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Three Divisions of the Ear
•Outer Ear
-gathers sound, travels by means of air conduction
-Pinna and tympanic membrane
•Middle Ear
-transmits sound by means of bone conduction
-Hammer/malleus, anvil/incus, and stirrup/stapes
•Inner Ear
-transforms sound into neural energy by means of fluid transduction
-oval window, cochlea, cilia, basilar membrane, organ of Corti and semicircular canals (determine balance)

Hearing loss:
(Conduction) Damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
(Sensorineural) Damage to the cochlear receptor cells or to auditory nerve

Pathway of Auditory Information
cochlea>auditory nerve>brain stem>temporal lobe

Localizing sound
-intensity
•distance
•sound shadow
-timing

Skin Senses
-touch, temperature, pain

Chemical senses
-Taste and smell

Touch:
receptors>spinal cord>thalamus
somatosensory cortex of parietal

Temperature:
thermoreceptors- warm and cold
simultaneous warm and cold perceived as hot

Pain
mechanical, heat, chem receptors
fast and slow pain pathways
endorphins
perception of pain can vary
Gate Control Theory
-spinal cord has gates that block pain or allow it to be sensed

Taste
receptors- papillae
-sweet, sour, bitter, salty, unami

Unami:cultural influence

Transduction of Taste
-shaped like mini onions
-receptors for taste
-chems dissolved in saliva activate taste buds

Smell-olfactory sense
Temporal lobe
Lompoc system

Stimulus: smell volatile substances that are released molecules in the air at room temp

Receptors are located in a one inch square of tissue in the uppermost part of the nasal passage

Kinesthetic
-movement, posture, orientation
-muscle fibers and joints
-prioprioceptive feedback

Vestibular
-balance and acceleration
-semicircular

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Types of learning

Classical conditioning- neutral stimulus associated with meaningful stimulus

observational learning

operant conditioning-behavior and consequences

Pavlov on Classical conditioning

Unconditioned stimulus- response with no learning

Unconditioned response- unlearned reaction elicited by UCS

Conditioned stimulus- previously neutral stimulus that elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned response- learned response after UCS-CS pairing

*Renewal* recovery of the conditioned response when the organism is placed in novel context

John B Watson and Rosalie Rayner- demonstration of fear with little Albert

Counter conditioning vs Aversive Conditioning
Counter- used for changing relationship between a conditioned stimulus and its conditioned response
Aversive- repeating pairings of a stimulus with an unpleasant stimulant

Habituation- example; more of drug needed to feel high

Operant conditioning
*E.L Thorndike's law of effect- cat experiments, proved that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and those followed by negative outcomes are weakened
Shaping- rewarding approximations of a desired behavior'

Reinforcement and Punishment
Positive R- frequency of behaviores increases followed by the presentation of something good
Negative R- frequency of behavior increases due to removal of unpleasant stimulus
Positive Punishment-behavior decreases when followed by an unpleasant stimulus
Negative Punishment- behavior d ecreases when positive stimulus removed

Albert Bandura- Observational learning, Bobo doll
E.C. Tolman- insight or latent learning, behavior has a goal
Wolfgang Kohler- Insight Learning- studied apes (stick and box problem)

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Biological Foundations of Behavior
-The Nervous System
*It starts with an individual nerve called NEURON
*Neurons are our building blocks
*Neurons are cells specialized to receive information to other cells
*Bundles or neurons are called NERVES
*There are about 100 billion neurons in the brain
-3 Main Tasks of Neurons
1.) Receive information from the neurons that feed it.
2.) Carry information down its length
3.) Pass the information on to the next neuron

Cell Body: the cells life support center

Dendrites: receive message from other cells

Axon: Passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, miuscles or glands.

Neural impulse: Electrical signal traveling down the axon

Terminal branches of axon: Form junctions with other cells.

