visok 2 m, neki su dugi i po 5 m. Blokovi krečnjaka i granita od kojih je sagrađena ova piramida i koji su vađeni iz kamenoloma na levoj obali Nila dopremani su čamcima niz reku. To se moglo raditi jedino u proleće kada se Nil izlivao pa je zato trebalo 20 godina i negde oko 500 000 plovidbi da se donese potrebna količina kamena. Pošto bi se kameni blokovi prevezli grupa ljudi je vukla blokove, od kojih je svaki težio 2 tone na sanke uz put. Zatim su ove blokove uredno ređali, a druga grupa ljudi ih je izvlačila do mesta gde se gradila piramida

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Keopsova piramida ili Velika Keopsova piramida je najveća od tri velike egipatske piramide.

Sagrađena je oko 2900 godine pne. Nalazi se u egipatskom gradu Gizi, na zapadnoj obali reke Nila blizu Kaira.U njoj se nalazi sfinga.

Egipatske piramide su najstarije i jedine koje su sačuvane za razliku od svih ostalih Sedam svjetskih čuda. Od deset piramida koliko ih ima u Gizi prve tri su najznačajnije. Prva i najveća sagrađena je za faraona Keopsa i njegovu ženu. Piramide su zapravo grobnice. Drevni egipatski kraljevi verovali su da njihov zagrobni život zavisi od toga koliko će se očuvati njihovo telo. Zato su mrtvi balsamovani, a mumije se skrivale duboko ispod zemlje u unutrašnjosti ovih ogromnih zdanja. Čak su i unutrašnji hodnici zatrpavani i skrivani od mogućih pljačkaša

Smatra se da je oko 100 000 ljudi gradilo Keopsovu piramidu punih 20 godina. Svaki kamen bio je visok 2 m, neki su dugi i po 5 m. Blokovi krečnjaka i granita od kojih je sagrađena ova piramida i koji su vađeni iz kamenoloma na levoj obali Nila dopremani su čamcima niz reku. To se moglo raditi jedino u proleće kada se Nil izlivao pa je zato trebalo 20 godina i negde oko 500 000 plovidbi da se donese potrebna količina kamena. Pošto bi se kameni blokovi prevezli grupa ljudi je vukla blokove, od kojih je svaki težio 2 tone na sanke uz put. Zatim su ove blokove uredno ređali, a druga grupa ljudi ih je izvlačila do mesta gde se gradila piramida

Kada je sagrađena piramida je bila 145,75 m visoka, ali se tokom godina tako reći smanjila za 10 m. Površina piramide bila je prekrivena veoma glatkim skoro neprimetnim krečnjakom. Svaka strana piramide orijentisana je na po jednu stranu sveta istok, zapad, sever i jug. Piramida se sastoji od oko 2 300 000 kamenih blokova. Na severoj strani je ulaz. Unutrašnjost piramide čine tri prostorije povezane mnogobrojnim hodnicima. U srcu piramide je kraljeva odaja gde je smešten sarkofag napravljen od crvenog granita.

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Keopsova piramida ili Velika Keopsova piramida je najveća od tri velike egipatske piramide. Sagrađena je oko 2900 godine pne. Nalazi se u egipatskom gradu Gizi, na zapadnoj obali reke Nila blizu Kaira.U njoj se nalazi sfinga. Egipatske piramide su najstarije i jedine koje su sačuvane za razliku od svih ostalih Sedam svjetskih čuda.

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Olga Vasic
Точак је еволуирани облутак камена, унапређена облица дрвета. Пренос камених вишетонских блокова обављао се наизменичним подбацивањем дрвених облица под блокове, по којима се котрљао. Проналазак точка се сматра једним од важнијих достигнућа у развоју људске цивилизације.

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Prve olimpijske igre u grckoj  [776 godina pne]                            Autor:Andrija Gajic                        

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Prve olimpijske igre u grckoj  [776 godina pne]                            Autor:Andrija Gajic                        

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Olimpijske nastale su u antičkoj Grčkoj, na poluostrvu Peloponezu, u gradiću Olimpiji, kao serija atletskih takmičenja  između grčkih gradova – državica, u slavu vrhovnog boga Zeusa. Održavane su na svake četiri godine, za vrijeme religioznih proslava u Zeusovom hramu, u kojem je bila postavljena 13 metara visoka, grandiozna statua boga Zeusa.

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Find high-quality images, photos, and animated GIFS with Bing Images

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Autor: Luka Novakovic

Prvi kompasi napravljeni su u Kini, na početku epohe dinastije Han (206. godina pne), bio je napravljen od kamena, prirodno magnetizovane rude gvožđa, čije su osobine kasnije proučavane vekovima, da bi u periodu dinastije Song, u 11. veku počeli da se prave kompasi koji su korišćeni kao navigaciono sredstvo.  brzo zatim tehnologiju su moreplovci preneli u Evropu i arapske zemlje.  Kompas je omogućio bezbedno kretanje brodova daleko od kopna, doprinoseći na taj način razvoju trgovine među kontinentima i otkrićima novih svetova.  U današnje doba satelita i GPS-a, može izgledati smešno, ali kompas je definitivno bio jedan od ključnih pronalaska, zahvaljujući kome su bila moguća i najveća geografska otkrića.

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Olga Vasić
Кинески зид је највећа грађевина на свету. Протеже се од степа средње Азије до Жутог мора, укупном дужином од 8.851 km (главни део 2.450 km), висином од 10 до 16 m, ширином од 8 m, представља најдужи зид на свету, и највећи одбрамбени објекат.

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Nulta godina

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{1-2021}
Autor : Todor Ljubenov

Kad god se uželim mira i tišine, zvukova, boja, mirisa i dodira prirode spakujem svoj ranac, stavim ga na leđa i lagano krenem u šetnju šumom, uskim puteljkom koji vijuga između visokih stabala obraslih mahovinom i niskog grmlja. Koračajući tom krivudavom, ljudskim nogama utabanom šumskom stazom oko sebe mogu da vidim samo čistoću, svežinu i beskrajnu lepotu šumskog prostranstva.

S leve i desne strane puteljka ponosno stoje izborna stabla hrasta iz čijih starih i debelih grana niču nove glatke grančice prekrivene sitnim zelenim listovima. Puteljak na jednom delu preseca bistri šumski potočić koji kroz osunčani proplanak nestaje duboko u šumi.I nadjem prirodu u putu

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Велика сеоба народа је период у историји човечанства који обележава велики покрет народа, који је трајао 5 векова и одигравао се у етапама, од продора Хуна кроз тзв.„ Врата народа“, тј. простор између планине Урал и Каспијског језера, а завршава се доласком Словена и Угара у Панонску низију у 9. веку. Та сеоба 375. је потресла Римско царство, тачније њен западни део. Предводили су је Хуни, азијска номадска племена, која су са својом великом војском стигла све до Рима. Многа друга племена су појачала нападе на Рим и срушила његово западно царство. Франци, Готи, Вандали и друга племена поделили су територије Западног римског царства што је била последица Велике сеобе народа.[1] Сви народи који су се померали пред Хунима кретали су из правца истока ка западу или југу Европе. Долазак Хуна изазвао је ланчано померање народа, једни народи потискивали су друге. Хуни су највећи успон доживели за време свога владара Атиле (434-453). После његове смрти, Хуни доживљавају пропаст и убрзо нестају из Европе. Узрок сеобе је потрага Варвара за бољим условима живота. Последице сеобе су пад Западног Римског царства 476. године. Тада су настале варварске државе на тлу Западног Римског царства.[2]

Готи су прво заузимали територије Византијског царства, да би потом заузели Рим, али су касније наставили сеобу и коначно се населили на Иберијском полуострву, а један део је остао на Апенинском полуострву.

Франци су заузели велики део западне Европе. Њихова држава Франачка настала је на територијама данашње Немачке и Француске.

Вандали су прошли скоро читаву Европу и на крају се настанили у северној Африци.

Сви ови народи су били племенски, нису имали државе и нису се бавили пољопривредом и сточарством, већ искључиво пљачкањем. Доласком у Европу варвари су по угледу на постојеће државе кренули да стварају своје и формирали феудалне односе, а од Римљана су наследили и хришћанство.[3]
Autor Marko Kržić

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Pad Rimskog carstva ili Pad Zapadnog rimskog carstva jeste termin kojim se označava niz događaja koji su doveli do sloma rimske vlasti u zapadnoj Evropi i napose u samoj Italiji i gradu Rimu, te često i sam čin svrgavanja s vlasti poslednjeg rimskog cara.

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Autor: Maksim Sare
Najzasluzniji za sirenje hriscanstva, slovenske pismenosti i kulture medju juznim slovenima bila su braca Konstantin u monastvu nazivani Cirilo i Metodije. Rodjeni su u Solunjani. Ziveli su u 9. veku i bili su podanici vizantijskog cara. U njegovo ime su vrsili razlicite drzavne i verske misije. Velikomoravski knez Rastislav se sredinom 9. veka obratio vizantijskom caru da mu posalje misionare koji bi u njegovoj zemlji propovedali hriscanstvo na slovenskom jeziku. Pripremajuci se za takvu misiju , Konstantin je stvorio prvu slovensku azbuku odnosno GLAGOLJICU. Preveo je osnovne bogosluzbene knjige sa grckog na slovenski i sa bratom krenuo u Veliku Moravsku.

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godina 1175 Sveti Sava
Свети Сава (око 1175—14. јануар 1236)[а][б] био је српски принц, монах, игуман манастира Студенице, књижевник, дипломата и први архиепископ аутокефалне Српске православне цркве. Рођен је као Растко Немањић, најмлађи син великог жупана Стефана Немање, и брат Вукана и Стефана Првовенчаног.

Kao младић добио је од оца на управу Захумље (1190. или 1191). Убрзо 1192. године Растко је побегао на Свету гору и замонашио се у руском манастиру Светог Пантелејмона, где је добио име Сава. Касније је са својим оцем, који се замонашио и добио име Симеон (вероватно 25. март 1196), подигао манастир Хиландар (1198—99), први и једини српски манастир на Светој гори.

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Autor: Lenka Gajic
Godina 1199. obilježila je smrt srpskog velikog župana i osnivača dinastije Nemanjica Stefana Nemanje. Za sobom je ostavio temelje srpske države i tri sina, Vukana, Stefana i Rastka. Rasprava između dva starija brata o pravu na prvenstvo u državnoj upravi prerasla je u sukob. Sve do prvih godina trinaestog stoljeća tinjala je ova borba, ponekad provaljujući u otvorenu netrpeljivost. U prvo vrijeme Vukan je uspjevao održati vlastu Srbiji, djelujući iz svog sigurnog utočišta u Zeti koju je naslijedio još od oca.

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Студеница(12. век)

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Студеница(12. век)

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Аутор: Никола Техлириан
Студеница је српски православни манастир који се налази недалеко од Краљева. Манастир Студеница је подигао је Стефан Немања, оснивач српске државе и зачетник династије Немањића. Посвећен је Успењу пресвете Богородице. Студеница је настала крајем XII века и важна је за културу целог света. Управо зато је УНЕСКО (део УН који се бави културом) уврстио Студеницу на листу светске култрне баштине.

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Autor :Iva Tica (rad broj 1.)
Nemanjići su srednjovekovna srpska dinastija koja je vladala Srbijom više od dva veka i ostvarila najveće proširenje srednjovekovne Srbije. Dinastija je nazvana po Stefanu Nemanji I, osnivaču dinastije koji je povezan sa Vukanovićima po muškoj liniji i sa Vojislavljevićima po ženskoj liniji. U dinastiji ima jedanaest vladara, s tim što se dinastija možda nastavila ženskom linijom u dinastijiu Lazarevića. Kako su Lazarevići rodbinski povezani sa dinastijom Brankovića koji su vladali delom Srba do polovine šesnaestog veka postoji mogućnost da su po ženskoj liniji i ti Brankovići bili potomci Nemanjića.

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Stefan Uroš lV Dušan Nemanjić(1308-1355)

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Stefan Uroš lV Dušan Nemanjić(1308-1355)

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Autor:Iva Tica (rad broj 4.)
Stefan Dušan ili Dušan Silni bio je poslednji srpski kralj iz dinastije Nemanjića. Imao je titulu kralja od 1331.do 1346.godine,a zatim je postao i prvi krunisani car srpske države,kad ga je na Vaskrs 16.aprila 1346.godine krunisao prvi srpski patrijarh Joanikije ll. Dušan je vladao nad srpskim carstvom više od devet godina do svoje smrti 20. decembra 1355.godine.Car Dušan je opisan kao energičan vladar jakog karaktera i temperamenta zato se često u izvorima i literaturi javlja pod imenom,, Dušan Silni". Dusanov deda po ocu je srpski kralj Stefan Milutin, a po majci bugarski car Smilec.

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{1371-1371}
Autor :Todor Ljubenov
Маричка битка или бој код Черномена, одиграла се на реци Марици у петак 26. септембра 1371. између снага Османског царства под вођством румелијског беглербега Лала-Шахина и српских снага које су бројале око 60.000 људи (70.000 по Халкокондилу). Српску војску предводили су краљ Вукашин и његов брат деспот Јован Угљеша и обојица су погинули у бици.

Поједини историчари наводе 1367. или чак и 1363. за годину битке, али сви заједно тврде да се битка одиграла код Черномена, данас грчки Орменио у области Еврос, на пољу које Турци наводно дан данас зову Сирф синдиги, погибље Срба.

Вукашина наслеђује његов син Марко, познатији као Марко Краљевић, али не успева да одржи српске земље и недуго после битке постаје турски вазал.

Ова битка представља почетак османлијских освајања територија којима је владао српски цар Душан.

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Autor:Iva Tica (rad broj 2.)
Manastir Ravanica je manastir u Srbiji i nalazi se u podnožju Kučajskih planina, pored sela Senja kod Ćuprije. Ravanica je zadužbina kenza Lazara Hrebeljanovića. Posle Kosovske bitke i Lazareve pogibije njegove mošti prenesene su iz prištinske crkve Vaznesenja u Ravanicu 1392.godine. Više puta je bila je rušena i paljena pri čemu je stradala sama crkva i utvrdjenje manastirske zgrade. Crkva je teško stradala 1686/7. godine kada je pobijen veći broj ravaničkih monaha. Crkva je posvećena Vaznesenju Gospodnjem i ogradjena je čvrstim odbrambenim zidom sa sedam kula.

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Autor: Lenka Gajic
Kosovska bitka vodila se vodila se 15. juna  1389. godine između srpske i turske vojske, u Zemlji Brankovica, na Kosovu Polju, kod Vukove prestonice Pristine.
gospodaru Vuku Brankovicu,došle su u pomoć snage dve susedne oblasti, Knezevine Srbije i
Kravljevine Bosne, kao i lokalne albanske snage. Srpske snage je vodio knez Lazar Hrebeljanovic, a bosanske vojvoda Vlatko Vukovic.Obe strane pretrpele su velike gubitke, ali je osvajačka turska armija poražena kao nikad do tad i izbačena iz srpskih oblasti. Dvojica od trojice otomanskih zapovednika su stradali.

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Kulturni život u Italiji doživeo je niz značajnih promena tokom XIV i XV veka.

Učenim i bogatim ljudima iz Firence i ostalih gradova, bilo je dosta sumorne kulture srednjovekovne  gotike. Umesto toga razvili su skroz drugačiju kulturu u kojoj su glavne vrednosti potale životna radost i radoznalost, a ideali lepote priroda i ljudsko telo.

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Johan Gutenberg je zaslužan za početak upotrebe pokretnih metalnih slova. Najstariji oblici štampe izvođeni su na ručnoj štamparskoj presi.

Kod južnoslovenskih naroda prva štampana knjiga je Okotih na Cetinju.

Nakog Gutenbergovog otkrića, štampa se odvijala na zaklopnim štamparskim mašinama u kojima se koristila forma u obliku ravne ploče, a pritisak pomoću druge ravne ploče.  Zatim je usledila štampa na mašinama sa rotacionim kretanjem. 1455. donine objavljna je Gutenbergova biblija koja je štampana po novoj tehnici. 1610. godine su štampane prve novine.

Autor Marko Kržić

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Kristofor Kolumbo                          Autor : Daniel Garsija Stamenkovic

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Kristofor Kolumbo                          Autor : Daniel Garsija Stamenkovic

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Kristifor Kolumbo je bio italijanski istraživač kome se pripisuje zasluga za otkriće Amerike. Iako je u Americi već bilo ljudi, Indijanaca, Kolumbovo putovanje je pokrenulo istraživanje i kolonizaciju Amerike.

Prečica do Kine

Kolumbo je rođen u Đenovi, u Italiji, 1451. godine. Kasnije je živeo u Lisabonu, gde je radio kao trgovac. Tamo je naučio da pravi mape i kako da upravlja brodom.

