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relating to an enveloping or external layer or covering (as of skin, hair, scales, feathers, or cuticle) of an organism or one of its parts

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relating to an enveloping or external layer or covering (as of skin, hair, scales, feathers, or cuticle) of an organism or one of its parts

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The skeletal system is your body's central framework. It consists of bones and connective tissue, including cartilage, tendons, and ligaments. It's also called the musculoskeletal system.

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The muscular system is an organ system consisting of skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles.

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The organs that take in food and liquids and break them down into substances that the body can use for energy, growth, and tissue repair.

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The system that circulates blood and lymph through the body, consisting of the heart, blood vessels, blood, lymph, and the lymphatic vessels and glands.

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The network of nerve cells and fibers which transmits nerve impulses between parts of the body.

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FEMALE AND MALE PASSERINE BIRDS
- The matte black feathers of ornamented female WSFW lack a high density of barbules
- In the absence of these barbule properties, a matte black coloration in ornamented females is produced by the dense melanosome composition of the barbules.
- Female ornaments in WSFW did not evolve following a simple and immediate switch to male ornamentation, indicating that some additional factor is likely involved in the evolution of female ornaments in this species.
- Alternatively, matte black color could be selectively neutral, and if producing a bluish sheen incurs costs, natural selection could prevent the evolution of blue in females.
- Lastly, females may lack the developmental capacity to produce the barbule structure of males, limiting the production of a fully male-like ornament. Female RBFW produced carotenoid-based, but not melanin based, coloration under experimentally elevated testosterone levels.
- It also suggest that unornamented female WSFW produce white feathers, but not melanin-based black feathers, when testosterone is experimentally elevated (
The male ornamented phenotype involves more components (i.e., greater barbule density) than does the female ornamented phenotype.
- Feathers in ornamented male RBFW differ from the unornamented RBFW male plumage both in having a high density of structured melanosomes within barbules and in high barbule density. It is therefore striking that males of this species are able to molt between these alternative plumage states in relatively short time windows.
- The high density of barbules in male WSFW appears to be caused by enlarged and flattened barbules, but not an increase in the number of barbules. This suggests that the production of the blue iridescent sheen in male WSFW is associated with an increased exposure of the nanostructural characteristics found within barbules. In addition, there is a correlative relationship between the thickness of the melanin layer and chroma, and the width of the melanin layer may be involved in how the keratin cortex selectively reflects blue wavelengths. The thin keratin layer over a layer of melanin granules was sufficient to produce a blue sheen, and a similar anatomical arrangement may be involved in male WSFW color production.
- Future research might also explore the link between testosterone, feather structure, and the deposition of melanin. Testosterone appears to drive acquisition of ornamented plumage in male Malurus fairywren and experimental testosterone implants in female M. cyaneus produces some male-like characteristics (without changing color), which could imply a structural change following a rise in testosterone.
- Male RBFW have a colorless sheen to their feathers that is visible to the eye
- The high barbule density is likely involved in the production of this sheen, as it is the key difference between ornamented males and ornamented females in this study. Future work could focus on how male RBFW and male WSFW produce different colored plumage sheens, which may be the result of different light absorbance in the cortex of the barb rami.
- Male RBFW transition between unornamented and ornamented plumage between the nonbreeding and breeding seasons, indicating a high degree of flexibility in visual signal development.
- It also suggests that this transition is achieved by molting in feathers with both higher density of barbules and changes to melanosome deposition. Given that this transition can take place over just a few weeks, it is notable to find overall more structurally complex changes to feathers within male RBFW than between recognized subspecies of female WSFW.

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For 782 species of corvoid passerine, researchers obtained 10 linear measures of external morphology. They evaluated the location of corvoid families in eco-morphological trait space and how these parameters were connected with their species richness and rates of lineage diversification, using these metrics as a proxy for species ecology. They then compared these same traits (species richness, morphological positioning, and lineage diversification rates) between families that are currently endemic to the Australasian ancestral area of the Corvides and those that have dispersed and diversified across other continental and insular landmasses.

Species-poor

Families with low species richness and rates of diversification tend to occupy the most peripheral positions in eco-morphological trait space, with almost all of these groups being endemic to Australasia.