Myelin sheath: Covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses

DENDRITES
-Consists of finely branched fibers
-Selecively permeable
-Dendrites complete their job by passing the incoming message on to the central part of the neuron called the soma. The soma or cell body contains the cells nucleus and life support machinery.
- The function of the soma is to assess all messages the cell receives and pass on the appropriate time.
- When the soma decides to pass on a message it sends the message down the axon.
-The axon is a single, larger "transmitter" fiber that extends from the soma.

AXON
-The axon is the extension of the neuron through which the neural impulses are sent.
-Carries information to the next cell
-The axons are very short.
-They can also be very long

MYELIN SHEATH
-Protects and insulates the axon and the electrical signal
-Speeds up the neural impulse
-Made up schwann cells

ELECTRICAL RECORDINGS --6-10 recording electrodes attached to the skull
-Translated into brain waves
-different brain waves associated with different states of mental activity
-Used to diagnose brain damage and neurological

ELECTRIC STIMULATION OF BRAIN
-Involves sending a weak electric current into a brain structure to activate it.
-Delivered through electrode, but current is different
-Close but doesn't duplicate normal signal

CT SCANS
-Computerized Tomography Scan
-Multiple X ray shot
Computer combines images to make vivid horizontal slice of brain
-Least expensive
-Used to look for abnormalities in brain

SCAN(PET)
-Examine brain function, mapping out actual activity in the brain over time.
-Radioactivity tagged chemicals introduced into brains
-Serve as markers for blood flow or metabolic activity.
-Can be monitered by X-rays
-Provide color coded map of the brain

MRI & FMRI SCAN

-Magnetic resonance Imaging
-Better images than a CT scan
-3 dimensional pictures with high resolution

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
-Provides structural & functioning information in same image
-Monitors brain activity in real time
DEPOLARIZATION AND POLARIZATION
-Depolarization describes an axon that is firing
-Positive ions enter the axon, and cause other postive ions to move into the axon in the form of a neural impulse down the axon.
-Polarization describes an axon that is not firing
Outside ions= +ions
Inside ions = -ions

THE NEURAL IMPULSE
-A temporary shift in the electric charge in a tiny area of a neuron; transmitted along the cell membrane and may fade away if it doesn't reach its threshold of excitement.
- Many subthreshold depolarization are added together to produce an action potential

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Victoria Bermudez
Sensation:Receiving

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Victoria Bermudez
Sensation:

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Victoria Bermudez
Sensation

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Victoria Bermudez

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Victoria Bermudez
Sensation: Receiving something

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Victoria Bermudez
Sensation: Receiving something
Perception: How you process what you receive.

Bottom up: environment to the brain
Top Down: Brain to application

Photo reception (sight): light based
Mechanoreception (sound and touch): pressure, vibration, movement
Chemoreception (smell and taste): detection of chem stimuli

Absolute threshold: minimum amount of stimulus that a person can detect
Difference threshold: just noticeable difference

Weber's Law-
Two stimuli must differ by a constant proportion to be perceived as difference

Subliminal Perception: detection of info below level of conscious awareness
Sensory Adaptation: change in responsiveness of sensory system

Visual System-
Wavelength: hue or color
Height: amplitude

Rods-
B&W
Dimly lit
Thin and long
NOT in fovea

Cones-
Color
Well lit
Short and fat
Fovea and scattered

Left visual field and right hemisphere
Right vision field to left hemisphere

Sound_ wavelengths determine frequency
perceived as pitch
some cannot be perceibved

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development :
the pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities that occurs throughout life, involving both growth and decline .
Most development involves growth, although it also is concerned with decline.

nature :
an individual's biological inheritance, especially his or her genes .
The phenotype shows the contributions of both nature (genetic heritage) and nurture (environment).

nurture :
an individual's environmental and social experiences .
The phenotype shows the contributions of both nature (genetic heritage) and nurture (environment).