Kolumbo i njegov brat Bartolomeo znali su da postoje velika bogatsva u Kini i Istočnoj Aziji kojih bi se oni mogli dokopati. Ali, stići do njih nije bilo lako. Ići Putem svile bilo je opasno, a morski put oko Afrike činio im se predug. Kolumbo je mislio da će doći pravo do Kine ako pređe Atlantski okean.

Ispostavilo se da nije bio u pravu. Zemlja je bila mnogo veća nego što je on očekivao, a postojala je još jedna zemlja na morskom putu između Evrope i Azije – Amerika.

Dugo putovanje Kristifora Kolumba

Kolumbo je godinama pokušavao da nađe nekoga ko bi finansirao njegovo putovanje. Prvo je pokušao da ubedi portugalskog kralja Žoaoa II da plati njegov put, ali on nije bio zainteresovan. Naposletku je uspeo da ubedi kralja i kraljicu Španije da plate put.

Na put je krenuo 12. avgusta 1492. godine sa tri broda koji su nosili nazive Pinta, Ninja i Santa Marija. Put je bio dug i naporan. U jednom momentu posada je pretila pobunom ako se ne vrate kući. Kolumbo im je obećao povratak ukoliko ne ugledaju kopno za dva dana. U svom dnevnik je, međutim, napisao da nije imao nameru da se vrati.

Amerika

12. oktobra 1492. godine, Kolumbo i njegova posada ugledali su kopno. To je bilo malo ostrvo na Bahamima kojem je Kolumbo dao ime San Salvador. Tamo je naišao na domoroce koje je nazvao Indijancima pošto je bio siguran da se nalazi u Istočnoj Aziji.

Nakon ovakvog otkrića, žurio je da se vrati u Španiju i zatraži od kralja nagradu. Samo dva broda su krenula nazad, Pinta i Ninja, a treći bio uništen. Kolumbo je ostavio 43. čoveka na ostrvu da bi stražarili.

Po svom povratku, Kolumbo je tretiran kao heroj. Sa sobom je iz Amerike poveo nekoliko Indijanaca koje je zarobio, kako bi ih predstavio kralju. Kralj Španije je bio zadovoljan i odlučio je da finansira ostale Kolumbove ekspedicije.
Kolumbo je još tri puta putovao u Ameriku. Istraživao je Karipska ostrva i video veliki deo Amerike. Preminuo je 20. maja 1506. godine misleći da je otkrio prečicu do Azije preko Atlantskog okeana. Nikada nije saznao šta je zapravo otkrio.

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Autor: Maksim Sare
Kolumbo je bio Italijanski istrazivac, koji je ,,slucajno" otkrio ameriku tako sto je trazio pomorski put do Indije. Posto je bilo tesko oploviti Afriku dea bi se doslo do indije koja je u to vreme snabdevala evropu zacinima i ostalim stvarima Kolumbo je otisao da potrazi blizi i jeftiniji put do indije. Tako je stigao , ne znajuci, do novog kontinenta, odnosno Amerike.

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Autor :Iva Tica (rad broj 3.)
Prema nekim izvorima četkice za zube slične današnjim počele su da se koriste u Kini krajem 15.veka.Bile su izradjene od bambusa i dlaka divljeg vepra. Englez Vilijem Edis je 1780.godine prvi započeo proizvodnju četkica. On je napravio rupice na životinjskoj kosti i u njih ubacivao vlakna iz konopca i učvršćivao ih lepkom. Zahvaljujući svom izumu za veoma kratko vreme se obogatio. Prva četkica sa veštačkim vlaknima puštena je u prodaju 24. februara 1938.,a prvu električnu četkicu pod imenom Bronksodent je proizvela firma Bristol - Majers 1959.godine.

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Autor: Lenka Gajic
Praktički odmah nakon Dušanove smrti dolazi da razgradnje srpske države na manje kneževine. Jedini koji je u tom razdoblju pokušao da vrati Srbiji staru slavu je knez Lazar Hrebeljanovic. Glavna bitka sa Turcima se dogodila na Ksovu polju 1389. godine u kojoj je poginuo knez Lazar čime je završilo postojanje nezavisne srpske država pošto je njegov sin i nasljednik bio prisiljen prihvatiti tursku vrhovnu vlast.Taj sin kneza Lazara, Stefan Lazarevic, dobija titulu despota od vizantijskog cara 1402. godine i potom koristeći turski građanski rat nakratko obnavlja nezavisnu srpsku državu koja će postojati sve do 1459. godine. Te godine Srpska despotovina gubi samostalnost i pada pod punu vlast Turske. Srbija nije postojala do 1804. godine, kada je počela Srpska revolucija predvođena Karadjordjem.

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Autor: Maksim Sare
Engleski pronalazac Dzejms Vat je oko 1769. godine konstruisao parnu masinu. Ovaj uredjaj je energiju vodene pare pretvarao u mehanicku. Vodena para se dobijala lozenjem uglja , a masine koje su se pokretale na parumorale su biti od gvozdja. Tako se mnogostruko povecala potreba za otvaranjem rudnika.

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Napoleon Bonaparta                     Autor: Daniel Garsija Stamenkovic

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Napoleon Bonaparta                     Autor: Daniel Garsija Stamenkovic

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Francuski imperator Napoleon Bonaparta je bio jedan od najvećih vojskovođa na svetu, zaslužan je za prepravku geografske karte Evrope i sproveo je mnoge državne i pravne reforme, a konstantne bitke u kojima je učestvovao na kraju su dovele do njegovog kraha.

Napoleon Bonaparta

Napoleon Bonaparta je rođen 15. avgusta 1769. godine u gradu Ajačo na Korzici. Poticao je iz ugledne, gospodske porodice, a bio je četvrto od jedanaestoro dece Karla Bonaparte i Marije Leticije Ramolino. Školovanje je započeo u školi za dečake u svom rodnom gradu, a kada mu je bilo 10 godina, roditelji su ga poslali zajedno sa starijim bratom Džozefom u vojnu školu za aristokrate u Brijanu u Francuskoj. Nakon što je maturirao u toj školi, upisuje elitnu Kraljevsku vojnu školu u Parizu. Bio je inteligentan i izuzetan student, a škole koje je pohađao su mu obezbedile kvalitetno obrazovanje.

„Reč nemoguće je jedino moguće naći u rečnicima budala.“ – Napoleon Bonaparta

Drugi poručnik francuske vojske postao je 1785. godine, kada je krenuo u vojne pohode. Uprkos tome je i dalje često odlazio na Korziku brinući se o svojoj porodici, pa je čak jedno vreme i vodio domaćinstvo kada mu je otac preminuo.

U komandanta francuske vojske u Italiji unapređen je 1796. godine, gde je svojim izvanrednim vođstvom primorao Austriju i njene saveznike da sklope mir s Francuskom. Dve godine kasnije, u pokušaju da prekine britanske trgovačke pohode ka Indiji, osvojio je Egipat koji je tada bio pod vlašću Otomanskog carstva. Međutim, Britance nije uspeo da porazi i njegova flota se nasukala nakon bitke na Nilu.

Uspon Napoleona Bonaparte

Ubrzo potom, Francuska je bila suočena s novom koalicijom – Austrija i Rusija su sklopile savez s Britanijom. Napoleon se vraća u Pariz, čija se vlada nalazila u ozbiljnoj krizi. Iskoristivši situaciju, Napoleon je u novembru 1799. godine izveo državni udar i postao prvi konzul, čovek na čelu francuske vlade koji ima gotovo neograničenu moć.

Doživotni konzul s pravom da imenuje svog naslednika postao je 1802. godine, a samo dve godine kasnije je proglašen i francuskim carem. Pod njegovim rukovodstvom život u Francuskoj je znatno poboljšan. Centralizovao je vladu, stvorio Francusku banku, ponovo proglasio rimski katolicizam državnom religijom, sproveo pravne reforme uvodeći Napoleonov zakonik i preuredio program obrazovanja u državi.

Napoleonova vojska je 1800. godine porazila Austrijance u bitki kod Marenga, nakon koje je vodio pregovore o miru u Evropi, a uspostavljajući ga, Francuska je ojačala. Tri godine kasnije Britanija je nastavila rat s Francuskom, a ratu su se pridružile Austrija i Rusija.

Britanija je nanela poraz francuskoj floti u Trafalgarskoj bitki (1805), nakon čega Napoleon odustaje od svojih planova da napadne Englesku, a umesto toga se okreće austrijsko-ruskim snagama, savladavši ih u bitki kod Austerlica kasnije iste godine. Time je osvojio nove teritorije, pripojivši Francuskoj i teritoriju Kraljevine Pruske koja mu je omogućila kontrolu nad celom Evropom. Sveto rimsko carstvo je bilo uništeno, stvorene su Holandija i Vestfalija, a tokom narednih pet godina Napoleon je na čelo osvojenih oblasti (Holandija, Vestfalija, Italija, Španija i Švedska) postavljao svoje rođake i ljude koji su mu bili odani.

Pad Napoleona

Španski rat za nezavisnost počeo je 1808. godine. Porazi francuske vojske koji su usledili skupo su koštali državu, presušujući njeno vojno bogatstvo. Napoleonov napad na Rusiju 1812. godine završio se katastrofalnim povlačenjem. Koaliciji je sve polazilo za rukom, prouzrokujući konačan pad Pariza u martu 1814. godine. Napoleon je proteran u izgnanstvo na mediteransko ostrvo Elbu, s kojeg je već iduće godine pobegao i vratio se u Pariz ponovo uspostavljajući svoju vladavinu. Međutim, na vlasti je ostao svega 100 dana, doživevši konačan poraz u bitki kod Vaterloa 18. juna 1815. godine.

Nakon što je abdicirao, Britanci ga proteruju na udaljeno ostrvo Svetu Jelenu u Atlantskom okeanu. Tamo je proveo ostatak svog života, pišući svoje memoare. Umro je 5. maja 1821. godine od raka.

Napoleonovi brakovi i deca

Napoleon se 1796. godine oženio Žozefinom Boarne, šest godina starijom udovicom koja je imala dvoje dece. Više od 10 godina kasnije, shvativši da mu Žozefina neće podariti željenog naslednika, poništio je brak kako bi mogao da pronađe ženu s kojom će moći da ima decu. Tako se 1810. godine oženio Marijom Luizom, kćerkom austrijskog cara, kao znak saveza s Austrijom. Naredne godine mu je Marija rodila sina, Napoleona II. Pored sina s Marijom, Napoleon je imao i nekoliko vanbračne dece.

Zanimljivosti

Napoleon Bonaparta je bio veoma sujeveran.

Bojao se mačaka i otvorenih vrata. Svako ko je ulazio u prostoriju u kojoj se on nalazio morao je da se provuče kroz poluotvorena vrata i brzo ih zatvori.

Nije mogao da podnese miris sveže boje.

Bio je radoholičar i spavao je samo 4 ili 5 sati dnevno.

Često je oblačio odeću seljaka, šetao ulicama Pariza i tako prerušen ispitivao ljude o samom sebi, na taj način prateći svoju popularnost u narodu.

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Bostonska čajanka (engleski: Boston Tea Party) je naziv za događaj koji se odigrao u četvrtak, 16. decembra 1773. u Bostonskoj luci, kad je jedna grupa bostonskih Sinova slobode prerušenih u Mohawk Indijance, u znak protesta protiv britanske politike, pobacala 342 bala čaja sa brodova Britanske istočnoindijske kompanije u more.

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Boats and boating--Equipment and supplies

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Autor: Lenka Gajic
Krajem 18 veka opadanje moći Osmanlija postaje očito i njima samima što u glavama nižih državnih funkcionara i oficira označava potrebu za reakcionarnim, fundamentalističkim promenama. Jedan od prvih znakova tih previranja postaje teritorij današnje Srbije kada turskih velikaši počinju provoditi protursku, antisrpsku diktaturu kršeći time povlastice koje su Srbi dobili od Selima III. 1793/94. godine. Odgovor na to postaje ustanak Srba na području Beogradskog pašaluka 14.2.1804. godine pod vodstvom Karađorđa. Tijekom prve godine ustanka Srbi su održavali otvorene diplomatske kanale s sultanom nadajući se dogovoru, ali nakon njihovog velikog početnog uspeha pregovori padaju u vodu i dolazi do otvorenog rata 1805. godine.

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Вакцинација (1796)

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Вакцинација (1796)

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Аутор: Никола Техлириан
Термин вакцина води порекло од латинске речи vacca (крава), зато што је прва забележена успешна вакцинација (против великих богиња) спроведена вирусом краљевих  богиња. Иако записи о имунизацији постоје још од XVI века у Кини, као ”рођендан” вакцинације узима се 1796. година и лекар Едвард Џенер. Један од најпознатијих поборника вакцинације је била руска краљица Катарина Велика, која се вакцинисала против великих богиња 1768. године, када је вакцинација била још у повоју.
Од прве Џенерове вакцине у 18. веку, развијен je велики број вакцина и програма вакцинације. Вакцина која је надавно развијена је против КОВИД-19.

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Autor:Nikola Tehlirian
Šivaća mašina je masina koja služi za sivanje, odnosno spajanje delova teksita ili koze pomoću igle i dva konca: gornjeg (iglenog) i donjeg konca hvatača.Prvu šivaću mašinu izumeo je Tomas Sejnt (engl. Thomas Saint) 1790. godine u Londonu. Služila je za šivanje kože, koja se navlačila na šiljak, dok je mašina samo provlačila konac kroz otvore na koži.

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Autor: Tara Obrenović rad br. 2

Modernu olovku je 1795. godine napravio Nikolas Žak Konte, naučnik koji je služio u Napoleonovoj vojsci. ,,Njeno srce'' je nastalo mešanjem vode, gline i grafita na 1000 C. Grafit, magični materijal koji je ostavljao jasne tragove, koristili su još drevni Asteci. Verovalo se da je vrsta olova i nazivan je plumbago. Otuda potiče njeno ime- olovka, kokoje se u nekim jezicima zadržalo do nas. Na engleskom jeziku ime dobila od latinske reči pencillus (mali rep), što je još pre pronalaska olovke opisivalo minijaturnu četkicu korišćenu za pisanje mastilom. Najstarija olovka na svetu, pronađena je u brvnari izgrađenoj 1630. godine.

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Autor: Maksim Sare
Stanje u Beogradskom pasaluku potpuno se izmenilo kaqda su dahije uzurpirale vlast, ubili su beogradskog vezira Musafa-pasu i 1801 uzurpirale vlast. Niko nije bio siguran za svoju imovinu i zivot. Uzrok prvog srpskog ustanka bilo je nezadovoljstvo srba surovom vladavinom dahija.Ustanak je ubrzan 1084. zbog dogadjaja koji se naziva seca knezova gde su dahije na prepad ubile 80 uglednih srba.U sumadijskom selu Orascu, blizu Arandjelovca,odrzan je na Sretenje 1804.godine zbor knezova,svestenika i trgovacaiz Sumadije na kome je doneta odluka o pokretanju oruzanog ustanka.Z predvodnika ustanka izabran je bivsi hajduk Djordje Petrovic Karadjordje. Pocetkom marta ustanci su zauzeli utvrdjenje Rudnik.Vrhunac vojnih ustanaka bilo je 1807. kada je oslobodjen Beograd. U leto 1813. godine usledio je napad osmanske vojiske. N istoku srbije ustanicka vojiska se raspala posle osmanskog zauzimanja Negotinau avgustu 1813. Tada je poginuo Hajduk Veljko, jedan od najpoznatijih vojvoda u srpskom ustanku. Posle toga ustanicke staresine i Djordje Petrovic Karadjordje su napustili srbiju pocetkom oktobra 1813.. Ubrzo zatim osmanlije su osvojile Beograd, cime se zavrsio prvi srpski ustanak.

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Prvu konstrukciju lokomotive sa točkovima uradio je Ričard Trevitik 1804. godine, a na istom poslu bilo je angažovano još nekoliko vrhunskih inženjera. Među njima se našao i Džordž Stivenson koji je svoju prvu lokomotivu konstruisao 1814. godine, a već  1815. godine proradila je prva državna železnica između Stoktona i Darlingtona u Engleskoj. Stivensonova lokomotiva vukla je prvi teretni voz na svetu, u kome je bilo i nekoliko putnika.
Najpoznatija Stivensonova lokomotiva zvala se „Raketa“. Stivensonov sin Robert imao je zasluge u njenom konstruisanju. Godine 1829. ponuđena je nagrada od 500 funti onome ko konstruiše najbolju lokomotivu, a ubedljivo pobedu odnela je upravo Raketa. Svi su bili impresionirani pre svega njenom brzinom od 58 km na sat.