Marginality in morphospace is also associated with limited lineage diversification and restricted geographical distributions, such that the majority of species-poor, morphologically peripheral corvoid families are endemic to the ancestral area of Australasia.

Species-rich

According to the taxon cycle concept, relictualization occurs after a time of geographical expansion and diversity, meaning that lineages that are currently species-poor and phylogenetically isolated were formerly far more diverse. Although more species-rich corvoid families may show evidence for a variety of taxon cycle stages, another possibility is that corvoid lineages that are currently species-poor and phylogenetically isolated have had low rates of net diversification and have maintained low species diversity throughout their histories.

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According to research, Medullary bone (MB) is an estrogen-dependent, sex-specific tissue formed by female birds during lay and assumed to be present in extinct avemetatarsalians (bird-line archosaurs). Although preliminary research suggests MB can be deposited in most skeletal elements, commercial applications are limited. MB has been observed on commercial layers or hormonally treated male pigeons, which are poor models for wild birds.

Pattern of MB skeletal distribution

MB commonly forms in all but the distal-most limb elements in the avian skeleton. The researchers have documented high interspecific variability in MB skeletal distribution that merits explanation. Two major, non-exclusive hypotheses have been put forth to account for the variation in MB distribution within the bird skeleton: blood supply and pneumaticity. Our data suggest that the distribution of MB can only be explained when both factors are taken together.

Skeletal pneumaticity

Birds inherited skeletal pneumaticity from their dinosaurian ancestors. In pneumatized elements, the hematopoietic tissue eventually degenerates, yet small amounts can persist in proximal and distal ends of the bones. The hummingbird Phaethornis superciliosus (CM-S8888) possesses an extensive distribution of MB in its skeletal regions.

Bone vascular supply and red marrow content

In their study, Landauer and Zondek [38] induced the deposition of MB in male ducks and chickens by exposing them to estrogen. These observations led Landauer and Zondek [38] to propose that variation in MB deposition could be attributed to variation in blood supply, and thus differential exposure to hormones, and that MB primarily formed in well-vascularized bones containing hematopoietic marrow.

MB primarily formed in well-vascularized bones containing hematopoietic marrow. MB is always present in the antebrachium (ulna/radius; 84.2% frequency) and all specimens containing MB in the carpometacarpus also contained MB in both adjacent zeugopod elements. Unlike the majority of birds, the femora of some falconids and phasianids are pneumatized.

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Lower-latitude birds with milder winters have more diverse patterns of seasonal metabolic acclimation, with fewer research exploring changes in avian organ and muscle mass in the context of metabolic flexibility in these regions. Researchers measured seasonal variation (summer vs. winter) in the masses of organs and muscles that are typically related to variations in basal metabolic rate (gizzard, intestines, and liver) and summit metabolism (heart and pectoral muscles) in white-browed sparrow-weavers (Plocepasser mahali). They also used a portable ultrasound system to evaluate pectoral muscle thickness to see whether they could estimate muscle size without killing people. Separate research assessed seasonal variations in basal metabolic rate and summit metabolism in the same population of sparrow-weavers but in different individuals. The dry masses of the gizzard, intestines, and liver of sparrow-weavers did not fluctuate seasonally, and basal metabolic rate did not vary seasonally throughout the same time period. During the winter, researchers discovered significantly larger heart (18%) and pectoral muscle (9%) dry mass, but ultrasound studies revealed no seasonal variations in pectoral muscle size.

Wet Mass

Pectoral muscle and heart mass were significantly higher in winter compared to summer, but summit metabolism was lower during winter, in contrast to previous studies associating higher pectoral muscle and heart mass with increased thermogenic capacity in higher-latitude birds. To the best of the researchers' knowledge, it's the first study to describe increased pectoral muscle mass without a corresponding rise in summit metabolism, and it's conceivable that cellular changes that are required for improved thermogenic capability did not occur in sparrow-weavers. This is also the first study to look at seasonal variation in pectoral muscle mass in the context of summit metabolism adjustments in a subtropical bird, and more research is needed to understand the mechanisms and factors that drive metabolic flexibility in birds living at lower latitudes with milder winters.

