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Jean-Baptiste Bouillaud (1796-1881) was a French physician, pictured in the image above¹., who believed that if the frontal lobes were important for speech that if the frontal lobe was affected, so was speech, and then if the frontal lobes were spared then speech was also spared1,2. His beliefs arose after he read a paper regarding Franz Gall's theory of the relation between speech and the frontal lobes². He also believed that our brain was lateralized but his ideas were highly opposed³.
Now, we know that the "crucial dichotomy" is due to left and right hemispheres not anterior and posterior areas². However, his ideas were important and contributed to neuroscience because he encouraged conversation about lateralization within the brain as well as differences within the regions of the brain to further push the idea that our brain is not one big entity but there are different functions within different lobes or parts.

Sources:
(1) https://litfl.com/jean-baptiste-bouillaud/
(2) https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11448309/
(3) https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/literally-psyched/the-man-who-couldnt-speakand-how-he-revolutionized-psychology/

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Phineas Gage Damages His Left Frontal Lobe

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Phineas Gage Damages His Left Frontal Lobe

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This is an image of Phineas Gage who is considered to be neuroscience's most famous patient¹. In 1848 Gage was working on a railroad and an iron rod penetrated his left cheek, went through his brain, and exited through his skull¹. He was blinded in his left eye, was treated, and survived but his friends described him as "no longer Gage¹."
Through modern digital renderings, it was discovered the iron rod may have affected white matter tracts and affected some of the neural pathways in the left hemisphere of his brain². The iron rod damaged his major white matter tracts in the left part of his frontal lobe, including the uncinate fasciculus which connects parts of the frontal cortex to the limbic system². Therefore, the changes in his personality make sense because the connections between the frontal cortex and limbic system were damaged which would explain this change of emotion². This incident shows that the frontal lobe is responsible for things such as our behavior. The left frontal lobe is specifically for language-related movement while the right frontal lobe is for non-verbal abilities³. This shows that we have two different hemispheres in our brain since it was Gage's behavior that mainly changed and not his non-verbal abilities.

Sources:
(1) https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/phineas-gage-neurosciences-most-famous-patient-11390067/
(2) https://www.theguardian.com/science/neurophilosophy/2012/may/16/neuroscience-psychology
(3) https://www.neuroskills.com/brain-injury/frontal-lobes/#:~:text=The%20left%20frontal%20lobe%20is,involved%20in%20nearly%20all%20behavior.

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Konstantin M. Bykov and The Discovery of the Role of the Corpus Callosum

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Konstantin M. Bykov and The Discovery of the Role of the Corpus Callosum

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Konstantin M. Bykov, as shown in the image above¹, was a Russian psychologist who studied what the corpus callosum did in the 1920s¹. He used dogs in his experiments to show the importance of the corpus callosum in interhemispheric communications¹. However, his work is not as well known nor does he receive much recognition for his discovery mainly since Roger Sperry did not cite him in his publications regarding the right and left hemispheres of the brain¹.
The discovery of the corpus callosum is significant because previously we had yet to scientifically prove that we had two different hemispheres much less what connected the two. Therefore, this discovery is important since it helped us understand what connected the left and right hemispheres since Roger Sperry later discovered the two different hemispheres and their differences.

Sources:
(1) https://academic.oup.com/jhmas/article-abstract/54/4/572/758612

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Paul Broca's Classic Hemispheric Dominance Theory

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Paul Broca's Classic Hemispheric Dominance Theory

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Paul Pierre Broca, pictured in the image above¹, was a French physician, anatomist, and anthropologist who is famous for his discovery of the center of speech and brain lateralization¹. In the 1800's Broca proposed the classic hemispheric dominance theory which stated that certain characteristics were associated with each side of the brain².
After his theory was created, multiple neurologists such as John Jackson and Wilder Penfield started to make their own opinions of the brain's hemispheres and certain areas of the brain². This means that Broca's classic hemispheric dominance theory encouraged discussion about the different parts of the brain and their functions.