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Autor: Tara Obrenović rad br. 3

Обреновићи су били српска владарска породица у периоду од 1815—1903. изузев 1842—1858. По једном предању преци Обреновића су се доселили из Бањана у Брусницу око 1700. године, а потичу од Копривица. Њен родоначелник био је Милош Обреновић, а последњи владар Александар Обреновић. За време владавине Обреновића Србија је стекла независност на Берлинском конгресу 1878. Затим 7. марта 1882. од кнежевине је постала краљевина.
Осим владара значајни чланови династије су и њихове супруге: кнегиње Љубица и Јулија, краљице Наталија и Драга, затим браћа кнеза Милоша Јован и Јеврем и Ми-лан. Међу познате чланове ове фамилије убраја се и Велимир Михаило Теодоровић, ванбрачни син кнеза Михаила.

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Univerzitet u Beogradu je najstarija i najveća institucija visokog obrazovanja u Srbiji. Čini ga 31 fakultet, 11 naučno-istraživačkih instituta, 13 centara i Univerzitetska biblioteka. Od osnivanja Univerzitet je obrazovao više od 346.000 diplomiranih stručnjaka različitih profila – oko 22.700 magistara, oko 28.000 specijalista i preko 13.200 doktora nauka.

Razvoj Univerziteta može se pratiti od 1808. godine, kada je Dositej Obradović osnovao Veliku školu. U Kragujevcu je 1838. osnovan Licej, koji je 1863. zakonom transformisan u Veliku školu. Univerzitet u Beogradu formalno je osnovan 27. februara 1905. godine, čime je dobio autonomiju.

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Na današnji dan, 27. februara 1905. godine, reorganizacijom Velike škole osnovana je prva univerzitetska ustanova u Srbiji - Beogradski univerzitet.
Univerzitet u Beogradu je najstarija i najveća institucija visokog obrazovanja u Srbiji. Čini ga 31 fakultet, 11 naučno-istraživačkih instituta, 13 centara i Univerzitetska biblioteka. Od osnivanja Univerzitet je obrazovao više od 346.000 diplomiranih stručnjaka različitih profila - oko 22.700 magistara, oko 28.000 specijalista i preko 13.200 doktora nauka.

Razvoj Univerziteta može se pratiti od 1808. godine, kada je Dositej Obradović osnovao Veliku školu. U Kragujevcu je 1838. osnovan Licej, koji je 1863. zakonom transformisan u Veliku školu. Univerzitet u Beogradu formalno je osnovan 27. februara 1905. godin e, čime je dobio autonomiju.

Sav nastavni kadar Velike škole tada je raspušten i izbor novog nastavnog kadra poveren je osmorici najvećih stručnjaka, koji su bili i prvih osam redovnih profesora Beogradskog univerziteta: Jovan Žujović, Sima Lozanić, Jovan Cvijić, Mihailo Petrović Alas, Andra Stevanović, Dragoljub Pavlović, Milić Radovanović i Ljubomir Jovanović.

Sima Lozanić je izabran za prvog rektora Beogradskog univerziteta. Univerzitet je smešten je u Kapetan Mišino zdanje, gde se danas nalazi Rektorat Univerziteta. U njegovom sastavu tada su bila tri fakulteta: Filozofski, Pravni i Tehnički. Imao je značajnu reputaciju ne samo u Srbiji nego i u Evropi, a njegovi profesori su se školovali na najuglednijim univerzitetima u inostranstvu. Predstavljao je centar naučnog, obrazovnog i kulturnog života, kao i centar otpora svakom totalitarizmu.

Univerzitet je prekinuo rad 1941. za vreme nemačke okupacije, a nakon oslobođenja 1945. godine nova vlast ga je obnovila.

Iz Beogradskog univerziteta nastali su Univerzitet u Skoplju (1949), Univerzitet u Novom Sadu (1960), Univerzitet u Nišu (1965), Univerzitet u Prištini (1970), Univerzitet u Podgorici (1974) i Univerzitet u Kragujevcu (1976).

Univerzitet u Beogradu danas

Na Beogradskom univerzitetu se danas školuje preko 85.000 studenata, na oko 150 programa osnovnih studija, kao i više od 1.700 postdiplomaca. Fakulteti Univerziteta u Beogradu su podeljeni u četiri organizacione grupacije fakulteta: društveno-humanističkih nauka, medicinskih nauka, prirodno-matematičkih nauka i tehničko-tehnoloških nauka. Akademski program studiranja je organizovan na četiri nivoa: osnovne akademske studije, master, specijalističke i doktorske studije, a studijski programi su usaglašeni sa principima Bolonjske deklaracije.

Rektor Beogradskog univerziteta je Vladimir Bumbaširević. Na prestižnoj Šangajskoj listi Univerzitet u Beogradu 2017. godine našao se između 201. i 300. mesta. Lista je neformalna, ali stvar je prestiža naći se na njoj, jer obuhvata samo dva odsto svetskih univerziteta.

Dan Univerziteta u Beogradu se obeležava 13. septembra, u znak sećanja na početak nastave na nekadašnjoj Visokoj školi u Beogradu.

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Na današnji dan osnovan je Beogradski univerzitet

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Na današnji dan, 27. februara 1905. godine, reorganizacijom Velike škole osnovana je prva univerzitetska ustanova u Srbiji - Beogradski univerzitet. Univerzitet u Beogradu je najstarija i najveća institucija visokog obrazovanja u Srbiji. Čini ga 31 fakultet, 11 naučno-istraživačkih instituta, 13 centara i Univerzitetska biblioteka.

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Autor: Maksim Sare
Posle prvog Srpskog ustanka mnogi srbi su otisli u Austriju, a potom u Rusiju. Najistaknutiji vojvoda koji je ostao u Srbiji je bio Milos Obrenovic. Dok su ustanicke staresine napustale srbiju Milos obrenovic se predao Turcima. Osmanske vlasti su pokusale da ga sto vise vezu za sebe jer su znali da je imao jak uticaj na srbe. Posle Hadzi Prodanove bune Sulejman-pasa Skopljak je na prevaru namamio kneza Milosa u Beogradsku tvrdjavu i zadrzao ga kao taoca. Ugledni srbi,nekadasnji ustanici, dogovorili su se da po Milosevom oslobodjenju ponovo podignu ustanak. Milos obrenovic je uspeo da se oslobodi. Drugi srpski ustanak je zvanicno objavl;jen na Cveti 23. aprila 1815. na saboru u Takovu. Boj na cacku koji se zavrsio srpskom pobeom u junu 1815. je bila preokretnica u Drugom srpskom ustanku. Bitka u Dublju u Macvi bila je poslednja bitka u Drugom srpskom ustanku. Drugi srpski ustanak se zavrsio primirjem izmedju Srbije i Osmanskog carstva 1815.

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Тениски турнир у Вимблдону (енгл. The Championships, Wimbledon) је најстарији, према многим мишљењима и најугледнији гренд слем турнир у тенису. Одржава се сваког јуна или јула (почиње шест недеља пре првог понедељка у августу) у Свеенглеском клубу у Вимблдону, у Лондону, почев од 1877, и трећи је по реду гренд слем турнир у години после отвореног првенства Аустралије и Француске

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Autor: Nikola Tehlirian.
Telefon (iz grcgog: tele = udaljen i fon = glas) je uređaj za komunikaciju na daljinu, koji se koristi tako što prima i prenosi zvuk (uglavnom ljudski glas) s jednog mesta na drugo i obratno.Prvi telefon koji je izradio skodski fizičar Aleksander Graham bell (slika prikazuje glumca koji glumi Bella u reklamnom filmu iz 1926.Većina telefona radi tako što prenosi električni signal preko složenog sustava telefonskih mreža koji omogućuje komunikaciju bilo kojeg korisnika telefona sa skoro bilo kojim drugim.Reč telefon prvi put upotrijebio je Johann Phillip Reis 1861. godine kako bi opisao svoj aparat za prijenos govora električnim putem.

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Autor: Tara Obrenović

Henry Woodward iz Toronta, koji je zajedno sa Matthew Evansom patentirao sijalicu 1875. Nažalost, dva preduzetnika nisu mogla podići finansiranje kako bi komercijalizirali svoj pronalazak. Prednamazni američki Thomas Edison, koji je radio na istoj ideji, kupio je prava na njihov patent. Kapital nije bio problem Edisonu: imao je podršku sindikata industrijskih interesa sa 50.000 dolara za ulaganje - značajna suma u to vrijeme. Upotrebom donje struje, male karbonizovane filamente i poboljšanim vakuumom unutar svet, Edison je uspešno demonstrirao sijalicu 1879. godine, a, kako kažu, ostalo je istorija. Prva električna sijalica se pojavila prvi put 1905. godine. Klasična sijalica se proizvodi u različitim naponima i veličinama, od 1,5 volti do oko 300 volti. Jednostavne su konstrukcije i zato imaju vrlo nisku proizvodnu cenu.

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Прва сијалица у Србији засијала је 1884. године баш у Крагујевцу. У Војно – техничком заводу, уз присуство краља Милана Обреновића и Краљице Наталије обележен је почетак електрификације у Србији.

Данас, многи од нас живот не би могли да замисле без друштвених мрежа, рачунара, електричне енергије, сијалице. Ретко ко и помисли какав је био дан , или ноћ без светлости. Ипак, не толико давно да би заборавили, прва сијалица разбила је таму управо у нашем граду, и то у фабричком погону.

Прво индустријско електрично осветљење уведено је у тада новој згради чаурнице, пре него што је изграђена прва електрична централа у Београду. У Европи се још увек о електричном осветљењу причало као о чуду, које је само две године пре тога представљено на светској изложби у Паризу.

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Калдрмаш Крагујевац

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Прва сијалица у Србији

У Крагујевцу је засијала и прва сијалица у Србији , 1884. године , након изградње прве србске електричне

У Крагујевцу је засијала и прва сијалица у Србији , 1884. године , након изградње прве србске електричне централе.

Прва сијалица у Србији засијала је 1884. године баш у Крагујевцу. У Војно - техничком заводу, уз присуство краља Милана Обреновића и Краљице Наталије обележен је почетак електрификације у Србији.

Данас, многи од нас живот не би могли да замисле без друштвених мрежа, рачунара, електричне енергије, сијалице. Ретко ко и помисли какав је био дан , или ноћ без светлости. Ипак, не толико давно да би заборавили, прва сијалица разбила је таму управо у нашем граду, и то у фабричком погону.

Прво индустријско електрично осветљење уведено је у тада новој згради чаурнице, пре него што је изграђена прва електрична централа у Београду. У Европи се још увек о електричном осветљењу причало као о чуду, које је само две године пре тога представљено на светској изложби у Паризу.

Заслуге за увођење електричног осветљења у Војно - Технички завод имао је тада млади инжењер Тодор Тоша Селесковић, пројектант војне идустрије у Крагујевцу и први универзитетски професор машинства. Он је том приликом инсталирао Шукретову централу са динамо - машином са капацитетом од 30 сијалица од по 16В и две лучне лампе од по 1.200В. Наравно, идеја је за циљ имала повећање продуктивности фабрике, која би овако осветљена могла да ради и ноћу.

Годину дана после спектакла крагујевачка фабрика оружја добија још две динамо - машине произвођача Сигмунда Шукерта из Нирнберга . Са још осам лучних лампи и сто сијалица , осветљени су сви погони Војнотехничког завода, који је 1885. био једина „ светла тачка " у Крагујевцу. Тек са уласком немачких трупа у Србију, 1915. године овај град ће добити прву електричну мрежу, тада довољну за напајање само неколико војних објеката.

По ослобођењу у многим градовима у Србији почињу да раде електричне централе, а своје прво осветљење Крагујевац је добио 1928.године до када је струјом снабдеван искључиво из Војнотехничког завода. Централу са дизел мотором „ дајц" од 270 коњских снага и генератором фирме „ Браун Бовери" од 168 киловолти, четири трафостанице и подземне каблове у дужини од 3.400 метара изградило је и поставило Акционарско друштво „ Јелица " из Чачка, чија је понуда на конкурсу оцењена као најповољнија.

По попису из 1931.године Крагујевац је имао 27.208 становника, а претплатника је било 2.870. Потрошачи су те године сврстани у категорије, а за сваку је важила посебна цена струје.

- Кафане и радње су плаћале између седам и девет динара за један киловат, домаћинства од два и по до три динара, с тим да је, за разлику од овог нашег времена, цена била нижа ако потрошиш више. Најскупља струја била је за биоскопе, који су киловат плаћали 10 динара.

До Другог светског рата струју је добило још шест општина и насеља у Шумадији, Лапово, Рача, Баточина, Равни гај, Кнић и Станово, а по ослобођењу, 1945.године тек основано Електрично предузеће Србије (ЕПС) преузима све електроенергетске објекте на територији Крагујевца. Електричну мрежу у овом делу Србије у то време одржава свега 29 радника.

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Калдрмаш Крагујевац

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Прва сијалица у Србији - Калдрмаш Крагујевац

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У Крагујевцу је засијала и прва сијалица у Србији , 1884. године , након изградње прве србске електричне У Крагујевцу је засијала и прва сијалица у Србији , 1884. године , након изградње прве србске електричне централе. Прва сијалица у Србији засијала је 1884. године баш у Крагујевцу.

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Винсент ван Гог (19. век)
Аутор: Ана Ковачевић

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Винсент ван Гог (19. век)
Аутор: Ана Ковачевић

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Ван Гог је био један од најпознатијих и најцењенијих сликара. Пореклом је из Холандије и припадао је епохи постимпресионизма. Сликао је у Холандији, Паризу, а његова најлепша дела настала су у градићу Арлу. Насликао је преко две хиљаде дела: акварела, уља на платну, слика, графика итд. Сликао је аквареле, пејзаже, мртву природу и аутопортрете. Најпозантије слике су: Сунцокрети, Ириси, Аутопортрет, Звездана ноћ... Његова дела била су запажена по грубој лепоти, емотивној искрености и храбрим бојама, па је захваљујући томе био један од водећих сликара 20. века.

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Autor: Todor Ljubenov.

Automobil je motorno vozilo s karoserijom raznih oblika postavljenom na dvije osovine s četiri kotača, a većinom se koristi za prijevoz putnika. Razgovorno se automobil najčešće naziva auto, a vrlo rijetko se koristi i samovoz, što je doslovni prijevod tuđice "automobil".

Razvoj današnjih automobila je počeo 1886. godine u Njemačkoj. Prvi automobil je konstruirao i napravio Karl Benz, 3. jula 1886. u Mannheimu. Kratko nakon toga su i Gottlieb Daimler i Wilhelm Maybach u blizini Stuttgarta kao i Siegfried Marcus u Beču proizveli svoje verzije automobila.

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Аутор Никола Павле Техлириан

Филм, као најмодернија уметност у великој мери зависи од науке и технологије.Први филм настао је пре више од сто година.Први филм био је нем и црно бели.Његови творци су браћа Лимијер.Први филм приказан је у Паризу, 28. децембра 1895.Трајао је свега неколико минута и представљао је долазак воза на железничку станицу.Исти филм је у Србији приказан шест месеци касније, 1896. године у кафани браће Савић код зграде албаније, „Код златног крста“.

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Autor: Lenka Gajic
Grčki interes za oživljavanje Olimpijskih igara počeo je sa Grčkim ratom za nezavisnost od Osmanskog carstva 1821. Prvi je predložio pesnik i novinski urednik Panagijotis Sucos u svojoj poemi "Dijalog mrtvih", koja je objavljena 1833, a u kojoj je napisao:

„Gde su sva vaša pozorišta i mramorne statue?
Gde su vaše Olimpijske igre?”
Sucos je ubrzo zvanično predložio vladi oživljavanje igara, slanjem memoranduma 1835 godine. Njegov predlog je prihvaćen od strane kralja Ota, ali ništa nije urađeno na pokretanju igara, bez obzira na kampanju Sucosa narednih 26 godina. Evangelos Zapas, bogati Grčko-rimski filantrop, pisao je prvi put kralju Otu 1856, nudeći da finansira trajno oživljavanje Olimpijskih igara.Zapas je pokrenuo Zapasove olimpijske igre 1859, koje su održane na trgu u Atini.

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Autor:Iva Tica (rad broj 5.)
Žorž Krum vlasnik restorana, krajem XlX veka, imao je medju gostima jednu bogatu mušteriju, čoveka koji se stalno žalio da mu pomfrit nije dovoljno tanko isečen. Jednog dana Žoržu je dosadilo i isekao je krompir što je tanje mogao, maltene da se kolutići provide. Stavio ih je u vrelo ulje i ostavio što je duže mogao i na kraju puno posolio, misleći da se neće moći jesti. Bogati gost se oduševio i tako je nastao današnji čips.