Dry Mass

There was no seasonal variation in the dry masses of the gizzard, intestines or liver of sparrow-weavers, and during the same period, basal metabolic rate did not vary seasonally. Researchers found significantly higher heart (~ 18% higher) and pectoral muscle (~ 9% higher) dry mass during winter, although ultrasound measurements did not detect seasonal changes in pectoral muscle size.

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DTM assemblages were species specific and mainly shaped by diet, which agrees to some extent with recent studies on Neotropical and European birds. Previous studies on passerines have suggested that host phylogeny plays a main role in DTM assembly and ecological and life histories, such as feeding guilds, play secondary roles in shaping the DTM.

The observed differences between the two feeding guilds (insectivores and omnivores) are most likely the result of differences in digestive needs.

INSECTIVORES

Insectivorous diets are dominated by protein-rich arthropods, whereas omnivorous diets contain fruits, seeds, nectar, and insects.

Lactic acid bacteria such as Lactobacillus, Enterococcus, and Carnobacteriaceae genera dominate the digestive tract compartments of insectivores.

One of their main functions in the human digestive tract is carbohydrate metabolism and a similar function is expected in birds.

Lactobacillus and Carnobacteriaceae genera also produce antimicrobial substances that may play roles in the defense against antagonists, and they may play a role in detoxification through bile acid hydrolysis and removal of by-products of protein hydrolysis.

Thus, it is conceivable that insectivorous passerines with a protein-rich diet benefit in similar ways from lactic acid bacteria to improve energy uptake from protein-rich diets and by reducing harmful by-products of protein hydrolysis.

OMNIVORES

Omnivorous species, most of which had Proteobacteria-rich DTMs, were more variable in their DTMs between species than insectivorous birds.

The majority of the OTUs driving these differences, e.gGammaproteobacteria (Enterobacteriaceae) and Alphaproteobacteria (Rhizobiaceae), include bacterial species that are capable of nitrogen fixation and amino acid synthesis.

The presence of these bacteria may thus contribute to the nitrogen budget of omnivorous birds, which feed on plant material that is generally low in nitrogen

Accordingly, showed higher levels of amino acid synthesizing enzymes coded for by members of the microbiota in herbivorous mammals.

Comparable variability in DTM composition was recently documented in frugivorous Neotropical passerines (García-Amado et al., 2018), and a potentially more flexible and diverse DTM may enable omnivorous species to adjust their diet according to the availability of food resources. It appears a promising avenue of further research to determine how particular diets may alter the DTM composition for a given individual.

Some DTMs of the omnivorous M. nigra were more similar to those of insectivores, which is consistent with findings by Sam et al. (2017) that insects are a major component of the diet in some individuals of this species. Variable diets between individuals thus likely induce variation in DTMs. This is supported by the finding that the DTMs of some individuals of M. nigra are similar to insectivores, while others resemble omnivorous species.

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Studies have shown that Mammals and birds acquired high performance hearts and endothermy during their independent evolution from amniotes with many sauropsid features. A literature review shows that the variation in atrial morphology is greater in mammals than in ectothermic sauropsids. The transition from ectothermy to endothermy was associated with greater variation in cardiac structure in birds. The researchers found bird hearts to have multiple features in common with ectothermic sauropsids (synapomorphies), such as the presence of three sinus horns. Other convergent features, like the compact organization of the atrial walls, were shared with mammals only.

Heart Variations of birds

The ventral merger of the atria represents the clearest case for a feature that is not shared by all birds, and that may occur only within Passeriformes and Psittaciformes. 2017), whereas none of the birds studied there had such a ring. Extending those studies, show in Chicken the colocalization of Bmp2 and Isl1 which is also seen in the pacemaker tissue of Zebrafish (Tessadori et al., This indicates that not all birds, may have pacemaking originating from the base of the right sinuatrial valve leaflet as suggested on the basis of previous anatomical works (Chiodi & Bartolomew, 1967; Lamers, De Jong, De Groot, & Moorman, 1991). Generally, the position of atrioventricular junctions and arterial bases were fixed, but the aorta did exhibit some rotation in the transverse plane, although much less so than in mammals (Rowlatt, 1990).