Sources:
(1) https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Paul_Broca
(2) https://web.cortland.edu/andersmd/learning/Brain%20Theory.htm

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Contemporary Entry: Roger Sperry's Discovery Leads to Discoveries Regarding Human Sleep

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Contemporary Entry: Roger Sperry's Discovery Leads to Discoveries Regarding Human Sleep

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Roger Sperry received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1981 for his split-brain research in which he discovered that the left hemisphere of the brain was responsible for language understanding and articulation while the right hemisphere of the brain could recognize a word, but not articulate it¹. Many researchers repeat Sperry's experiments to learn more and study the split-brain patterns and lateralization of function¹.
By understanding that we have two different hemispheres and that each hemisphere is in charge of the opposite side of the body, we also know that if the hemispheres are not connected, they function independently of one another.
This discovery by Sperry has led to new discoveries regarding the study of split-brain research. Also with Sperry's research, it gives people in the health field insight into knowing that the split-brain exists and they can better find treatment knowing that this condition exists. There was a new study on rare split-brain patients at IMT School for Advanced Study Lucca, as shown in the image above³, that showed that the loss of connections between the two hemispheres is not enough "to allow the appearance of uni-hemispheric sleep in humans" which is a state that is present in other animals². The reason why this research is important is that many people have problems with sleeping especially pertaining to psychiatric conditions, and if we are able to better understand the basic mechanisms in our brain regarding sleep, we can create better therapeutic strategies².

Sources:
(1) https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/roger-sperrys-split-brain-experiments-1959-1968
(2) https://medicalxpress.com/news/2020-06-rare-brain-patients-feature-human.html#:~:text=Jun%2017%2C%202020-,A%20new%20study%20on%20rare%20'split%20brain'%20patients%20sheds%20light,on%20feature%20of%20human%20sleep&text=%22A%20new%20study%20of%20researchers,the%20brain%20through%20'anatomical%20highways.
(3) https://www.educations.com/study-abroad/imt-school-for-advanced-studies-lucca/

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The Founder of Modern Human Anatomy: Andreas Vesalius

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The Founder of Modern Human Anatomy: Andreas Vesalius

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Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) was a Renaissance physician who revolutionized biology and the practice of medicine from his descriptions of the human body and anatomy¹. He wrote an atlas of anatomy where he drew the base of the brain and described seven pairs of cerebral nerves. In the image above², Vesalius drew the base of the brain removed from the skull and listed the seven pairs of cerebral nerves and he used the original Galen classification². Vesalius is also considered to be the founder of modern human anatomy³.
In the following centuries, there were many modifications made to the names, numbering, and display of the nerves but this illustration is important to the progression of neuroscience since it encouraged conversations about cerebral nerves which send signals to your brain, face, neck, and torso. This discovery showed that the brain was capable and more intricate and complex than people at the time originally believed.

Sources:
(1) https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andreas-Vesalius
(2) https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0964704X.2022.2033077
(3) https://explorable.com/andreas-vesalius

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Claudius Galenus and The Brain's Four Ventricles

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Claudius Galenus and The Brain's Four Ventricles

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Claudius Galenus (129 CE - 216 CE), as shown in the image above¹, was a Greek physician, writer, and philosopher who had a big influence on medical theory². He believed that the brain had four ventricles that were responsible for complex thoughts, personality, and bodily functions³. Galen's ideas were thought to be the first step in realizing that our brain is where memory, personality, and thinking occur³.
This is significant to the history of neuroscience and the progression of learning more about our brain since Galen was the first to suggest that our brain had these functions. This also meant that it was the first step in realizing that our brain had multiple functions as well.

Sources:
(1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen
(2) https://www.britannica.com/biography/Galen
(3) https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain/intelligent-machines/understanding-brain-brief-history

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Santiago Ramon y Cajal and Camillo Golgi and The Discovery of the Neuron

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Santiago Ramon y Cajal and Camillo Golgi and The Discovery of the Neuron

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Camillo Golgi (1843 - 1926)  was an Italian physician and cytologist², and Santiago Ramon y Cajal (1852 - 1934) was a Spanish histologist³. Both these men, as shown in the image above¹, together received the 1906 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for establishing the neuron³. They discovered that neurons are the building blocks of the brain and that there were many different types⁴.
This was significant to the history of neuroscience because it not only showed what creates our brain, but that because there are many different types of neurons, that our brain has many functions.