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Dva brata Orvil i Vilbur Rajt, prvi su leteli avionom 1903. godine. Te godine, na dan 17. decembar, oni su postali prvi ljudi koji su poleteli svojim avionom. Obojica su obavila po dva leta. Prvi je trajao 12 sekundi, drugi i treći bili su nešto duži, a četvrti let je trajao skoro čitav minut. Ukupno su uspeli da pređu 270 metara. Nakon toga, braća Rajt su nastavili da usavršavaju svoje letilice, da bi 1908. godine Vilbur uspeo do obavi let koji je trajao čitavih 80 minuta.
Ostali entuzijasti širom sveta, iskoristili su kasnije saznanja dobijena od ovih prvih letova. Tako su konstruisani avioni u Engleskoj, Francuskoj, SAD. Francuz Luj Blerio ulazi 1909. godine u istoriju svojim letom preko Lamanša, od Kalea do Dovera. Zatim je usledio Prvi svetski rat kada počinje pravi zamah u razvoju vazduhoplovstva koji traje do današnjih dana.

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Autor: Todor Ljubenov.
Први светски рат је трајао од 1914. до 1918. године. У њему је учествовала већина великих светских сила, груписаних у два сукобљена војна савеза: Савезника и Централних сила. Више од 70 милиона људи је било под оружјем, а од тога преко 60 милиона људи у Европи је било мобилисано у један од највећих ратова у историји.

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Olga Vasić
Prvi svetski rat bio je globalni oružani sukob između dva saveza država (Antanta i Središnje sile) koji se odvijao na više kontinenata od 28. Jula 1914. do 11. Novembra1918. Posledica rata bilo je više od 40 miliona žrtava, uključujući približno 15 do 20 miliona mrtvih vojnika i civila,- čime je to jedan od najsmrtonosnijih sukoba u modernoj ljudskoj istoriji - i značajna razaranja država i ekonomija, te se smatra prvim ratom globalnih, svjetskih razmera. Stoga je prvobitno nazivan Veliki rat ili Rat koji će okončati sve ratove. Oko 60 miliona evropskih vojnika bilo je mobilizirano od 1914. do 1918.

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Autor:Andrija Gajic                            Drugi svetski rat  Vođen je na tri kontinenta i na svim svjetskim oceanima, a u njemu su sudjelovale gotovo sve države koje su tada postojale. Početkom 1943. Sile Osovine trpe velike poraze. Italija je prisiljena na kapitulaciju iste godine, sovjetske snage su na istočnom bojištu krenule u protunapad, a napredovanje japanskih snaga na Tihom oceanu je zaustavljeno. Krajem 1943. godine zračne snage SAD pokreću kampanju masovnog bombardiranja Japana. Nakon što je od 1942. godine s britanskog tla započeta ozbiljna aktivnost strateškog bombardiranja Njemačke i drugih područja Europe, radi nanošenja štete industrijskim, prometnim i vojnim kapacitete Njemačke i Italije, kao drugih zemalja pod njemačkom okupacijom; od druge polovine 1943. godine ta bombardiranja ostvaruju snažan učinak. Na osobitoj meti su bile njemačke tvornice u proizvodnji i preradi metala, koje su od druge polovine 1943. godine izgubile približno pola kapaciteta. Tvornice u Njemačkoj i okupiranim zemljama su ipak uspjele obnoviti proizvodnju na bolje zaštićenim lokacijama i čak povećati proizvodnju.

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World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries-including all the great powers-forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis powers. In a state of total war, directly involving more than 100 million personnel from more than 30 countries, the major participants threw their entire economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities behind the war effort, blurring the distinction between civilian and military resources. Aircraft played a major role in the conflict, including the strategic bombing of population centres, and, with the development of nuclear weapons, the only two uses of such in war. World War II was the deadliest conflict in human history, resulting in 70 to 85 million fatalities, with more civilians than military personnel killed. Tens of millions of people died due to genocides (including the Holocaust), starvation, massacres, and disease. In the wake of the war, Germany and Japan were occupied, and war crimes tribunals were conducted against German and Japanese leaders.

World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, when Nazi Germany, under Adolf Hitler, invaded Poland and the United Kingdom and France subsequently declared war on the 3rd. Under the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union had partitioned Poland and marked out their " spheres of influence" across Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. From late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan (along with other countries later on). Following the onset of campaigns in North Africa and East Africa, and the fall of France in mid-1940, the war continued primarily between the European Axis powers and the British Empire, with war in the Balkans, the aerial Battle of Britain, the Blitz of the UK, and the Battle of the Atlantic. On 22 June 1941, Germany led the European Axis powers in an invasion of the Soviet Union, opening the Eastern Front, the largest land theatre of war in history and trapping the Axis powers, crucially the German , in a war of attrition.

Japan, which aimed to dominate Asia and the Pacific, was at war with the Republic of China by 1937. In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territories with near-simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific, including an attack on the US fleet at Pearl Harbor which forced the US to declare war against Japan; the European Axis powers declared war on the US in solidarity. Japan soon captured much of the western Pacific, but its advances were halted in 1942 after losing the critical Battle of Midway; later, Germany and Italy were defeated in North Africa and at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. Key setbacks in 1943-including a series of German defeats on the Eastern Front, the Allied invasions of Sicily and the Italian mainland, and Allied offensives in the Pacific-cost the Axis powers their initiative and forced it into strategic retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained its territorial losses and turned towards Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945, Japan suffered reversals in mainland Asia, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy and captured key western Pacific islands.

The war in Europe concluded with the liberation of German-occupied territories, and the invasion of Germany by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, culminating in the fall of Berlin to Soviet troops, Hitler's suicide and the German unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945. Following the Potsdam Declaration by the Allies on 26 July 1945 and the refusal of Japan to surrender on its terms, the United States dropped the first atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima, on 6 August, and Nagasaki, on 9 August. Faced with an imminent invasion of the Japanese archipelago, the possibility of additional atomic bombings, and the Soviet entry into the war against Japan and its invasion of Manchuria, Japan announced its intention to surrender on 15 August, then signed the surrender document on 2 September 1945, cementing total victory in Asia for the Allies.

Chronology

The war in Europe is generally considered to have started on 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland; the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or the earlier Japanese invasion of Manchuria, on 19 September 1931.

Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously, and the two wars merged in 1941. This article uses conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World WarII as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939. Others view the Spanish Civil war as the start or prelude to World War II.

The exact date of the war's end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945 ( V-J Day), rather than with the formal surrender of Japan on 2 September 1945, which officially ended the war in Asia. A peace treaty between Japan and the Allies was signed in 1951. A 1990 treaty regarding Germany's future allowed the reunification of East and West Germany to take place and resolved most post-World WarII issues. No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed.

Background

World War I had radically altered the political European map, with the defeat of the Central Powers-including Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire-and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia, which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victorious Allies of World War I, such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and new nation-states were created out of the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman and Russian Empires.

To prevent a future world war, the League of Nations was created during the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military and naval disarmament, and settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration.

Despite strong pacifist sentiment after World WarI, irredentist and revanchist nationalism emerged in several European states in the same period. These sentiments were especially marked in Germany because of the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by the Treaty of Versailles. Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all its overseas possessions, while German annexation of other states was prohibited, reparations were imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country's armed forces.

The German Empire was dissolved in the German Revolution of 1918-1919, and a democratic government, later known as the Weimar Republic, was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the Fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist, totalitarian, and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representative democracy, repressed socialist, left-wing and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, and promising the creation of a " New Roman Empire".

Adolf Hitler, after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923, eventually became the Chancellor of Germany in 1933 when Paul Von Hindenburg and the Reichstag appointed him. He abolished democracy, espousing a radical, racially motivated revision of the world order, and soon began a massive rearmament campaign. Meanwhile, France, to secure its alliance, allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia, which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin was legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription.

The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed the Stresa Front in April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towards military globalisation; however, that June, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany's goals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe, drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, the Franco-Soviet pact was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless. The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August of the same year.

Hitler defied the Versailles and Locarno treaties by remilitarising the Rhineland in March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy of appeasement. In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed the Rome-Berlin Axis. A month later, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, which Italy joined the following year.

The Kuomintang (KMT) party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese Communist Party allies and new regional warlords. In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Empire of Japan, which had long sought influence in China as the first step of what its government saw as the country's right to rule Asia, staged the Mukden Incident as a pretext to invade Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo.

China appealed to the League of Nations to stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, in Shanghai, Rehe and Hebei, until the Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria, and Chahar and Suiyuan. After the 1936 Xi'an Incident, the Kuomintang and communist forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan.

Pre-war events

Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935)

The Second Italo-Ethiopian War was a brief colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of the Ethiopian Empire (also known as Abyssinia) by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy ( Regno d'Italia), which was launched from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea. The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa ( Africa Orientale Italiana, or AOI); in addition it exposed the weakness of the League of Nations as a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations, but the League did little when the former clearly violated Article X of the League's Covenant. The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion. Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbing Austria.

Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)

When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to the Nationalist rebels, led by General Francisco Franco. Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis did: altogether Mussolini sent to Spain more than 70,000 ground troops and 6,000 aviation personnel, as well as about 720 aircraft. The Soviet Union supported the existing government of the Spanish Republic. More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as the International Brigades, also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used this proxy war as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World WarII but generally favoured the Axis. His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending of volunteers to fight on the Eastern Front.

Japanese invasion of China (1937)

In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital of Peking after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China. The Soviets quickly signed a non-aggression pact with China to lend materiel support, effectively ending China's prior co-operation with Germany. From September to November, the Japanese attacked Taiyuan, engaged the Kuomintang Army around Xinkou, and fought Communist forces in Pingxingguan. Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to defend Shanghai, but after three months of fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push the Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937. After the fall of Nanking, tens or hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants were murdered by the Japanese.

In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won their first major victory at Taierzhuang but then the city of Xuzhou was taken by the Japanese in May. In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the Yellow River; this manoeuvre bought time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at Wuhan, but the city was taken by October. Japanese military victories did not bring about the collapse of Chinese resistance that Japan had hoped to achieve; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland to Chongqing and continued the war.

Soviet-Japanese border conflicts

In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces in Manchukuo had sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union and Mongolia. The Japanese doctrine of Hokushin-ron, which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. With the Japanese defeat at Khalkin Gol in 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese War and ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets, this policy would prove difficult to maintain. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed a Neutrality Pact in April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine of Nanshin-ron, promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward, eventually leading to its war with the United States and the Western Allies.

European occupations and agreements

In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria, again provoking little response from other European powers. Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on the Sudetenland, an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population. Soon the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement, which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands. Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary, and Poland annexed Czechoslovakia's Zaolzie region.

Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish "war-mongers" and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navy to challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939, Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a pro-German client state, the Slovak Republic. Hitler also delivered an ultimatum to Lithuania on 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of the Klaipėda Region, formerly the German Memelland.

Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the Free City of Danzig, the United Kingdom and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to the Kingdoms of Romania and Greece. Shortly after the Franco- British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of Steel. Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to "encircle" Germany and renounced the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German-Polish Non-Aggression Pact.

The situation reached a general crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. On 23 August, when tripartite negotiations about a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom and Soviet Union stalled, the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Germany. This pact had a secret protocol that defined German and Soviet "spheres of influence" (western Poland and Lithuania for Germany; eastern Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Bessarabia for the Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence. The pact neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World WarI. Immediately after that, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it.

In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which only served as a pretext to worsen relations. On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polish plenipotentiary immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover of Danzig, and to allow a plebiscite in the Polish Corridor in which the German minority would vote on secession. The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30-31 August in a stormy meeting with the British ambassador Nevile Henderson, Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected.

Course of the war

War breaks out in Europe (1939-40)

On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland after having staged several false flag border incidents as a pretext to initiate the invasion. The first German attack of the war came against the Polish defenses at Westerplatte. The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum to Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, France and Britain declared war on Germany, followed by Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Canada. The alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of a cautious French probe into the Saarland. The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany, which aimed to damage the country's economy and the war effort. Germany responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic.

On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs of Warsaw. The Polish counter offensive to the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by the . Remnants of the Polish army broke through to besieged Warsaw. On 17 September 1939, after signing a cease-fire with Japan, the Soviet Union invaded Eastern Poland under a pretext that the Polish state had ostensibly ceased to exist. On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, and the last large operational unit of the Polish Army surrendered on 6October. Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed the Polish government-in-exile and a clandestine state apparatus remained in occupied Poland. A significant part of Polish military personnel evacuated to Romania and the Baltic countries; many of them later fought against the Axis in other theatres of the war.

Germany annexed the western and occupied the central part of Poland, and the Soviet Union annexed its eastern part; small shares of Polish territory were transferred to Lithuania and Slovakia. On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejected, and Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France, which was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather.

The Soviet Union forced the Baltic countries-Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, which were in the Soviet "sphere of influence" under the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact-to sign "mutual assistance pacts" that stipulated stationing Soviet troops in these countries. Soon after, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there. Finland refused to sign a similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union invaded Finland in November 1939, and the Soviet Union was expelled from the League of Nations. Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success was modest, and the Finno-Soviet war ended in March 1940 with minimal Finnish concessions.

In June 1940, the Soviet Union forcibly annexed Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, and the Romanian regions of Bessarabia, northern Bukovina and Hertza. Meanwhile, Nazi-Soviet political rapprochement and economic co-operation gradually stalled, and both states began preparations for war.

Western Europe (1940-41)

In April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect shipments of iron ore from Sweden, which the Allies were attempting to cut off. Denmark capitulated after a few hours, and Norway was conquered within two months despite Allied support. British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the appointment of Winston Churchill as Prime Minister on 10May 1940.

On the same day, Germany launched an offensive against France. To circumvent the strong Maginot Line fortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations of Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through the Ardennes region, which was mistakenly perceived by Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles. By successfully implementing new blitzkrieg tactics, the Wehrmacht rapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was able to evacuate a significant number of Allied troops from the continent by early June, although abandoning almost all their equipment.

On 10 June, Italy invaded France, declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom. The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, and Paris fell to them on 14June. Eight days later France signed an armistice with Germany; it was divided into German and Italian occupation zones, and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime, which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, which the United Kingdom attacked on 3July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany.

The air Battle of Britain began in early July with Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours. The United Kingdom rejected Hitler's peace offer, and the German air superiority campaign started in August but failed to defeat RAF Fighter Command, forcing the indefinite postponement of the proposed German invasion of Britain. The German strategic bombing offensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities in the Blitz, but failed to significantly disrupt the British war effort and largely ended in May 1941.

Using newly captured French ports, the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy, using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic. The British Home Fleet scored a significant victory on 27May 1941 by sinking the German battleship Bismarck.

In November 1939, the United States was taking measures to assist China and the Western Allies and amended the Neutrality Act to allow "cash and carry" purchases by the Allies. In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of the United States Navy was significantly increased. In September the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases. Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in the conflict well into 1941. In December 1940 Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an " arsenal of democracy" and promoting Lend-Lease programmes of aid to support the British war effort. The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany.

At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact formally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as the Axis powers. The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country, with the exception of the Soviet Union, which attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary, Slovakia and Romania joined. Romania and Hungary later made major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recapture territory ceded to the Soviet Union.

Mediterranean (1940-41)

In early June 1940, the Italian Regia Aeronautica attacked and besieged Malta, a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italy conquered British Somaliland and made an incursion into British-held Egypt. In October, Italy attacked Greece, but the attack was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes. Germany started preparation for an invasion of the Balkans to assist Italy, to prevent the British from gaining a foothold there, which would be a potential threat for Romanian oil fields, and to strike against the British dominance of the Mediterranean.

In December 1940, British Empire forces began counter-offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa. The offensives were highly successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission by means of a carrier attack at Taranto, and neutralising several more warships at the Battle of Cape Matapan.

Italian defeats prompted Germany to deploy an expeditionary force to North Africa and at the end of March 1941, Rommel's Afrika Korps launched an offensive which drove back the Commonwealth forces. In under a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt and besieged the port of Tobruk.

By late March 1941, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact; however, the Yugoslav government was overthrown two days later by pro-British nationalists. Germany responded with simultaneous invasions of both Yugoslavia and Greece, commencing on 6 April 1941; both nations were forced to surrender within the month. The airborne invasion of the Greek island of Crete at the end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans. Although the Axis victory was swift, bitter and large-scale partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia, which continued until the end of the war.

In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forces quashed an uprising in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria. Between June and July, they invaded and occupied the French possessions Syria and Lebanon, with the assistance of the Free French.

Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941)

With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions in Southeast Asia, the two powers signed the Soviet-Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1941. By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border.

Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany sooner or later. He, therefore, decided to try to strengthen Germany's relations with the Soviets or failing that to attack and eliminate them as a factor. In November 1940, negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the Tripartite Pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union.