Convergent gross morphology features

The hearts of birds and mammals exhibit convergent features such as a single aorta, rather than the two aortae that ectothermic sauropsids have. Like crocodylians and mammals, birds have a full ventricular septum, and the atrioventricular junctions have an offset whereby the left junction is located cranial to that of the right. The findings that this offset is substantially greater in birds than in crocodylians and mammals, which confirm the constant presence of a large left atrioventricular junction guarded by membranous leaflets anchored to papillary muscles, a feature crocodylians and birds share with mammals

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Studies in Passerines have found that migrating species recruit more new neurons into brain regions that process spatial information, compared with resident species. This was explained by the greater exposure of migrants to spatial information, indicating that this phenomenon enables enhanced navigational abilities.

Migrating Species

Researchers predicted that migrants, which are more exposed to spatial changes than residents, will recruit more new neurons.

In the study, researchers found a positive relation between new neuronal recruitment and migratory behavior in warblers, in brain regions that are known to be involved with the processing of spatial information.

They hypothesize that increased neuronal recruitment in migratory birds' brains aids their capacity to learn and remember navigational maps and spatial information.

Resident Species

Researchers hypothesized that this phenomenon will be less pronounced in resident species that stay year round in the same habitat, than in resident ones that travel long distances twice a year.

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Function of Wing Feathers -there are two feathers that function differently during flight: Primary feather main function is to propel the owl; while secondary feathers, is for the purpose of gliding.

Feather's separating from each other in the same wing - this feature maximizes the silencing of air that hits the wings of the owl during flight, making them more silent which can help the owl.

Tail Feathers - the tail feather helps the owl in order for redirection during flight.

Feathered Ear Tufts - while it is not very certain as to what is the use of this, there are some theories for its purpose: Acts as a camouflage in order for the owl to hide

in a tree; Feature that distinguishes owls from other owls; A sign of aggressiveness; For communication: Alert and watchful (ear tufts up), scared or angry (ear tufts down)

Serrations of an owl feather - at the edge of an owl feather, it can be found tiny-comb like structures that help in reducing noise, which helps the owl during hunting.

Upper surface of the owl's feathers - this has a velvet-like covering, stabilizes the airflow allowing slower flight, and is

known for suppressing the sound of feathers that move over each others

Trailing edge of the owl's feather - it is fringed, which prevent the separation of the airflow between adjacent feathers, where it reduces turbulence and reduces noise.

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Function of Wing Feathers:

Primary Feathers propel an owl into flight. o Secondary Feathers keep an owl in flight through gliding.

On both the primary and secondary feathers, there are comb-like structures at the edge of the feather that are responsible for muffling the sound of the air going over the wing – this essentially makes an owl silent when they fly.

Also, an owl’s feathers can separate from each other on the same wing; therefore, the air flows over each of the individual feathers and their comb-like structures, which maximizes how silently an owl flies.

Tail Feathers: o When the owl is flying, its tail feathers help it to direct itself.

Feathered Ear Tufts:

They are NOT the owl’s ears but rather clumps of feathers found on the heads of some owls and not on others.

The function of the ear tufts is unknown. o However, there are several suggestions as to their purpose:  For camouflage, which makes the owl look like a branch on a tree from a distance.

To help owls to distinguish each other from other species in low-light conditions.  To make owls look fiercer to predators or nest intruders.

To help owls to communicate: if an owl is alert and watchful, it’s ear tufts will go up but if it’s scared or angry, it’s ear tufts will go down.

Facial Disk:

Owls use their facial disk to adjust their hearing, allowing more sound to come into one ear than the other just by moving the feathers that are around its face.

The facial disk is one of the defining features of an owl.

Ear

Owl’s have asymmetric ears, where one ear is higher than the other. The difference in the heights of the ears helps them to more easily locate prey in complete darkness because the sounds coming from prey are received by the ears at slightly different times. •

Eyes

Unlike other birds that have eyes on the sides of their head for a greater range of sight, owl’s have large eyes placed in the center of the face for greater depth perception.

Greater depth perception allows owls to see more at a greater distance than other birds.

Also, owl’s eyes are locked in place and cannot move on their own; therefore, the owl must turn its head in order to see what’s around it.

Because of their fixed eyes, owls have the ability to turn their head up to 270 degrees! In other words, if an owl turned its head to the left, it could turn its head so far that it could look over its right shoulder.

Beak

The beak is only used for an owl to eat, not to attack or hunt with.

Talons

Talons are the clasping claws on the owl’s feet that are used for hunting prey and to defend against predators at the nest.