resilience
ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times .
Researchers have found that children with high resilience have one or more advantages—such as strong intellectual functioning or a close, supportive relationship with a parent or other adult—that help them to overcome their disadvantages

preferential looking :
a research technique that involves giving an infant a choice of what to look at .
Using the preferential looking technique, researchers have found that at 3 months, infants prefer real faces to scrambled faces, and their mother's face to a stranger's

assimilation :
incorporation of new information into existing knowledge/schemas .
For an adolescent, assimilation might mean using the skills learned while playing video games to drive a car

accommodation :
adjusting schemas to new information .
Accommodation is the process by which existing schemas can be changed and new schemas can be developed in response to new experiences

sensorimotor stage :
first stage of cognitive development, birth-2 years old, infant understands by coordinating sensory experiences with motor actions .
By the end of the sensorimotor stage, 2-year-olds show complex sensorimotor patterns and are beginning to use symbols or words in their thinking

preoperational stage :
second stage of cognitive development, 2-7 years old, understanding is more symbolic with use of words, images, and drawings .
Children in the preoperational stage have difficulty understanding that reversing an action may restore the original conditions from which the action began

concrete operational stage :
third stage of cognitive development, 7-11 years old, child uses operations and replaces intuitive reasoning (gut feelings) with logical reasoning .
Children in the concrete operational stage might enjoy playing games that involve sorting objects into types and identifying objects that do not fit with a group

formal operational stage :
fourth and final stage of cognitive development, 11-15 years and continues through adulthood; abstract, logical reasoning such as hypothetical thoughts, predictions, and hypotheses .
Adolescents in the formal operational stage begin to think more as a scientist thinks, devising plans to solve problems and systematically testing solutions through hypothetical-deductive reasoning.

temperament :
a behavioral style and characteristic way of responding .
Psychiatrists Alexander Chess and Stella Thomas (1977, 1996) identified three basic types of temperament in children: easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up.

infant attachment :
the close emotional bond between infant and caregiver .
Bowlby thought that infant attachment with our primary caregiver was internalized so that it served as our schema for our sense of self and the social world.

secure attachment :
ways that infants use caregiver, usually its mother, as a secure base from which to explore the environment .
In the strange situation, an infant with secure attachment is upset when the mother leaves, but calms down and appears happy to see her when she returns.

authoritarian parenting :
a restrictive, punitive style of parenting in which the parent exhorts the child to follow the parent's directions and to value hard work and effort .
Children of authoritarian parents sometimes lack social skills, show poor initiative, and compare themselves with others.

authoritative parenting :
a style of parenting that encourages independence but still places limits and controls on the child .
Children of authoritative parenting tend to be socially competent, self-reliant, and socially responsible.

neglectful parenting :
a style of parenting characterized by a lack of parental involvement.
Children of neglectful parenting might develop a sense that other aspects of their parents' lives are more important than they are.

permissive parenting :
a style of parenting characterized by placing few limits on behaviors of children .
Children of very permissive parenting typically rate poorly in social competence

prosocial behavior :
behavior intended to benefit other people .
Research suggests that the capacities to empathize with others and engage in prosocial behavior are linked with the ability to engage in self-control more generally.

puberty :
a period of rapid skeletal and sexual maturation that occurs mainly in early adolescence .
The concentrations of certain hormones increase dramatically during puberty

androgens :
the main class of male sex hormones .
Testosterone is an androgen associated with male genital development, height increases, and voice changes.

estrogens :
the main class of female sex hormones .
Estradiol is an estrogen associated with female breast, uterine, and skeletal development.

identity vs. identity confusion :
Erikson's fifth psychological state in which adolescents face the challenges of finding out who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life .

The chaos of jobs, careers, friendships, and romances may result in a conflict of identity versus identity confusion.

emerging adulthood :
term by Arnett; describes transitional period of extended adolescence and trying on adult roles .