On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa, with Germany accusing the Soviets of plotting against them. They were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary. The primary targets of this surprise offensive were the Baltic region, Moscow and Ukraine, with the ultimate goal of ending the 1941 campaign near the Arkhangelsk-Astrakhan line, from the Caspian to the White Seas. Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminate Communism, generate Lebensraum ("living space") by dispossessing the native population and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals.

Although the Red Army was preparing for strategic counter-offensives before the war, Barbarossa forced the Soviet supreme command to adopt a strategic defence. During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel. By mid-August, however, the German Army High Command decided to suspend the offensive of a considerably depleted Army Group Centre, and to divert the 2nd Panzer Group to reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad. The Kiev offensive was overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made possible further advance into Crimea and industrially developed Eastern Ukraine (the First Battle of Kharkov).

The diversion of three quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to the Eastern Front prompted the United Kingdom to reconsider its grand strategy. In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance against Germany and in August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued the Atlantic Charter, which outlined British and American goals for the postwar world. In late August the British and Soviets invaded neutral Iran to secure the Persian Corridor, Iran's oil fields, and preempt any Axis advances through Iran toward the Baku oil fields or British India.

By October Axis operational objectives in Ukraine and the Baltic region were achieved, with only the sieges of Leningrad and Sevastopol continuing. A major offensive against Moscow was renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troops were forced to suspend their offensive. Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Soviet capability to resist was not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. The blitzkrieg phase of the war in Europe had ended.

By early December, freshly mobilised reserves allowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops. This, as well as intelligence data which established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the Japanese Kwantung Army, allowed the Soviets to begin a massive counter-offensive that started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100-250 kilometres (62-155 mi) west.

War breaks out in the Pacific (1941)

Following the Japanese false flag Mukden Incident in 1931, the Japanese shelling of the American gunboat USS Panay in 1937, and the 1937-38 Nanjing Massacre, Japanese-American relations deteriorated. In 1939, the United States notified Japan that it would not be extending its trade treaty and American public opinion opposing Japanese expansionism led to a series of economic sanctions, the Export Control Acts, which banned U.S. exports of chemicals, minerals and military parts to Japan and increased economic pressure on the Japanese regime. During 1939 Japan launched its first attack against Changsha, a strategically important Chinese city, but was repulsed by late September. Despite several offensives by both sides, the war between China and Japan was stalemated by 1940. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded and occupied northern Indochina in September 1940.

Chinese nationalist forces launched a large-scale counter-offensive in early 1940. In August, Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China; in retaliation, Japan instituted harsh measures in occupied areas to reduce human and material resources for the communists. The continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941, effectively ending their co-operation. In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the Chinese 19th army but was repulsed during Battle of Shanggao. In September, Japan attempted to take the city of Changsha again and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces.

German successes in Europe encouraged Japan to increase pressure on European governments in Southeast Asia. The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan with some oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies, but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941. In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, thus threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo. At the same time, Japan was planning an invasion of the Soviet Far East, intending to capitalise off the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions.

Since early 1941 the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. During these negotiations, Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate. At the same time the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them. Roosevelt reinforced the Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946) and warned Japan that the United States would react to Japanese attacks against any "neighboring countries".

Frustrated at the lack of progress and feeling the pinch of the American-British-Dutch sanctions, Japan prepared for war. On 20 November, a new government under Hideki Tojo presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for lifting the embargo on the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange, Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina. The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers. That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force; the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war.

Japan planned to rapidly seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific. The Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war. To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, it was further planned to neutralise the United States Pacific Fleet and the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset. On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific. These included an attack on the American fleets at Pearl Harbor and the Philippines, Guam, Wake Island, landings in Malaya, Thailand and the Battle of Hong Kong.

The Japanese invasion of Thailand led to Thailand's decision to ally itself with Japan and the other Japanese attacks led the United States, United Kingdom, China, Australia, and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan. Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United States in solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt.

Axis advance stalls (1942-43)

On 1 January 1942, the Allied Big Four-the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom and the United States-and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued the Declaration by United Nations, thereby affirming the Atlantic Charter, and agreeing not to sign a separate peace with the Axis powers.

During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriate grand strategy to pursue. All agreed that defeating Germany was the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward, large-scale attack on Germany through France. The Soviets were also demanding a second front. The British, on the other hand, argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolster resistance forces. Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour without using large-scale armies. Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa.

At the Casablanca Conference in early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration and demanded the unconditional surrender of their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes. Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland and to invade France in 1944.

Pacific (1942-43)

By the end of April 1942, Japan and its ally Thailand had almost fully conquered Burma, Malaya, the Dutch East Indies, Singapore, and Rabaul, inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners. Despite stubborn resistance by Filipino and US forces, the Philippine Commonwealth was eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile. On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division. Japanese forces also achieved naval victories in the South China Sea, Java Sea and Indian Ocean, and bombed the Allied naval base at Darwin, Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinese victory at Changsha. These easy victories over the unprepared US and European opponents left Japan overconfident, as well as overextended.

In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby by amphibious assault and thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in the Battle of the Coral Sea. Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlier Doolittle Raid, was to seize Midway Atoll and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. In mid-May, Japan started the Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign in China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups. In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans, having broken Japanese naval codes in late May, were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory at Midway over the Imperial Japanese Navy.

With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan chose to focus on a belated attempt to capture Port Moresby by an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua. The Americans planned a counter-attack against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands, primarily Guadalcanal, as a first step towards capturing Rabaul, the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia.

Both plans started in July, but by mid-September, the Battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island, where they faced Australian and United States troops in the Battle of Buna-Gona. Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal. By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops. In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first, an offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942, went disastrously, forcing a retreat back to India by May 1943. The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese front-lines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results.

Eastern Front (1942-43)

Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive in central and southern Russia, keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year. In May the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkov, and then launched their main summer offensive against southern Russia in June 1942, to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus and occupy the Kuban steppe, while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans split Army Group South into two groups: Army Group A advanced to the lower Don River and struck south-east to the Caucasus, while Army Group B headed towards the Volga River. The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga.

By mid-November, the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting. The Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with an encirclement of German forces at Stalingrad, and an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow, though the latter failed disastrously. By early February 1943, the German Army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been defeated, and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov, creating a salient in their front line around the Soviet city of Kursk.

Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942-43)

Exploiting poor American naval command decisions, the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast. By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive, Operation Crusader, in North Africa, and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made. In North Africa, the Germans launched an offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala line by early February, followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives. Concerns the Japanese might use bases in Vichy-held Madagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May 1942. An Axis offensive in Libya forced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein. On the Continent, raids of Allied commandos on strategic targets, culminating in the disastrous Dieppe Raid, demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security.[page needed ]

In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against El Alamein and, at a high cost, managed to deliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta. A few months later, the Allies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya. This attack was followed up shortly after by Anglo-American landings in French North Africa, which resulted in the region joining the Allies. Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering the occupation of Vichy France; although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German forces. The Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia, which was conquered by the Allies in May 1943.

In June 1943 the British and Americans began a strategic bombing campaign against Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and " de-house" the civilian population. The firebombing of Hamburg was among the first attacks in this campaign, inflicting significant casualties and considerable losses on infrastructure of this important industrial centre.

Allies gain momentum (1943-44)

After the Guadalcanal Campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and US forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians. Soon after, the United States, with support from Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islander forces, began major ground, sea and air operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands, and breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands. By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives and had also neutralised the major Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands. In April, the Allies launched an operation to retake Western New Guinea.

In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives in central Russia. On 4 July 1943, Germany attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge. Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' deeply echeloned and well-constructed defences, and for the first time in the war Hitler cancelled the operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success. This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies' invasion of Sicily launched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month.

On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their own counter-offensives, thereby dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority, giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front. The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortified Panther-Wotan line, but the Soviets broke through it at Smolensk and by the Lower Dnieper Offensive.

On 3 September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland, following Italy's armistice with the Allies. Germany with the help of fascists responded by disarming Italian forces that were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas, and creating a series of defensive lines. German special forces then rescued Mussolini, who then soon established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named the Italian Social Republic, causing an Italian civil war. The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November.

German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective, the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign. In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran. The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory and the military planning for the Burma campaign, while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat.

From November 1943, during the seven-week Battle of Changde, the Chinese forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition, while awaiting Allied relief. In January 1944, the Allies launched a series of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino and tried to outflank it with landings at Anzio.

On 27 January 1944, Soviet troops launched a major offensive that expelled German forces from the Leningrad region, thereby ending the most lethal siege in history. The following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre-war Estonian border by the German Army Group North aided by Estonians hoping to re-establish national independence. This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in the Baltic Sea region. By late May 1944, the Soviets had liberated Crimea, largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine, and made incursions into Romania, which were repulsed by the Axis troops. The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the expense of allowing several German divisions to retreat, on 4 June Rome was captured.

The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions, an operation against British positions in Assam, India, and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima. In May 1944, British forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma by July, and Chinese forces that had invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina. The second Japanese invasion of China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields. By June, the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a new attack on Changsha.

Allies close in (1944)

On 6 June 1944 (known as D-Day), after three years of Soviet pressure, the Western Allies invaded northern France. After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they also attacked southern France. These landings were successful and led to the defeat of the German Army units in France. Paris was liberated on 25 August by the local resistance assisted by the Free French Forces, both led by General Charles de Gaulle, and the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded by a major airborne operation in the Netherlands failed. After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, but failed to cross the Rur river in a large offensive. In Italy, Allied advance also slowed due to the last major German defensive line.

On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus (" Operation Bagration") that destroyed the German Army Group Centre almost completely. Soon after that, another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviets formed the Polish Committee of National Liberation to control territory in Poland and combat the Polish Armia Krajowa; The Soviet Red Army remained in the Praga district on the other side of the Vistula and watched passively as the Germans quelled the Warsaw Uprising initiated by the Armia Krajowa. The national uprising in Slovakia was also quelled by the Germans. The Soviet Red Army's strategic offensive in eastern Romania cut off and destroyed the considerable German troops there and triggered a successful coup d'état in Romania and in Bulgaria, followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side.

In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced into Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army Groups E and F in Greece, Albania and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off. By this point, the Communist-led Partisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito, who had led an increasingly successful guerrilla campaign against the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northern Serbia, the Soviet Red Army, with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a joint liberation of the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched a massive assault against German-occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest in February 1945. Unlike impressive Soviet victories in the Balkans, bitter Finnish resistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to a Soviet-Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions, although Finland was forced to fight their former ally Germany.

By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam, pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese forces captured Mount Song and reopened the Burma Road. In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August. Soon after, they invaded the province of Guangxi, winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December.

In the Pacific, US forces continued to press back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the Battle of the Philippine Sea. These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister, Hideki Tojo, and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in the Battle of Leyte Gulf, one of the largest naval battles in history.

Axis collapse, Allied victory (1944-45)

On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes and along with the French-German border to split the Western Allies, encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and capture their primary supply port at Antwerp to prompt a political settlement. By January, the offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled. In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Soviets and Poles attacked in Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia. On 4 February Soviet, British, and US leaders met for the Yalta Conference. They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan.

In February, the Soviets entered Silesia and Pomerania, while Western Allies entered western Germany and closed to the Rhine river. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr, encircling the German Army Group B. In early March, in an attempt to protect its last oil reserves in Hungary and to retake Budapest, Germany launched its last major offensive against Soviet troops near Lake Balaton. In two weeks, the offensive had been repulsed, the Soviets advanced to Vienna, and captured the city. In early April, Soviet troops captured Königsberg, while the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western Germany capturing Hamburg and Nuremberg. American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe river on 25 April, leaving several unoccupied pockets in southern Germany and around Berlin.

Soviet and Polish forces stormed and captured Berlin in late April. In Italy, German forces surrendered on 29 April. On 30 April, the Reichstag was captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany, Berlin garrison surrendered on 2 May.

Several changes in leadership occurred during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by Harry S. Truman. Benito Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on 28 April. Two days later, Hitler committed suicide in besieged Berlin, and he was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz. Total and unconditional surrender in Europe was signed on 7and 8May, to be effective by the end of 8 May. German Army Group Centre resisted in Prague until 11 May.

In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the Philippines, clearing Leyte by the end of April 1945. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and recaptured Manila in March. Fighting continued on Luzon, Mindanao, and other islands of the Philippines until the end of the war. Meanwhile, the United States Army Air Forces launched a massive firebombing campaign of strategic cities in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. A devastating bombing raid on Tokyo of 9-10 March was the deadliest conventional bombing raid in history.

In May 1945, Australian troops landed in Borneo, overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma in March, and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon by 3 May. Chinese forces started a counterattack in the Battle of West Hunan that occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, taking Iwo Jima by March, and Okinawa by the end of June. At the same time, American submarines cut off Japanese imports, drastically reducing Japan's ability to supply its overseas forces.

On 11 July, Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany. They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany, and the American, British and Chinese governments reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of Japan, specifically stating that "the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction". During this conference, the United Kingdom held its general election, and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister.

The call for unconditional surrender was rejected by the Japanese government, which believed it would be capable of negotiating for more favourable surrender terms. In early August, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement, invaded Japanese-held Manchuria and quickly defeated the Kwantung Army, which was the largest Japanese fighting force. These two events persuaded previously adamant Imperial Army leaders to accept surrender terms. The Red Army also captured the southern part of Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands. On 15 August 1945, Japan surrendered, with the surrender documents finally signed at Tokyo Bay on the deck of the American battleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945, ending the war.

World War II changed the political alignment and social structure of the globe. The United Nations (UN) was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts, and the victorious great powers-China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States-became the permanent members of its Security Council. The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the nearly half-century-long Cold War. In the wake of European devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering the decolonisation of Africa and Asia. Most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery and expansion. Political integration, especially in Europe, began as an effort to forestall future hostilities, end pre-war enmities and forge a sense of common identity.

The Allies established occupation administrations in Austria and Germany. The former became a neutral state, non-aligned with any political bloc. The latter was divided into western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union. A denazification programme in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in the Nuremberg trials and the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society.

Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories, Silesia, Neumark and most of Pomerania were taken over by Poland, and East Prussia was divided between Poland and the Soviet Union, followed by the expulsion to Germany of the nine million Germans from these provinces, as well as three million Germans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. By the 1950s, one-fifth of West Germans were refugees from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of the Curzon line, from which 2 million Poles were expelled; north-east Romania, parts of eastern Finland, and the three Baltic states were incorporated into the Soviet Union.

In an effort to maintain world peace, the Allies formed the United Nations, which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, and adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 as a common standard for all member nations. The great powers that were the victors of the war-France, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States-became the permanent members of the UN's Security Council. The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes, between the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China in 1971, and between the Soviet Union and its successor state, the Russian Federation, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over.

Germany had been de facto divided, and two independent states, the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), were created within the borders of Allied and Soviet occupation zones. The rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Soviet spheres of influence. Most eastern and central European countries fell into the Soviet sphere, which led to establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result, East Germany, Poland, Hungary, Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Albania became Soviet satellite states. Communist Yugoslavia conducted a fully independent policy, causing tension with the Soviet Union.

Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact. The long period of political tensions and military competition between them, the Cold War, would be accompanied by an unprecedented arms race and proxy wars.

In Asia, the United States led the occupation of Japan and administered Japan's former islands in the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexed South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands. Korea, formerly under Japanese rule, was divided and occupied by the Soviet Union in the North and the United States in the South between 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to the Korean War.

In China, nationalist and communist forces resumed the civil war in June 1946. Communist forces were victorious and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated to Taiwan in 1949. In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and the creation of Israel marked the escalation of the Arab-Israeli conflict. While European powers attempted to retain some or all of their colonial empires, their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading to decolonisation.

The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The United States emerged much richer than any other nation, leading to a baby boom, and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much higher than that of any of the other powers, and it dominated the world economy. The UK and US pursued a policy of industrial disarmament in Western Germany in the years 1945-1948. Because of international trade interdependencies this led to European economic stagnation and delayed European recovery for several years.

Recovery began with the mid-1948 currency reform in Western Germany, and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the Marshall Plan (1948-1951) both directly and indirectly caused. The post-1948 West German recovery has been called the German economic miracle. Italy also experienced an economic boom and the French economy rebounded. By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin, and although receiving a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country, it continued in relative economic decline for decades.

The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war era. Japan recovered much later. China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952.

Casualties and war crimes

Estimates for the total number of casualties in the war vary, because many deaths went unrecorded. Most suggest that some 60 million people died in the war, including about 20 million military personnel and 40 million civilians. Many of the civilians died because of deliberate genocide, massacres, mass bombings, disease, and starvation.