Sources:
(1) https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-0-387-74347-9_1?noAccess=true
(2) https://www.britannica.com/biography/Camillo-Golgi
(3) https://www.britannica.com/biography/Santiago-Ramon-y-Cajal
(4) https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain/intelligent-machines/understanding-brain-brief-history

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Carl Wernicke (1848-1905), as pictured in the image above², was a German neurologist who was able to relate nerve diseases to specific parts of the brain¹. In a book he published in 1874, he attempted to relate various aphasia to different regions of the brain and also mentioned the dominance of one hemisphere in brain functions¹.
Wernicke's discoveries were important due to him being able to prove that different areas of the brain are affected by different things, and thus are their own regions. This helps Sperry's scientific discovery regarding the two hemispheres since Wernicke demonstrates that different areas of the brain are individual and specialized since, at the time, most scientists believed that the brain was a single functional organ³.

Sources:
(1) https://www.britannica.com/biography/Carl-Wernicke
(2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Wernicke
(3) https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/medicine/psychology-and-psychiatry-biographies/carl-wernicke

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Roger Wolcott Sperry, as shown in the image above¹, was an American neurobiologist who lived from 1913-1994². In the 1950s and 1960s, Sperry conducted split-brain research on cats to determine the function of the corpus callosum by cutting the corpus callosum and the optic nerves from both eyes³. He discovered that the left hemisphere of the brain is geared more toward abstract and analytical thought, calculation, and linguistic ability while the right hemisphere is more important for comprehending spatial patterns and complex sounds¹. He also conducted research regarding the connectivity of neurons, the chemoaffinity hypothesis³. This rejected the previous resonance hypothesis³. His hypothesis defined all connections of the nerves from the brain to their target cells and that nerve connections were cell specific³. He received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1981 for his discoveries³.

Sources:
(1) https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1981/sperry/facts/
(2) https://www.britannica.com/biography/Roger-Wolcott-Sperry
(3) https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/roger-wolcott-sperry-1913-1994

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Thomas Willis (1621 - 1675), as shown in the image above¹, was a British physician who is known for his studies regarding the nervous system and diseases¹. His book, Cerebri Anatome, was very influential for the next two centuries².  He was the first to describe the arterial circle's function with an illustration as well as classified cranial nerves³. His classification continued to be used for over a century³.
Willis is important in the history of neuroscience since he is considered a pioneer in research on the brain because of his discovery of the "Circle of Willis"⁴. Therefore, his work is important because it encouraged others to research more regarding the brain and its anatomy.

Sources:
(1) https://www.britannica.com/biography/Thomas-Willis
(2) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC539424/
(3) https://thejns.org/view/journals/j-neurosurg/109/4/article-p765.xml
(4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Willis#:~:text=Willis%20was%20a%20pioneer%20in,1664%2C%20is%20minute%20and%20elaborate.

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Julius Caesar Arantius and The Discovery of the Hippocampus

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Julius Caesar Arantius and The Discovery of the Hippocampus

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Julius Caesar Arantius (1529-1589), as shown in the image above², was an Italian surgeon and is considered a leading figure in the history of the science of human anatomy². He discovered different anatomical structures of the human body including the hippocampus¹. The hippocampus is in the temporal lobe and is important for learning and memory³.
This discovery is important to the history of neuroscience because it began to demonstrate that there are different parts of our brain and it is not one entity with a singular function.

Sources:
(1) https://thejns.org/view/journals/j-neurosurg/122/4/article-p971.xml#:~:text=However%2C%20the%20term%20hippocampus%20has,prominent%20discoveries%20is%20the%20hippocampus.
(2) https://alchetron.com/Julius-Caesar-Aranzi
(3) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3548359/#:~:text=Hippocampus%20is%20a%20complex%20brain,of%20neurological%20and%20psychiatric%20disorders.