The age range for emerging adulthood is approximately 18 to 25 years of age.

wisdom :
expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life .
Wisdom may increase with age because of the buildup of life experiences

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Human development
Development: the pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities.
Physical process: Involve changes in an individual's biological nature.
Cognitive Process: involve changes in an individual's thoughts, intelligence, and language.
Socioemotional process involves changes in an individuals relationships with other people, in emotions.
Human development is about the changes that occur with age.
Cross-sectional studies are a number of people of different ages are assessed at one point in time
Nature refers to a person's biological inheritance

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Example of Functional Fixedness with Maier String

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Thinking, Intelligence, and Language
Cognition is the way which information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing.
Our cognition can be compared to computers.
Artificial Intelligence focuses on creating machines capable of performing activities that require intelligence when they are done by people.
What is thinking? We think every day? But do we really know what is truly is?
Thinking involves manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems and making decisions.
Concepts are mental categories that are used to group objects, events and characteristics.
Concepts allow us to generalize, they tell us what we think about but not WHY.
Problem solving means finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available.
Subgoals are intermediate goals/problems that put us in a better position for reaching a final goal or solution.
Algorithms are strategies that guarantee a solution to a problem.
Heuristics are shortcut strategies that suggest a solution to a problem.
Fixation involves using a prior strategy and failing to look at a problem from a fresh perspective.
Functional Fixedness is when an individual fails to solve a problem because they are fixated on a thing's usual function.
Reasoning is the mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions.
Inductive reasoning involves reasoning from specific observations to make generalizations.
Deductive Reasoning is reasoning from a  general case that is known to be true
Decision Making involves evaluating alternatives and choosing among  them
You make decisions in your everyday life!!!!
Confirmation bias occurs from the direct influence of desire on beliefs. When people would like a certain idea/concept to be true, they end up believing it to be true. They are motivated by wishful thinking.
Hindsight Bias:    I KNEW IT ALL ALONG EFFECT !

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Personality
Freud's psychoanalytic theory
Sexual drive most important human motivator.
Hysteria- physical symptoms that have no physical cause.

Structures of personality
id- consists of unconscious drives and is the individual's reservoir of sexual energy, pleasure principle

ego- deals with demands of reality, mediator

superego- harsh internal judgment, our conscience

Defense mechanisms
tactics used by ego to control anxiety

1. Repression
2. Rationalization
3. Displacement
4. Sublimation
5.Projection
6. Reaction Formation
7. Denial
8. Regression

Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development
Oral Stage (first 18 months)- pleasure around mouth, chewing, sucking , biting
Anal Stage (18 to
months)- pleasure involves anus and urethra. Pleasure in holding and going
Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)- pleasure focuses on genitals

Latency period (6 years to puberty)- time out

Genital Stage (adolescence and adulthood)- sexual reawakening
*Fixation-  psychosexual stage colors adulthood

Oedipus Complex- boy's intense desire to replace his father and enjoy mother's affections- for girls its the Electra
Castration Anxiety

Horney's Sociocultural Approach
Need for security not sex is the prime motive in human existence
Penis envy- we truly envy status bestowed on those with one
Jung's Analytical Theory
collective unconscious - deepest layer of unconscious mind shared by all human beings because of common ancestral past
anima- passive feminine side
animus- assertive masculine side
persona- public mask

Adler's Individual psychology
people are motivated by purposes and goals- perfection key motivator in life
Compensation- individuals attempt to overcome imagined or real inferiorities or weaknesses by developing one's own abilities
Birth order could influence successfulness.

Psychodynamic perspectives
Personality determined by current and early life experiences
personality better understood developmentally

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-Memory: retention of information
-Occurs through 3 processes

1. Encoding

2. Storage

3. Retrieval

1. Take in information
2. Store/represent it
3. Retrieve for later purpose

-Encoding: process where information goes into memory
-Some is automatically encoded, other takes effort

Attention:
-Must pay attention to information
-Attention must be selective because brain's resources are limited
-Selective attention
-We attend selectively to some information and ignore other
-Divided Attention: multi-tasking
-Sustained Attention: (vigilance) paying attention to one thing and ONE THING ONLY
-Multi-tasking NOT useful
"Decreased ability to filter out interference from irrelevant task"

Levels of Processing
-Shallow --> intermediate --> deep
-Shallow: noting physical features of stimulus
-Intermediate: gives stimulus label
-Deep: gives stimulus meaning
-Deeper the process, the better memory
-Making associations makes it more likely that we'll remember it