The Soviet Union alone lost around 27 million people during the war, including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths. A quarter of the people in the Soviet Union were wounded or killed. Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany.

An estimated 11 to 17 million civilians died as a direct or as an indirect result of Nazi racist policies, including mass killing of around 6million Jews, along with Roma, homosexuals, at least 1.9 million ethnic Poles and millions of other Slavs (including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), and other ethnic and minority groups. Between 1941 and 1945, more than 200,000 ethnic Serbs, along with gypsies and Jews, were persecuted and murdered by the Axis-aligned Croatian Ustaše in Yugoslavia. Also, more than 100,000 Poles were massacred by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army in the Volhynia massacres, between 1943 and 1945. At the same time about 10,000-15,000 Ukrainians were killed by the Polish Home Army and other Polish units, in reprisal attacks.

In Asia and the Pacific, between 3million and more than 10 million civilians, mostly Chinese (estimated at 7.5 million), were killed by the Japanese occupation forces. The most infamous Japanese atrocity was the Nanking Massacre, in which fifty to three hundred thousand Chinese civilians were raped and murdered. Mitsuyoshi Himeta reported that 2.7 million casualties occurred during the Sankō Sakusen. General Yasuji Okamura implemented the policy in Heipei and Shantung.

Axis forces employed biological and chemical weapons. The Imperial Japanese Army used a variety of such weapons during its invasion and occupation of China ( see Unit 731) and in early conflicts against the Soviets. Both the Germans and the Japanese tested such weapons against civilians, and sometimes on prisoners of war.

The Soviet Union was responsible for the Katyn massacre of 22,000 Polish officers, and the imprisonment or execution of thousands of political prisoners by the NKVD, along with mass civilian deportations to Siberia, in the Baltic states and eastern Poland annexed by the Red Army.

The mass bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime, although no positive or specific customary international humanitarian law with respect to aerial warfare existed before or during World War II. The USAAF firebombed a total of 67 Japanese cities, killing 393,000 civilians and destroying 65% of built-up areas.

Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour

Nazi Germany was responsible for the Holocaust (which killed approximately 6million Jews) as well as for killing 2.7 million ethnic Poles and 4million others who were deemed " unworthy of life" (including the disabled and mentally ill, Soviet prisoners of war, Romani, homosexuals, Freemasons, and Jehovah's Witnesses) as part of a programme of deliberate extermination, in effect becoming a "genocidal state". Soviet POWs were kept in especially unbearable conditions, and 3.6 million Soviet POWs out of 5.7 million died in Nazi camps during the war. In addition to concentration camps, death camps were created in Nazi Germany to exterminate people on an industrial scale. Nazi Germany extensively used forced labourers; about 12 million Europeans from German occupied countries were abducted and used as a slave work force in German industry, agriculture and war economy.

The Soviet Gulag became a de facto system of deadly camps during 1942-43, when wartime privation and hunger caused numerous deaths of inmates, including foreign citizens of Poland and other countries occupied in 1939-40 by the Soviet Union, as well as Axis POWs. By the end of the war, most Soviet POWs liberated from Nazi camps and many repatriated civilians were detained in special filtration camps where they were subjected to NKVD evaluation, and 226,127 were sent to the Gulag as real or perceived Nazi collaborators.

Japanese prisoner-of-war camps, many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East found the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 per cent (for American POWs, 37 per cent), seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians. While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after the surrender of Japan, the number of Chinese released was only 56.

At least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by the East Asia Development Board, or Kōain, for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million. In Java, between 4and 10 million (Japanese: "manual labourers"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in South East Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java.

Occupation

In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichsmarks (27.8 billion US dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include the sizeable plunder of industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods. Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on.

In the East, the intended gains of Lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders. Unlike in the West, the Nazi racial policy encouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the " inferior people" of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed by mass executions. Although resistance groups formed in most occupied territories, they did not significantly hamper German operations in either the East or the West until late 1943.

In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples. Although Japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from European domination, Japanese war crimes frequently turned local public opinion against them. During Japan's initial conquest it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m ³) of oil (~5.5×10 ⁵ tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces, and by 1943 was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (~6.8 ⁶ t), 76 per cent of its 1940 output rate.

Home fronts and production

In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and the British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); if colonies are included, the Allies had more than a 5:1 advantage in population and a nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP. In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this is reduced to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included.

The United States produced about two-thirds of all the munitions used by the Allies in WWII, including warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition. Though the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies, as the war largely settled into one of attrition. While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis is often attributed[by whom? ] to the Allies having more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in the labour force, Allied strategic bombing, and Germany's late shift to a war economy contributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and had not equipped themselves to do so. To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions of slave labourers; Germany used about 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe, while Japan used more than 18 million people in Far East Asia.

Advances in technology and warfare

Aircraft were used for reconnaissance, as fighters, bombers, and ground-support, and each role was advanced considerably. Innovation included airlift (the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel); and of strategic bombing (the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war). Anti-aircraft weaponry also advanced, including defences such as radar and surface-to-air artillery. The use of the jet aircraft was pioneered and, though late introduction meant it had little impact, it led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide. Although guided missiles were being developed, they were not advanced enough to reliably target aircraft until some years after the war.

Advances were made in nearly every aspect of naval warfare, most notably with aircraft carriers and submarines. Although aeronautical warfare had relatively little success at the start of the war, actions at Taranto, Pearl Harbor, and the Coral Sea established the carrier as the dominant capital ship in place of the battleship. In the Atlantic, escort carriers proved to be a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close the Mid-Atlantic gap. Carriers were also more economical than battleships because of the relatively low cost of aircraft and their not requiring to be as heavily armoured. Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during the First World War, were anticipated by all sides to be important in the second. The British focused development on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as the Type VII submarine and wolfpack tactics.[better source needed ] Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh light, hedgehog, squid, and homing torpedoes proved victorious over the German submarines.

Land warfare changed from the static front lines of trench warfare of World War I, which had relied on improved artillery that outmatched the speed of both infantry and cavalry, to increased mobility and combined arms. The tank, which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon. In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World WarI, and advances continued throughout the war with increases in speed, armour and firepower.[citation needed ] At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications. This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France. Many means of destroying tanks, including indirect artillery, anti-tank guns (both towed and self-propelled), mines, short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used. Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces, and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I. The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the German MG34, and various submachine guns which were suited to close combat in urban and jungle settings. The assault rifle, a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard postwar infantry weapon for most armed forces.

Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using large codebooks for cryptography by designing ciphering machines, the most well known being the German Enigma machine. Development of SIGINT ( signals intelligence) and cryptanalysis enabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption of Japanese naval codes and British Ultra, a pioneering method for decoding Enigma benefiting from information given to the United Kingdom by the Polish Cipher Bureau, which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war. Another aspect of military intelligence was the use of deception, which the Allies used to great effect, such as in operations Mincemeat and Bodyguard.

Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world's first programmable computers ( Z3, Colossus, and ENIAC), guided missiles and modern rockets, the Manhattan Project's development of nuclear weapons, operations research and the development of artificial harbours and oil pipelines under the English Channel.[citation needed ] Penicillin was first mass-produced and used during the war (see Stabilization and mass production of penicillin).

1. ^ Ferris, John; Mawdsley, Evan (2015). The Cambridge History of the Second World War, Volume I: Fighting the War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

2. ^ Seagrave, Sterling (5 February 2007). "post Feb 5 2007, 03:15 PM". The Education Forum. Archived from the original on 13 June 2008. Americans think of WW2 in Asia as having begun with Pearl Harbor, the British with the fall of Singapore, and so forth. The Chinese would correct this by identifying the Marco Polo Bridge incident as the start, or the Japanese seizure of Manchuria earlier.

3. ^ Ben-Horin 1943, p. 169; Taylor 1979, p. 124; Yisreelit, Hevrah Mizrahit (1965). Asian and African Studies, p. 191.
For 1941 see Taylor 1961, p. vii; Kellogg, William O (2003). American History the Easy Way. Barron's Educational Series. p. 236 ISBN 0-7641-1973-7.
There is also the viewpoint that both World War I and World War II are part of the same "European Civil War" or "Second Thirty Years War": Canfora 2006, p. 155; Prins 2002, p. 11.

4. ^ Frank, Willard C. (1987). "The Spanish Civil War and the Coming of the Second World War". The International History Review. 9 (3): 368-409 - via JSTOR.

5. ^ Why Japan and Russia never signed a WWII peace treaty Archived 4 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Asia Times.

6. ^ Andrea L. Stanton; Edward Ramsamy; Peter J. Seybolt (2012). Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia. p. 308. ISBN 978-1-4129-8176-7. Archived from the original on 18 August 2018.

7. ^ Tucker, Spencer C. (2009). A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East [6 volumes]: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-672-5. Archived from the original on 18 August 2018 - via Google Books.

8. ^ Yang Kuisong, "On the reconstruction of the facts of the Battle of Pingxingguan"

9. ^ Watson, Derek (2000). "Molotov's Apprenticeship in Foreign Policy: The Triple Alliance Negotiations in 1939". Europe-Asia Studies. 52 (4): 695-722. doi:10.1080/713663077. JSTOR 153322. S2CID 144385167.

10. ^ David T. Zabecki (1 May 2015). World War II in Europe: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 1663. ISBN 978-1-135-81242-3. The earliest fighting started at 0445 hours when marines from the battleship Schleswig-Holstein attempted to storm a small Polish fort in Danzig, the Westerplate

11. ^ Keegan 1997, p. 35.
Cienciala 2010, p. 128, observes that, while it is true that Poland was far away, making it difficult for the French and British to provide support, "[f]ew Western historians of World War II ... know that the British had committed to bomb Germany if it attacked Poland, but did not do so except for one raid on the base of Wilhelmshaven. The French, who committed to attacking Germany in the west, had no intention of doing so."

12. ^ Ginsburgs, George (1958). "A Case Study in the Soviet Use of International Law: Eastern Poland in 1939". The American Journal of International Law. 52 (1): 69-84. doi:10.2307/2195670. JSTOR 2195670.

13. ^ Nuremberg Documents C-62/GB86, a directive from Hitler in October 1939 which concludes: "The attack [on France] is to be launched this Autumn if conditions are at all possible."

14. ^ Blitzkrieg: From the Rise of Hitler to the Fall of Dunkirk, L Deighton, Jonathan Cape, 1993, pp. 186-87. Deighton states that "the offensive was postponed twenty-nine times before it finally took place."

15. ^ "Major international events of 1940, with explanation". Ibiblio.org. Archived from the original on 25 May 2013.

16. ^ Morrisey, Will (24 January 2019), "What Churchill and De Gaulle learned from the Great War", Winston Churchill, Routledge, pp. 119-126, doi:10.4324/9780429027642-6, ISBN 978-0-429-02764-2

17. ^ "Peace and War: United States Foreign Policy, 1931-1941". U.S. Department of State Publication (1983): 87-97. 1983.

18. ^ Gilbert, Adrian (2003). The Encyclopedia of Warfare: From Earliest Times to the Present Day. Globe Pequot. p. 259. ISBN 978-1-59228-027-8. Archived from the original on 19 July 2019.

19. ^ Holland 2008, pp. 169-84; Beevor 2012, pp. 568-73.
The weeks after the fall of Rome saw a dramatic upswing in German atrocities in Italy (Mazower 2008, pp. 500-02). The period featured massacres with victims in the hundreds at Civitella (de Grazia & Paggi 1991; Belco 2010), Fosse Ardeatine (Portelli 2003), and Sant'Anna di Stazzema (Gordon 2012, pp. 10-11), and is capped with the Marzabotto massacre.

20. ^ "Slovak National Uprising 1944". Museum of the Slovak National Uprising. Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs of the Slovak Republic.

21. ^ "Armistice Negotiations and Soviet Occupation". US Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011. The coup speeded the Red Army's advance, and the Soviet Union later awarded Michael the Order of Victory for his personal courage in overthrowing Antonescu and putting an end to Romania's war against the Allies. Western historians uniformly point out that the Communists played only a supporting role in the coup; postwar Romanian historians, however, ascribe to the Communists the decisive role in Antonescu's overthrow

22. ^ 全面抗战，战犯前仆后继见阎王 [The war criminals tries to be the first to see their ancestors]. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016.

23. ^ Long, Tony (9 March 2011). "March 9, 1945: Burning the Heart Out of the Enemy". Wired. Wired Magazine. Archived from the original on 23 March 2017. 1945: In the single deadliest air raid of World War II, 330 American B-29s rain incendiary bombs on Tokyo, touching off a firestorm that kills upwards of 100,000 people, burns a quarter of the city to the ground, and leaves a million homeless.

24. ^ Eberhardt, Piotr (2015). "The Oder-Neisse Line as Poland's western border: As postulated and made a reality". Geographia Polonica. 88 (1): 77-105. doi:10.7163/GPol.0007. Archived from the original on 3 May 2018.

25. Eberhardt, Piotr (2011). Political Migrations On Polish Territories (1939-1950) (PDF). Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences. ISBN 978-83-61590-46-0. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 May 2014.

26. ^ Eberhardt, Piotr (2012). "The Curzon line as the eastern boundary of Poland. The origins and the political background". Geographia Polonica. 85 (1): 5-21. doi:10.7163/GPol.2012.1.1. Archived from the original on 3 May 2018.

27. ^ Genzberger, Christine (1994). China Business: The Portable Encyclopedia for Doing Business with China. Petaluma, CA: World Trade Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-9631864-3-0.

28. ^ Kużniar-Plota, Małgorzata (30 November 2004). "Decision to commence investigation into Katyn Massacre". Departmental Commission for the Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation. Retrieved 4 August 2011.

29. Robert Gellately (2007).^ Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf, ISBN 1-4000-4005-1 p. 391

30. Zemskov V.N. On repatriation of Soviet citizens. Istoriya SSSR., 1990, No. 4, (in Russian). See also ^ [2] Archived 14 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine (online version), and Bacon 1992; Ellman 2002.

31. Compare: ^ Wilson, Mark R. (2016). Destructive Creation: American Business and the Winning of World War II. American Business, Politics, and Society (reprint ed.). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-8122-9354-8. By producing nearly two thirds of the munitions used by Allied forces - including huge numbers of aircraft, ships, tanks, trucks, rifles, artillery shells , and bombs - American industry became what President Franklin D. Roosevelt once called 'the arsenal of democracy' [...].

32. ^ Sprague, Oliver; Griffiths, Hugh (2006). "The AK-47: the worlds favourite killing machine" (PDF). controlarms.org. p. 1. Archived from the original on 28 December 2018.

33. ^ Macintyre, Ben (10 December 2010). "Bravery of thousands of Poles was vital in securing victory". The Times. London. p. 27.

34. ^ "Discovery and Development of Penicillin: International Historic Chemical Landmark". Washington, D.C.: American Chemical Society. Archived from the original on 28 June 2019.

References

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Bosworth, Richard; Maiolo, Joseph (2015). The Cambridge History of the Second World War Volume 2: Politics and Ideology. The Cambridge History of the Second World War (3 vol). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 313-14.

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Burcher, Roy; Rydill, Louis (1995). Concepts in Submarine Design. Journal of Applied Mechanics. 62. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 268. Bibcode:1995JAM....62R.268B. doi:10.1115/1.2895927. ISBN 978-0-521-55926-3.

Cienciala, Anna M. (2010). "Another look at the Poles and Poland during World War II". The Polish Review. 55 (1): 123-43. JSTOR 25779864.

Coogan, Anthony (1993). "The Volunteer Armies of Northeast China". History Today. 43.

Davies, Norman (2006). Europe at War 1939-1945: No Simple Victory. London: Macmillan. ix+544 pages. ISBN 978-0-333-69285-1. OCLC 70401618.

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---; Maksudov, S. (1994). "Soviet Deaths in the Great Patriotic War: A Note" (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies. 46 (4): 671-80. doi:10.1080/09668139408412190. JSTOR 152934. PMID 12288331.

Ferguson, Niall (2006). The War of the World: Twentieth-Century Conflict and the Descent of the West. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-311239-6.

Gilbert, Martin (1989). Second World War. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-79616-9.

Glantz, David M. (1986). "Soviet Defensive Tactics at Kursk, July 1943". Combined Arms Research Library. CSI Report No. 11. Command and General Staff College. OCLC 278029256. Archived from the original on 6 March 2008.

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Gordon, Andrew (2004). "The greatest military armada ever launched". In Jane Penrose (ed.). The D-Day Companion. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. pp. 127-144. ISBN 978-1-84176-779-6.

Hauner, Milan (1978). "Did Hitler Want a World Dominion?". Journal of Contemporary History. 13 (1): 15-32. doi:10.1177/002200947801300102. JSTOR 260090. S2CID 154865385.