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An Owl's skeleton is typical for birds. Designed for both walking and flying, it is very light and strong. In owls, the skeleton makes up about 7-9% of its total body weight. Many of the bones which would be separated in mammals are fused together in birds, making them strong to support their weight on the ground. In addition, some of the larger bones are hollow, with bony internal bracing. This helps reduce overall weight.

Owls' head turning ability

An owl can turn its head up to 270 degrees left or right from the forward facing position. An owl cannot turn it's head full circle from a forward facing position as is the common belief. There are several adaptations that allow this:

1) An owl's neck has 14 vertebrae, which is twice as many as humans.

2) Owls have only one occipital articulation with the cervical vertebrae. (There is only one bone situated on top of the backbone.) Humans have two articulations. This allows the owl to pivot on the vertebrae column much like your body can pivot on one foot. Their muscle structure is arranged in a manner that allows this movement as well.

3) Owls have a special arrangement of the jugular veins with associated bypass connector blood vessels, to ensure that blood supply (and return) are not impeded as the neck is rotated.

Other bones

The large flat breastbone, or Sternum, supports the large and powerful flight muscles. It also protects the heart, lungs and other internal organs. In the Tytonidae family of owls, the Carina, or Sternum Keel is broad, becoming narrower towards the abdomen, and the lower edge of the sternum has only small notches on each side. In the family Strigidae, the carina is narrow at its upper part, and becomes broader towards the belly, while the lower edge of the sternum has two deep notches on each side.

The wing bones are relatively long in owls, and the associated wing surface area is broad, producing a low wing loading. This allows for easy take-offs, and effortless flight, even when carrying prey.

The foot bones, or tarso-metatarsi, are relatively short and stout in owls, most likely to aid in the efficient killing and carrying of prey.

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Owls or the Strigiformes are well known for their capability to rotate their heads. Generally, for birds, the cervical musculature is the most intricate group of muscles having 200 muscles on either side. These muscles are further grouped into 4 regions depending on their location and where each are attached, namely the Mm. cervicales dorsales, Mm. cervicales ventrales, Mm. craniocervicales, and Mm. cervicales laterales. These cervical muscles vary in size, having small intervertebral muscles to long ones extending over the neck. The Mm. craniocervicales are muscles from the head towards the neck while the Mm. cervicales dorsales, Mm. cervicales ventrales, and Mm. cervicales laterales are located from the neck to the trunk.

Region 1: Mm. craniocervicales

Mm. craniocervicales are continuous muscles and are from the head to the neck. This region has the M. Complexus, M. biventer cervicis, M. splenius capitis, M. rectus capitis lateralis, M. rectus capitis ventralis, and M. rectus capitis dorsalis.M. complexus is a muscle that is about 4 centimeters long, flat, and the fibers are parallel to each other. M. biventer cervicis is also long and thin which connects the cranium to the fused thoracic vertebrae. This has 2 parallel fibers connected by a tendon. M. splenius capitis is about 2 centimeters long, and has the pars lateralis and a pars medialis. The latter being connected to the spine, while both are obliquely positioned ad well as having parallel fibers. M. rectus capitis lateralis is about 3 centimeters long and has parallel fibers which comes from the ventral region. M. rectus capitis ventralis also has a pars lateralis and a pars medialis which are somehow separated by internal carotid arteries however are strongly connected. The length of the fibers vary but the longest being the pars lateralis with a length of 3 centimeters. Lastly, M. rectus capitis dorsalis has 4 slips that are parallel on both sides of the neck.

Region 2: Mm. cervicales dorsales

M. Longus colli dorsalis is a complex muscle having various insertions as well as interconnections and divided into 4 parts namely the pars thoracica, pars, cranialis, pars profunda and the pars caudalis. Furthermore, it takes up the most volume of the cervicales dorsales.  M. longus colli dorsalis, pars caudalis is the largest part of the M. longus colli dorsalis. This has parallel fibers and slips in this part cover a big area of the cervical column. M. longus colli dorsalis, pars profunda is composed of individual muscles which are parallel to each other and is positioned in front of the pars caudalis. M. interspinalis is short, have small slips, have parallel fibers that are 7 millimeters long

Region 3: Mm. cervicales laterales

Mm. cervicales laterales is a lateral subsystem that is fused with the Mm. iliocostalis et longissimus dorsi. This has the Mm. inclusi, M. flexor colli medialis, Mm. intertransversarii, and M. flexor colli lateralis. This muscle group is thick and have interconnected tissues which makes it difficult to separate its individual fibers without having to damage the others. These muscles are also in a farther and deeper location.