What's involved?
-deep: prefrontal cortex
-shallow: amygdala

Elaboration (aka links)
-Extensive processing equals better memory (different connections formed around stimulus at encoding level)
-Concrete examples are good
-Self-reference: relating material to own experience
-Elaboration linked with neural activity
(Left frontal lobe, hippocampus)

Imagery
-EXTREMELY powerful way to make memories
-Paivio: memory stored as verbal or image (highly detailed, distinctive) code
-Dual-code hypothesis: memory for pictures better because stored as verbal and image codes

Storage
-Good encoding does not mean good memory
-Memory must be stored properly
-Definition: how information is retained represented in memory

-Atkinson-Shiffron Theory:

sensory memory: fraction of a second up to several seconds

Short-term Memory: up to 30 seconds

Long-term Memory: up to a lifetime

-Each works in distinctive ways and has a special purpose

Sensory Memory
-Hold information in original sensory for an instant form
-Rich and detailed
-Lose information unless we encode/store it
-Retains information from senses for short amount of time (not always conscious of this)

-Echoic: auditory sensory memory
-Information retained for up to several seconds

-Iconic: visual sensory memory
-Retained about 1/4 of a second

(echoic=echo=sound; iconic=icon=image)

-Short exposure to stimuli not enough time to move information to STM
-The material is memorized for an instant because it's processed as far as iconic sensory (info. retained for 1/4 of a sec.)

STM
-Most things don't pass auditory/visual sensory memory
-We pay attention causes info. to STM: info. retained for 30 seconds (unless we try to retain it longer)
-Limited capacity

-Miller: 7 +/- 2 iems
-Memory span: # of digits person can remember after short representation (in order)
-Relying on STM is useless

Chunking/Rehearsal
-Grouping information that exceeds 7+/-2 rule
-Makes large amounts of info. more manageable
-Adding meaning is easier to remember
-Rehearsal is good
-Information can be retained FOREVER (if not interrupted)
-Often verbal, can be visual/spatial
-Good for remembering info. for short periods of time
-Not good for long-term
-Con: adds no meaning
-Meaning is good for memory

-Atkinson/Shiffrin's theory sucks because how does STM function?
-How does stuff get in/out of memory?
-Where does problem solving take place?

BUT this theory is lowkey useful.

Working Memory
-We can hold stuff while we do stuff
-Has limited capacity
-Active memory system

Baddeley's Model:
-Boss: central executive
-Assistant (phonological loop)
Assistant (visuospatial working memory)
-conceptual model describing processes in memory
-USEFUL

Phonological Loop
-Stores speech-based info. about sounds of language
-Acoustic: sounds we hear, decays in few seconds
-Rehearsal: allows us to repeat words in phonological store
-Limited capacity

Visuospatial Working Memory
-Stores visual and spatial info. and visual imagery
-Limited capacity
-Works independently
-Too many items means we can't represent them accurately enough to retrieve them successfully
-Can rehearse numbers in phonological loop while making spatial arrangements of letters

Central Executive
-Limited capacity
-Integrates info. from phonological loop, visuospatial, and LTM
-Important role in paying attention, planning, and organizing
-Decides what to pay attention to and what to ignore
-Picks which strategies to use to process info. and solve problems

LTM
-permanent type of memory: stores large amount of info. for long time
-Size: 2.8 X 10 2  (280 quintillion) bits, virtually unlimited
-Divided into substructures: explicit and implicit memory

Explicit Memory
-5 Ws: who, what, where, when, why

Implicit Memory
-HOW

Ex.: past events
Im: How to do things

Explicit
-Conscious recollection of info. [specific facts, events, info. that can be verbally communicated]
Ex.: recalling names in President's cabinet
-Permastore content: portion of original learning that stays with person forever without rehearsal
PAST EVENTS

Episodic Memory
-Retention of info. about where, when, what of life's events
Ex.: what you ate for lunch
-Autobiographical

Semantic Memory
-Person's knowledge about the world
-Independent of individual's personal identity with past
-Includes general knowledge and everyday knowledge