Herf, Jeffrey (2003). "The Nazi Extermination Camps and the Ally to the East. Could the Red Army and Air Force Have Stopped or Slowed the Final Solution?". Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History. 4 (4): 913-30. doi:10.1353/kri.2003.0059. S2CID 159958616.

Hsu, Long-hsuen; Chang, Ming-kai (1971). History of The Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) (2nd ed.). Chung Wu Publishers. ASIN B00005W210.

Ingram, Norman (2006). "Pacifism". In Lawrence D. Kritzman; Brian J. Reilly (eds.). The Columbia History Of Twentieth-Century French Thought. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 76-78. ISBN 978-0-231-10791-4.

Kennedy, David M. (2001). Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929-1945. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514403-1.

Klavans, Richard A.; Di Benedetto, C. Anthony; Prudom, Melanie J. (1997). "Understanding Competitive Interactions: The U.S. Commercial Aircraft Market". Journal of Managerial Issues. 9 (1): 13-361. JSTOR 40604127.

Koch, H.W. (1983). "Hitler's 'Programme' and the Genesis of Operation 'Barbarossa'". The Historical Journal. 26 (4): 891-920. doi:10.1017/S0018246X00012747. JSTOR 2639289.

Lewis, Morton (1953). "Japanese Plans and American Defenses". In Greenfield, Kent Roberts (ed.). The Fall of the Philippines. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. LCCN 53-63678.

Mandelbaum, Michael (1988). The Fate of Nations: The Search for National Security in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. Cambridge University Press. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-521-35790-6.

May, Ernest R. (1955). "The United States, the Soviet Union, and the Far Eastern War, 1941-1945". Pacific Historical Review. 24 (2): 153-74. doi:10.2307/3634575. JSTOR 3634575.

Milward, A.S. (1964). "The End of the Blitzkrieg". The Economic History Review. 16 (3): 499-518. JSTOR 2592851.

Murray, Williamson (1983). Strategy for Defeat: The Luftwaffe, 1933-1945. Maxwell Air Force Base, AL: Air University Press. ISBN 978-1-4294-9235-5.

Neulen, Hans Werner (2000). In the skies of Europe - Air Forces allied to the Luftwaffe 1939-1945. Ramsbury, Marlborough, UK: The Crowood Press. ISBN 1-86126-799-1.

Painter, David S. (2012). "Oil and the American Century" (PDF). The Journal of American History. 99 (1): 24-39. doi:10.1093/jahist/jas073.

Radtke, K.W. (1997). "'Strategic' concepts underlying the so-called Hirota foreign policy, 1933-7". In Aiko Ikeo (ed.). Economic Development in Twentieth Century East Asia: The International Context. London & New York: Routledge. pp. 100-20. ISBN 978-0-415-14900-6.

Record, Jeffery (2005). Appeasement Reconsidered: Investigating the Mythology of the 1930s (PDF). Diane Publishing. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-58487-216-0.

Roskill, S.W. (1954). The War at Sea 1939-1945, Volume 1: The Defensive. History of the Second World War. United Kingdom Military Series. London: HMSO.

Sella, Amnon (1978). ""Barbarossa": Surprise Attack and Communication". Journal of Contemporary History. 13 (3): 555-83. doi:10.1177/002200947801300308. JSTOR 260209. S2CID 220880174.

--- (1983). "Khalkhin-Gol: The Forgotten War". Journal of Contemporary History. 18 (4): 651-87. JSTOR 260307.

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World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries-including all the great powers-forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis powers.

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Autor: Tara Obrenović rad br. 5

Београд су англо-америчке ваздушне снаге током Другог светског рата бомбардовале 11 пута. Инфраструктура у Београду је бомбардована три пута у априлу, два пута у мају, по једном у јуну и јулу и четири пута у септембру 1944.[1][2][3] Најтеже жртве забележене су током априлског бомбардовања 16. и 17. априла 1944. године, што се поклопило са првим и другим даном православног Васкрса те године. Главна јединица у овој акцији била је америчка 15. ваздухопловна јединица, са базом у Фођи на југу Италије. Учествовало је 600 бомбардера, који су са 3.000—5.000 метара испуштали „тепих бомбе“. Противавионска одбрана није постојала.
Бомбардовање је настављено већим интензитетом 17. априла, када је погођен концентрациони логор Сајмиште. У логору је погинуло 60 логораша, а око 150 је рањено.

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Autor: Tara Obrenović rad br. 4

Prve Lego kocke nastale su 1949. godine
Naziv – Lego nastao je spajanjem (i skraćivanjem) dve reči na danskom “leg godt” što u prevodu znači “dobra igra”.
Nakon velikog uspeha sa drvenim igračkama, Lego je uskoro počeo da pravi i plastične igračke, a prve Lego kocke nastale su 1949. godine. Njihov prvi naziv bio je “automatske spajajuće kocke”.
Kocke koje su izašle iz Lego radionice po dizjanu su ličile dosta na kocke koje su dve godine pre toga počele da se prodaju u Velikoj Britaniji, ali je ipak način na koji su se kocke spajale i razdvajale drugačiji.

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prvi kopijuter [polovina XX veka]                                                           Autor:Andrija Gajic

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prvi kopijuter [polovina XX veka]                                                           Autor:Andrija Gajic

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Složeni uređaj koji služi za izvršavanje matematičkih operacija ili kontrolnih operacija koje se mogu izraziti u numeričkom ili logičkom obliku. Naziva se još i elektroničko računalo ili računar. Računari su sastavljeni od komponenata koje obavljaju jednostavnije, jasno određene funkcije. Kompleksna interakcija tih komponenata rezultira sposobnošću računara da obrađuje informacije.Računari u današnjem smislu nastali su polovinom XX veka, ali koreni računarstva su mnogo stariji. Mehanički analogni računari su počeli da se pojavljuju u prvom veku i kasnije su korišćeni u srednjem veku za astronomske proračune. Tokom Drugog svetskog rata, mehanički analogni računari su korišćeni za specijalizovane vojne namene. Tokom tog vremena razvijeni su prvi elektronski digitalni računari. Originalno oni su bili veličine velike sobe, konzumirajći količinu energije jednaku količini neophodnoj za napajanje nekoliko stotina modernih personalnih računara

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Find high-quality images, photos, and animated GIFS with Bing Images

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Globalni sistem međusobno povezanih računarskih mreža, poznat kao internet, danas koriste milijarde ljudi širom sveta. Mnogo ljudi je zaslužno za razvoj interneta, ali jedno ime zaslužuje posebnu pažnju – Leonard Krajnrok, američki naučnik, autor matematičke teorije mreže podataka. Sa mnogim drugim vrhunski inženjerima i naučnicima, kao što je Lorens Roberts, Krajnrok je radio na čuvenom projektu Ministarstva odbrane SAD poznatom pod akronimom ARPANET, koji se smatra pretečom interneta.
Kasnije je na osnovu ove mreže stvoren World Wide Web, globalna mreža koju danas koristimo.
Internet koristimo u svakodnevnom životu i on je unapredio našu komunikaciju, zabavu, ali i edukaciju, marketing, trgovinu, politiku… u stvari sve aspekte naših života.  Sa razvojem 5G mreže, koja je ove 2019. godine počela da se primenjuje u pojedinim zemljama, i koja obezbeđuje neverovatne brzine interneta, čini se kao da će globalna mreža doživeti svoj vrhunac. Ali, s obzirom na munjevit razvoj novih tehnologija, niko ne može predvideti kakva nas sve iznenađenja čekaju u budućnosti što se tiče interneta.

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1969 Odlazak na mesec                     Autor:Andrija Gajic                                  

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1969 Odlazak na mesec                     Autor:Andrija Gajic                                  

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Američki Apolo 11 je bila prva misija s posadom koja je sletela na Mesec, dana 20. jula 1969.
Između 1969. i 1972. bilo je šest američkih sletanja s posadom, i brojnih bespilotnih sletanja. Mekih sletanja nije bilo između 22. avgusta 1976. i 14. decembra 2013. godine.

Sjedinjene Države su jedina zemlja koja je uspešno vodila misije s posadom na Mesecu, a poslednji put su napustili mesečevu površinu u decembru 1972. godine. Sva meka sletanja bila su na bliskoj strani Meseca do 3. januara 2019, kada je kineska letelica Čange 4 izvršila prvo sletanje na daleku stranu Meseca.

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Find high-quality images, photos, and animated GIFS with Bing Images

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godina 1804 prvi srpski ustanak
Први српски устанак је био устанак Срба у Смедеревском санџаку и околних шест нахија против Турака у периоду од 15. фебруара 1804. до 7. октобра 1813. године. Отпочео је као побуна против дахија. Устаници предвођени Карађорђем су успели да у значајном временском интервалу ослободе пашалук. Овај устанак је претходио Другом српском устанку 1815, који је на крају довео до стварања Кнежевине Србије.

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godina 1861  telefon
elefon (iz grčkog: tele = udaljen i fon = glas) je uređaj za komunikaciju na daljinu, koji se koristi tako što prima i prenosi zvuk (uglavnom ljudski glas) s jednog mjesta na drugo i obratno. Većina telefona radi tako što prenosi električni signal preko složenog sustava telefonskih mreža koji omogućuje komunikaciju bilo kojeg korisnika telefona sa skoro bilo kojim drugim.

Riječ telefon prvi put upotrijebio je Johann Philipp Reis 1861. godine kako bi opisao svoj aparat za prijenos govora električnim putem.[1]

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godina 1886 automobil
Razvoj današnjih automobila je počeo 1886. godine u Njemačkoj. Prvi automobil je konstruirao i napravio Karl Benz, 3. jula 1886. u Mannheimu. Kratko nakon toga su i Gottlieb Daimler i Wilhelm Maybach u blizini Stuttgarta kao i Siegfried Marcus u Beču proizveli svoje verzije automobila.

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Први снимак помоћу Х-зрака (1896)

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Први снимак помоћу Х-зрака (1896)

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Аутор: Ива Дожић
Немачки физичар Вилхелм Рендген је 28. децембра 1985. године открио X-зраке. Након тога, 2. јануара 1896. године, Српски научник Михајло Пупин (1854-1935) је направио први снимак са Х- зрацима.

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godina 1903  avion
Авион (аероплан, ваздухоплов; франц. avion, лат. avis — „птица”) је направа за летење чврсте конструкције. Састоји се из тела (змаја) (труп, крила, узгонске и командне површине, стајни трап), опреме и погона. Прву успешну конструкцију, с реализацијом, су извели браћа Вилбур и Орвил Рајт (Wright). На тој својој конструкцији су успели да полете 1903. године. То је забележено као историјски почетак лета човека с направом која се назива „авион”.[1]

Масовно коришћење авиона у борбену намену је започето крајем Првог светског рата.

Бројчана надмоћ борбене авијације се доминантно одразила на исход Другог светског рата, јер ко контролише небо тај контролише и битку и територију у којој се води.

Авиони се користе у цивилне и војне сврхе. У цивилне сврхе они служе за превоз робе и путника, док за војне сврхе служе за превласт у ваздушном простору и за дејство из ваздуха по земаљским циљевима и на пловне објекте.[2]

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Olga Vasić
Rusko-japanski rat (10. februar 1904 — 5. septembar 1905) je bio rat između carske Rusije i Japanskog carstva za prevlast nad Mandžurijom i Korejom. Najveće poprište rata je bila južna Mandžurija, tačnije poluostrva Ljaotung i Mukden u Kini. Pomorski rat se odvijao u Žutom moru i morima oko Koreje i Japana. Rat je započeo Japan zbog njegove namere da anektira Koreju. U financijskom smislu ovo je bio svetski rat pošto je Rusko Carstvo nakon što je potrošilo zalihe novca bilo financirano od Francuske, dok je s druge strane Japan koji nije imao nikakve novćane rezerve bio od prvog do zadnjeg dana financiran od Velike Britanije i SADa.

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Milorad Rajcevic prvi srbin koji je obisao ceo svet  Autor:Daniel Garsija Stamenkovic

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Milorad Rajcevic prvi srbin koji je obisao ceo svet  Autor:Daniel Garsija Stamenkovic

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Ni u današnje vreme kada avioni za nekoliko sati stignu sa jedne na drugu stranu sveta, a vozovi jure 300 kilometara na sat nije baš tako lako proputovati svet, a kamo li pre više od jednog veka kada nije bilo ni brzih prevoznih sredstava ni saobraćajnica.

To je ipak uspelo Miloradu Rajčeviću, prvom Srbinu koji je obišao celu planetu, a za koga njegovi sunarodnici gotovo da, nažalost, uopšte ne znaju.

Njemu je posvećena izložba autora istoričara i upravnika muzeja Gorana Vilića, otvorena u u Muzeju Jadra.
Prema njegovim rečima, Rajčević je na prvo putovanje krenuo sa samo petnaest godina u Beč da uči slikarstvo, a opet, prema nekim izvorima, molerski zanat. Ubrzo je otišao u Salcburg, pa Minhen, Štutgart, Nirnberg, onda je stigao u Pariz, pa nastavio putovanje po Švajcarskoj.

Onda se obreo u Rijeci i uspeo da se ukrca u prekookeanski brod ‘’Ultania’’ i stigne u Ameriku gde ostaje nekoliko meseci. Tamo je povredio nogu pa je završio u bolnici, gde je utvrđeno da nema pasoš i vraćen je u Evropu.

– Prvo putovanje trajalo je četiri godine i za to vreme je naučio četiri jezika. Posle toga zatekao se slučajno 1910. u Beogradu u uredništvu lista ’’Mali žurnal’’, jednog od najtiražnijih u to vreme koji su uređivala braća Savić iz Šapca.
Savići su mu ponudili rok od dve godine da obiđe Evropu, Aziju, Ameriku i Afriku. Osim nagrade od 10.000 dinara dogovor je bio i mesečna nadoknada od 150 dinara, a on je imao obavezu da u svakom mestu kao dokaz boravka dobije potpis, potvrdu tamošnjih vlasti.

Sa putovanja je slao repotaže za ‘’Mali žurnal’’ koje su bile veoma čitane. Sa samo 20 godina na put dugačak 120 hiljada kilometara pošao je 14. marta 1910, a vratio se 21. septembra 1911. godine. On je svoja putovanja nastavio sve do 1939. godine kada se zamonašio na Hilandaru.

Inače, nema zemlje u kojoj nije bio, znao je petnaest jezika, poznavao istoriju i običaje država i naroda gde bi se nalazio i bio najbolji ambasador naše zemlje u to vreme, priča Vilić
Rajčević, rođen u Prokuplju 1890, a odrastao u Leskovcu, prvi je Srbin koji je proputovao našu planetu.

Obišao je obe hemisfere šest puta i na putovanjima proveo više od trideset godina. Pojavljivao se u skoro svim svetskim novinama, a primali su ga i svi svetski lideri i gradonačelnici najvećih gradova.

Držao je predavanja o svojoj zemlji širom sveta, a putovao je peške, na biciklu, motociklu, kolima, železnicom, na slonu, rikši.

Upoznao je mnoge poznate ljude, Mahatmu Gandija, Teslu, Pupina. družio
se sa najbogatijim čovekom na svetu Nizamom od Hajderabada VII i upoznao njegovih 300 žena.

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Аутор: Ива Дожић

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Аутор: Ива Дожић

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17-18. јун 1928. Амелија Мери Ерхарт (енгл. Amelia Mary Earhart) је била прва жена која је авионом прелетела Атлантски океан. Први пут је то учинила од 17. до 18. јуна 1928. године са пилотом Вилмером Шулцом, као путник, а други пут од 20. до 21. маја 1932. године као пилот. Јула 1935. године прелетела је сама раздаљину од Хаваја до Калифорније за 18 сати и 16 минута, при чему је прелетела 3.860 км. Погинула је у области Пацифика приликом лета око света. (Извор: Wikipedia)

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Godine 1903. Marija Kiri je postala prva žena u istoriji koja je dobila titulu doktora fizike a iste godine dobila je i Nobelovu nagradu za fiziku zajedno sa Pjerom  Kirijem  i Henrijem  Bekerelom. Obrazloženje Švedske akademije bilo je „ Kao priznanje za izuzene zasluge koje su iskazali zajedničkim istraživanjem fenomena radioaktivnog zračenja, kojeg je otkrio profesor  Henri Bekerel“.
Marija Kiri je bila prva žena dobitnik Nobelove nagrade.