Region 4: Mm. cervicales ventrales

M. longus colli ventralis does not originate from the cervical vertebrae but the processus ventralis. This muscle forms a fleshy mass of both sides of M. longus colli ventrales then splits into 2 parts that runs at the cranium. From both sides are eight slips that are fleshy as well and are parallel but overlapping which form bundles. The group of muscles are tough which makes it hard to separate.

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Owls have a two-part digestive system consisting of a proventriculus and a ventriculus -- also called a gizzard. Birds who don't regurgitate pellets have a three-part system: a crop for storage, a proventriculus and gizzard.

Owl Digestion

Depending on the size of the owl, some dine on insects; many dine on small rodents like mice and voles; the largest owls eat rabbits, other birds or even fox. Owls eat smaller prey whole. The food goes to the proventriculus where digestive enzymes break down the meal. Owl stomach acid is weak (pH 2.2 to 2.5) so they only digest soft tissue of prey, not bones or fur. The food moves to the gizzard where usable substances get used by the body and indigestible parts remain in the gizzard.

Pellets

Gizzard remains include bits of undigested prey. Owl gizzards work like trash compactors. The muscles in the gizzard compress the leftovers into an oval pellet. That pellet remains in the owl's gizzard until the bird is ready to eat again, a time period of 10 to 12 hours. Pellets inhibit eating, so prior to the next meal, owls regurgitate pellets from the gizzard. The pellet is forced out by spasms in the esophagus, a process lasting a few seconds to several minutes.

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The heart in birds and mammals is divided into four parts, called chambers. The job of the heart is to deliver oxygen and nutrients to the body through the blood. When the blood is in the body, the oxygen is used up to make energy.

The blood then flows back to the heart into the first chamber, or the right atrium, through blood vessels called veins, which bring all blood to the heart. From the right atrium, the deoxygenated blood goes to the right ventricle. The right ventricle is a larger chamber that pumps the blood to the lungs.

At the lungs, the blood picks up oxygen and is moved to the left atrium of the heart. The left atrium pumps blood to the left ventricle, the strongest chamber of the heart. The left ventricle's job is to pump blood through the arteries to the entire body, so it needs to have a thick wall of muscle to do such a big job. From there, the process repeats again with each heartbeat.

Only birds and mammals have four chambers to their heart. The purpose of this is to divide the oxygenated and deoxygenated blood efficiently. Other animals have two chambers, or no chambers in their heart, so all the blood mixes together. To be the most efficient at delivering oxygen, we want to keep the oxygenated blood moving towards the body and the deoxygenated blood coming back to the heart to get more oxygen.

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The central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) is arranged and works similarly to that of mammals. Its job is to integrate sensory impulses from the environment, to stored learned information, and to coordinate voluntary and involuntary functions and movements.

In the brain, the optic lobes are large and the olfactory lobes small, correlating with their senses.

The cerebral hemispheres in birds are large and well-developed, as in mammals, but the center of complex behavior in the cerebrum is different in the two groups. The brain of a mammal is dominated by the top layer of the cerebral hemispheres (cerebral cortex) which have a high capacity for learning. The bird brain is dominated by the middle of the cerebral hemisphere which lacks learning capacity. So mammals, in general, learn behavior and bird behavior tends to be instinctive and stereotyped. Birds’ brains are also particularly sensitive to control by hormones; implanting a pellet of testosterone in a dove elicits courtship, copulation, and aggressive behavior. Experimentally, large sections of the cerebral cortex have been removed with little effect on the birds’ behavior.

The cerebellum, the center for motor control, is well-developed in birds as is logical with their ability to fly and the related need for agility.

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LEADERS:
CO, LEA MARIE B.
POBLETE, MICAELA JERSEY
MEMBERS:
PAYSON, DANICA MAY
GOCUYO, PETER
LOPENA, GEORGE
GACOSTA, CHRISTINE