-Semantic and episodic system's often work together
-Episodic can be impaired but semantic can work
-Criticism: explicit memory neither purely episodic or purely semantic

Implicit
-Nonconsciously remembering skills and sensory perceptions [no conscious remembering of facts]
-Behavior affected by prior experience without conscious recollection of that experience
-Aka: you know something but you don't know how/when you know it

Procedural Memory
-Memory for skills

Classical Conditioning
-Automatic learning of associations between stimuli so one evokes same response as the other
-Non-conscious implicit memory

Priming
-Similar to Gestalt: closure
-Activation of info. people already know to help them remember new info. better and faser
-Involuntary, non-conscious
-Occurs when something in environment evokes response in memory
-Priming makes concept more available in memory
-Influence social/goal-directed behavior

Retrieval Failure (Example of forgetting)
-Theory: retrieval failure
Interference Proactive:
-Old info. screws with new info.

Ex.: Old friend Prudence, new friend Patience, calls new friend Prudence

Retroactive Interference:
-New info. screws with old info.

Ex.: Old friend Raul, new friend Ralph, calls old friend Ralph

-Possibly due to problems with retrieval
-Cues can be overloaded, means higher chance of forgetting/retrieve incorrectly

Organization
-Memories carefully stored
-One of memory's most distinctive features
-Simple organization=improved memory
-Organizing info. during encoding important to memory
-2 theories: schemas and connectionist networks

Decay Theory:
-More time passes, forgetting increases
-Decay alone can't explain forgetting
-Under right retrieval conditions, we can recover memory we "forgot"
-New info. means new neurochemical memory trace; over time, trace goes bye-bye

Tip-of-the-Tongue:
-Happens when we retrieve some info. but not all of it
-Shows that we don't store info. in one way
-Words with some sounds screw you up (linked in verbal memory)

Ex.: Colorful scarf- bandage? banana? BANDANA!!

Tips:
-Relate material to yourself
-Make sure info. is accurate and organized
-Encode it (pay attention)
-Elaboration
-Encode early and often

-Rehearse
-Give stuff meaning
-Lecture yourself
-Personalize it
-Test yourself
-Use retrieval cues
-Most importantly: CHILL

-Other stuff you study out of paranoia
-Autobiographical memory: allow us to learn from experience
-Source of identity
-Redemptive stories: bad to good (happy people)
-Contamination stories: good to bad (pissy people)
-Use your memory or lose it
-Active intellectual lives protect you from mental decline

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Motivation: force that makes people do the stuff they do

Energized, directed, sustained

3 Theories:

1. Evolutionary

2. Drive Reduction

3. Optimum Arousal

Evolutionary Approach
-Ethology: study of animal behavior
-Instinct: unlearned universal biological pattern of behavior

Triggered by sign stimulus

Ex.: Babies and sucking, motives for sex, aggression, achievement

Drive Reduction Theory
-Drive: physiological need
-Need: deprivation motivates drive to eliminate deprivation

Ex.: Need- water, Drive- being thirsty

-Some association between the two
-Drive is psychological, need is physiological
-Drive becomes stronger, we are motivated to reduce it
-Homeostasis: maintain body's processes (blood sugar, K+Na levels, temperature, oxygenation)
-Theory kinda sucks because humans sometimes increase drive (going on a hunger strike)

Optimum Arousal Theory
-Arousal: feelings of alertness and engagement
-Yerkes-Dodson: we perform best at moderate levels of arousal
-Overlearning: learn to do a task so well, it's automatic
-High Arousal: anxiety
-Low Arousal: boredom

Hunger, Obesity, and Eating Disorders
-Cannon and Washburn: found association between stomach contractions/hunger
-CCK (hormone) starts digestion of food and tells us to STOP EATING
-The two guys used balloon in stomach with air pressure

-Glucose: hunger; brain REALLY needs it; when sugar too low, receptors in liver and brain trigger hunger; liver stores excess sugar; triggers hunger

-Insulin: glucose control
-Complex carbs. causes insulin to go up then down gradually
-Simple sugar: rise, fall sharply
-Satiety: feeling full

-Leptin: released by fat cells; decreases food intake, increases energy expenditure (metabolism)
-Discovered in obese mice
-Anti-obesity hormone
-Linked with weight, body fat, weight loss (dieting)
-Human obesity (?)