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godina 1937 prve slusalice
Slušalice su veoma važan uređaj za auditivni monitoring, uživanje u muzici, ali i kao modni detalj. Tokom gotovo stogodišnje istorije menjale su oblike, dizajn i veličine, razvile su se od vojnog uređaja do stvari bez koje se gotovo ne izlazi iz kuće. Prvi set slušalica je 1910. godine napravio Natanijel Boldvin. One su bile ručni izrađene i prodate Mornarici Sjedinjenih Američkih Država za korišćenje u vojne svrhe. Nemačka kompanija Beyerdynamic izumela je 1937. godine prve dinamičke slušalice, model pod nazivom DT-48, koji se i dan danas proizvodi. Godina 1958. značajna je po tome što je Džon Kos, džez muzičar iz Milvokija i osnivač Koss korporacije, izmislio prve stereo slušalice, dizajnirane za slušanje uz nove moderne stereo gramofonske ploče. Krajem osamdesetih godina kompanija Soni izdala je na tržište prvi Vokmen i učinila muziku mobilnom. To je prouzrokovalo i pojavu veoma lakih i manjih slušalica, pa se tada prvi put pojavljuju okoušne i slušalice koje se nose u ušnoj školjci. Početkom 21. veka veliku popularnost imale su kanalne slušalice, takozvane bubice, zbog bolje izolacije zvuka u odnosu na okolinu.[2]

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Drugi svetski rat
Olga Vasić
Други светски рат је трајао од 1939. до 1945. године. У њему је учествовала већина тадашњих држава света, укључујући и све велике силе, које су основале два супротстављена војна савеза: силе Осовине, на челу са Немачком и Савезници, на челу са СССР, Уједињеним Краљевством и САД. По броју држава, односно људи који су у њему учествовали, те броју људских жртава и степену материјалног разарања, Други светски рат представља највећи оружани сукоб у историји човечанства, са више од 100 милиона људи који су служили у војсци 30 различитих држава.

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Lajka pas koji je zrtvovan za nauku                              Autor: Daniel Garsija Stamenkovic

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Lajka pas koji je zrtvovan za nauku                              Autor: Daniel Garsija Stamenkovic

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Ulični pas Lajka upisao se u istoriju kao prvo živo biće koje je napustilo zemljinu atmosferu na putu bez povratka.

Pre 63 godina, 3. novembra 1957. godine, SSSR lansirao je satelit sa Lajkom u njemu kako bi testirali sigurnost za buduće ljudske misije.

"Devet krugova oko Zemlje učinili su Lajku prvim svetskim astronautom koji je žrtvovan da bi naredne misije u svemiru bile uspšene", rekla je jednom prilikom ruski biolog Alilija Kotovskaja, koja je ponosna na svoj rad Lajkinog trenera. Pre Lajke je bilo nekoliko pokušaja sa drugim psima koji su leteli po nekoliko minuta samo da bi naučnici došli do podataka kako se snalaze u bezgravitacionom stanju. Ipak, Lajka je bila prvi pas koji je zaista i poslat u svemir.

Da bi se psi prilagodili na kapsulu pod pritiskom koja je dugačka samo 80 centimetara, Kotovskaja ih je trenirala tako što ih je na svakih par dana premeštala u sve manje kaveze. Pas bi prošao i test pod centrifugom, koja stimuliše snagu pri lansiranju satelita, ali i buku.
Od svih drugih kandidata upravo je Lajka, trogodišnji mešanac sa ulica Moskve, najbolje prošla na testovima.

"Birali smo ženke jer one ne moraju da dižu nogu pri mokrenju i tako zauzimaju manje prostora. Birali smo lutalice jer su snalažljivije i nisu previše zahtevne", priča Kotovskaja dodajući da su psi morali da budu i fotogenični.

Osim fotogeničnosti zbog propagande dobijali su i značajna imena. Ime Lajka dolazi iz ruske reči koja znači "lavež". Kotovskaja kaže da je imala izuzetnu narav, prilagodljivost i inteligentno-upitni pogled i dodaje da su veče pred misiju svi članovi tima došli da se oproste od Lajke.

"Znali smo da će ona uginuti tokom leta, u to vreme nije bilo načina da je vratimo. Otišla sam da je posetim, zamolila je da nam oprosti i plakala sam dok sam je poslednji put mazila", priča Kotovskaja. Dan kasnije, Lajka je krenula na put bez povratka.

Satelit Sputnjik lansiran je u 5:30 po moskovskom vremenu iz Kazahstana, a u početku je sve izgledalo kao da ide po planu.

"Tokom poletnja Lajkino srce se jako ubrzalo, a tek posle tri sata se vratilo u normalu. A onda je odjednom tokom devetog kruga oko Zemlje, temperatura u kapsuli počela da naglo da skače i dostigla 40 stepeni Celzijusa, zbog nedovoljne izolacije od sunčevih zraka".
Iako je postojala nada da će Lajka ostati živa barem 10 dana ona je preminula zbog toplotnog udara i dehidracije nakon samo nekoliko sati od lansiranja.

Sovjetski radio je uprkos tome nastavio da izveštava o "dobrom zdravlju" Lajke, koja je postala planetarna heroina.

Prema zvaničnoj verziji koje se Moskva dugo država, Lajka je uginula od otrova stavljenog u hranu da ne bi izgorela prilikom ponovnog ulaska kapsule u atmosferu.

Sam Sputnjik se raspao u atmosferi 14. aprila 1958, iznad Antila. Lajka je tada već mesecima bila mrtva.

Svemirsko putovanje Belke i Strelke, prvih pasa koji su se vratili iz svemira 19. avgusta 1960, otvorilo je put Juriju Gagarinu koji je 12. aprila 1961. postao prvi čovek u svemiru.

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Radio[ krajem XX veka ]                         Autor:Andrija Gajic

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Radio[ krajem XX veka ]                         Autor:Andrija Gajic

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Никола Тесла је званични проналазач радија. Он је први развио и објаснио начин за производњу радио фреквенција, принцип усаглашених резонантних кола у предајној и пријемној антени и јавно представио принципе радија и пренос сигнала на велике даљине. За овај свој проналазак је 1897. године добио патент број 645576 за уређај описан као „бежични пренос података“.

Радио је назив за бежични пренос и детекцију комуникационих сигнала електромагнетних таласа чије су фреквенције ниже од фреквенције видљиве светлости. Радио таласи путују кроз хомогени простор

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Иво Андрић и Нобелова награда (1961)
Аутор: Ана Ковачевић

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Иво Андрић и Нобелова награда (1961)
Аутор: Ана Ковачевић

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Иво Андрић је један од најпознатијих српских писаца. Током живота написао је много романа и приповедака, а био је и српски дипломата. За свој књижевни рад награђен је најважнијом наградом за књижевност. То је Нобелова награда коју је добио 1961. године у Стокхолму. У својим делима писао је о историји своје земље и кроз њу је обликовао разне ликове различите националности. Његова најпознатија дела су: ,,На Дрини ћуприја", ,,Проклета авлија", ,,Госпођица", ,,Немири", ,,Ex ponto", ,,Травничка хроника" и многе друге.

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Прва жена у свемиру (1963)

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Прва жена у свемиру (1963)

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Аутор: Ива Дожић
Валентина Владимировна Терешкова (рус. Валенти́на Влади́мировна Терешко́ва; рођена 6. марта 1937. године у Масленикову, Русија) је прва жена која је одлетела у свемир. Прошла процес селекције и изабрана међу пет финалисткиња између више од 400 жена које су се пријавиле. Са космодрома Бајконур у данашњем Казахстану 16. јуна 1963. године лансирана је у свемир у свемирском броду Васток 6. За мало мање од три дана у свемиру направила је 48 орбита око Земље. (Извор: Wikipedia)

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Почетак рада Основне школе "Иво Андрић" (1976)

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Почетак рада Основне школе "Иво Андрић" (1976)

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Аутор: Ива Дожић
Основна школа „Иво Андрић“ почела је са радом 1.9.1976.

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НАТО бомбардовање

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НАТО бомбардовање

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Аутор: Ива Дожић

НАТО је 24. марта 1999. године у 19:45 часова почео ваздушне нападе на војне циљеве у Савезној Републици Југославији, да би се касније ваздушни удари проширили и на привредне и цивилне објекте. У нападима који су без прекида трајали 78 дана тешко су оштећени инфраструктура, привредни објекти, школе, здравствене установе, медијске куће, споменици културе, цркве и манастири. (Извор: Wikipedia)

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Spektakularan rezultat LIGO eksperimenta potvrdio je 2016. godine postojanje gravitacionih talasa koje ranije niko nije mogao da snimi, a koje je Ajnštajn predvideo svojom Opštom teorijom relativnosti. Pomoću dva LIGO instrumenta 2016. godine ulovljeni su gravitacioni talasi nastali sudarom dve crne rupe, čime je nastala nova, gravitaciona radio-astronomija. Autor Marko Kržić

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Autor:Todor Ljubenov
Pretpostavlja se da su kosti iz perioda od pre 15.000 godina i da pripadaju kolumbijskom mamutu. Tokom izgradnje aerodroma pronađene su i kosti bizona, kamila, konja, ljudi, kao i različiti predmeti. Otkriće će, kako su saopštili, usporiti završetak radova na izgradnji aerodroma u Meksiko Sitiju, a iz Nacionalnog instituta za antropologiju i istoriju naveli su i da su tokom prošle godine na području Tultepaka, pronađeni ostaci 14 mamuta.

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Covid 19 и настава на даљину

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Covid 19 и настава на даљину

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Аутор: Ива Дожић
Март 2020. године - Крајем 2019. године се у Кини појавио вИрус Covid19. У марту 2020. је дошао и до Србије, тако да је први пут у историји настава одржавана на даљину уз помоћ телевизије и интернета.

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Kako izgleda vetrovita sezona na Marsu? Rover Kjuriositi snimio "Đavolju prašinu"

U regiji gde se nalazi rover Kjuriositi (Curiosity) trenutno je "vetrovita sezona".

OBJAVLJENO: 15. 09. 2020.

Mars je često veoma dinamično mesto, a takvim ga čini njegova atmosfera i način njene interakcije sa površinom. Na primer, u regiji gde se nalazi rover Kjuriositi (Curiosity) trenutno je "vetrovita sezona", piše NASA.

Početkom avgusta, jedna od navigacionih kamera rovera snimila je kadrove koje možete videti na ovoj animaciji, na kojima se vidi stubasti vrtlog vetra - poznat kao "Đavolja prašina" - koji se kreće po pejzažu.
Ovaj "Đavo" sa snimka prelazi preko malih brda na planini Šarp, na krateru Gale.

Procenjuje se da je "Đavolja prašina" koja je od rovera udaljena oko pola kilometra, široka oko 1,5 metara. Vrtlog "izlazi" iz okvira koji snima kamera, tako da tačna visina ne može da se odredi, ali se procenjuje da iznosi najmanje 50 metara.

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Мирослављево јеванђе

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Мирослављево јеванђење (12. век)
Аутор: Ана Ковачевић

Мирослављево јеванђеље је најстарији сачувани српски ћирилични рукопис који је илустрован. Јеванђеље је настало у 12. веку. Писано је на пергаменту и има 181 лист. Писано је за хумског кнеза Мирослава, брата Стефана Немање. Данас се чува у Народном музеју, а један од листова чува се  у Националној библиотеци у Русији.
Писано је на старословенском језику, пером у црној и црвеној боји. Књига садржи око 300 минијатура украшених златом. Јеванђеље је у 20. веку проглашено културним добром од изузетног значаја и уписано на листу Унеска.
Мирослављево јеванђеље може бити излагано само десет дана током године.

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Bitka kod Lepanta                              Autor : Daniel Garsija Stamenkovic

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Bitka kod Lepanta                              Autor : Daniel Garsija Stamenkovic

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Bitka kod Lepanta (grč. Ναύπακτος; tur. İnebahtı) je bila bitka kod drevne tvrđave Lepanta između osmanskih pomorskih snaga sa jedne strane, i udruženih hrišćanskih flota Španije, italijanskih gradova država i Vatikana ujedinjenih u Svetu ligu, vođena 7. oktobra 1571. godine, u kojoj su hrišćanske snage ubedljivo odnele pobedu i privele kraju osmansku hegemoniju na moru.[1]

Bitka koja je trajala punih pet sati vođena je na severnoj granici zaliva Patras u zapadnoj Grčkoj, gde su turske snage, ploveći u pravcu zapada iz svoje pomorske luke Lepanta, presrele snage Svete lige, koje su dolazile iz pravca Mesine[2]. Pobeda u ovoj bici je obezbedila privremenu hrišćansku kontrolu nad Mediteranom, zaštitila Rim od turskog napada i zaustavila dalje napredovanje Turaka ka zapadnoj Evropi. Ovo je bila poslednja velika bitka u kojoj su se borile lađe sa veslima.[1]

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Autor: Katarina Merle
Amerika je otkrivena 1492.godine kada je Kristofor Kolumbo je prvi put kročio na Američko tlo. Ovaj događaj se uzima kao datum otkrivanja Amerike, iako danas mnogi historičari prihvataju da su Vikinzi posjećivali Ameriku i ranije. Mnogo kasnije kontinent je nazvan po drugom istraživaču, Amerigo Vespucciju.

Ovaj događaj je od velike važnosti na mnogim poljima. Prvo geografski, jer je naveo ljude u Srednjem vijeku, koji su do tada spaljivali svakog naučnika za iznošenje takve teze, da povjeruju da je Zemlja okrugla. Postoji mišljenje da iako je zvanični stav bio da je Zemlja ravna ploča, Kolumbo nikada ne bi ni krenuo na ovo putovanje da je to vjerovao, niti bi mu Španski kralj Ferdinand i kraljica Izabela to odobrili.

Dana 12. oktobra, prije zore ugledali su kopno, a u rano jutro ekspedicija se iskrcala na ostrvo Guanahaní (nalazi se u ostrvlju Bahami). Prije susreta s gostoljubivim domorocima Kolumbo je proglasio da ostrvo na koji su stupili pripada Španiji te ga je preimenovao u San Salvador (Sveti spasilac) - danas ostrvo Wotling u sklopu države Salvador. U nekoliko narednih sedmica Kolumbo se iskrcao na još nekoliko okolnih ostrva, uključujući ostrvo Kubu, koju je nazvao Juana u čast španske princeze, te na ostrvo koje je nazvao Espańola - kasnije krivo nazvanu Hispaniola (danas Dominikanska republika i Haiti), a sve u uvjerenju kako se nalazi u vodama Azije. U decembru Santa María se nasukala na obali Espańole. La Navidad, provizorn utvrđenje, sagrađena je od materijala koji je spašen prilikom nasukavanja broda, a u njoj je boravilo manje od 40 ljudi. Nina, pod Kolumbovim zapovjedništvom, i Pinta 1493. zaplovili su prema Španiji. Nakon što je oluja skrenula brod sa smjera plovidbe ka Azorskim ostrvima i potom ka Lisabonu Kolumbo je konačno pristao u Palos. Španski kraljevski par primio ga je s oduševljenjem te potvrdio časti garantovane mu u ugovoru. Odmah nakon dolaska Kolumbo je planirao i drugo putovanje sa 17 brodova i oko 1500 ljudi koji su napustili Španiju 1493. U okviru tog putovanja otkrio je niz antilskih ostrva (Dominica, Santa Cruz, Jamajka, Guadeloupe, Virgin i dr.)

Brod Santa Marija

Dana 27. novembra brodovi su pristali kod La Navidade gdje su našli uništenu tvrđavu, a njegove ljudi pobijene. Kolumbo je napustio ruine i u blizini današnjeg rta Isabella u Dominikanskoj republici, utemeljio grad Isabella (danas napušten) koji je postao prvo naselje Evropljanja u Novome svijetu. Napuštajući koloniju i odlazeći na istraživačko putovanje u ljeto 1494. pristao je na obalu Kube gdje je inzistirao da to nije ostrvo već dio azijskog kontinenta. Kada se Kolumbo vratio u Isabellu 29. rujna naišao je na neslogu koja se razvila među kolonistima, dio kojih se želio vratiti u Španiju. Jedan od najvećih problema s kojima se Kolumbo susretao bili su domoroci koji su u početku bili otvoreno prijateljski ali su kasnije postali izrazito ratoborni zbog brutalnosti Evropljana. Kolumbo je  1495. porazio velik broj domorodaca koje je prevezao u Španiju s namjerom da ih proda kao robove. Kraljica Isabella tome se usprotivila i preživjeli domoroci vraćeni su u Novi svijet.

Kraljevska istražiteljska komisija pristigla je u Isabellu 1495. godine. Razlog tome je bila uporna kritika Kolumbove politike. Kolumbo je utemeljio novi grad nazvan Santo Domingo i otplovio prema Španiji imenujući svog brata Bartolomeja zapovjednikom. Nakon dolaska u Španiju kraljevski je par obećao Kolumbu da će novčano potpomoći novu flotu, ali budući da je zanos za neproduktivnim poduhvatima iščezao prošlo je skoro osam godina dok nije zaplovio ka Novom svijetu s osam brodova. Kolumbo je na svoje treće putovanje krenuo 1498.