Brain Processes
-Lateral Hypothalamus: stimulating eating (if destroyed, no interest in food)
-Ventromedial Hypothalamus: reducing hunger/restricting eating (if destroyed: keep eating)
-Neurotransmitters and neural circuits (clusters of neurons)
-Serotonin satiating effect of CCK
-Leptin stops neurotransmitters in hypothalamus

Obesity
-Genetic
-Set point: weight when you're not trying to gain/loose weight (determined by stored fat in body)
-Fat in body
-Fat stored in adipose cells
-Normal: 10-20 billion, Obese: 100 billion
-Time and place affect eating
-Evolutionary POV: ancestors loved sugar
-Obesity increases risk for cardiovascular disease, diabetes, depression

Disordered Eating
-Anorexia Nervosa: starving yourself
-.5 and 3.7% of women
-Characteristics:

Weight less than 85% of healthy level

Refusal to eat

Fear of gaining weight

Distorted body image

Amenorrhea: no periods

-Physical Changes: growth of fine hair, thinning of bones/hair, severe constipation, low blood pressure, damage to heart/thyroid
-highest mortality rate (5.6%) of psychological disorders
-Perfectionism
-Begins in teenage years
-Obsessive-compulsive

-Bulimia Nervosa: person follows binge-purge eating pattern
-Fear of gaining weight
-Depressed or anxious
-Chronic sore throat, kidney problems, dehydration, gastrointenstinal problems, dental problems
-Starts late teens
-Affects 1 and 4% women
-Perfectionism
-Self-efficacy low (high standards, low confidence)
-Impulsivity, negative emotion, childhood obsessive-compulsive disorder
-Sexual/physical abuse in childhood

Causes/Treatment
-Media
-Genetic (problems with serotonin)
-Physical effects of disorders may change the neural networks
-Recovery: promote weight gain, drug therapies and psychotherapies

-Binge Eating Disorder: eating a LOT (like, A LOT) of food at one time
-Most are overweight/obese
-Most common (2-5%)
-8% of obese people
-Care a lot about physical appearance
-Diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular disease

Causes/Treatment
-Genes
-Dopamine
-Parts of brain/endocrine system that deal with stress overactive (leads to increase in cortisol- the stress hormone)
-Weight loss? Psychological disorder? How do we treat it???

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
-Human needs that must be satisfied in a certain order
-Strongest needs at base (physiological); weakest at top (self-actualization)

1. Self-Actualization: developing one's full potential (can only happen once others are met)

2. Esteem: opinion about yourself

3. Love and Belongingness: we need to belong to a group

4. Safety: our safety can't be at risk

5. Physiological Needs: food, water, sex

-Lower needs come from deficiency
-Warning: you'll stop after esteem
-Critics: you can skip around bro...

Self-Determination Theory (Ryan+Deci)
-3 Basic Needs:

Competence

Relatedness

Autonomy

-Exist in everyone
-We can grow and be awesome if in right context
-Concerns PERSONAL growth

Autonomy:
-Sense that we control our own life
-Tells us that actions come from self-interest
-Related to well-being
-Older people more YASS when doing boring stuff (voting, taxes, etc.)
-Does not come from deficits

Competence:
-Met when we bring desired outcomes
-Self-efficacy: you have ability to accomplish stuff
-Mastery: sense that you can gain new skills
-Related to success

Relatedness:
-Need to be warm with others
-Need to belong MAY be strongest motivator
-People get sad when they're lonely
-Loneliness: distress, life is meaningless
-Valuing extrinsic qualities decreases well-being

-Critics: are needs actually universal?
-West: individualistic culture
-East: collectivistic culture
-When we do stuff because WE WANT TO, life is better

-Intrinsic Motivation: based on internal factors
-Extrinsic Motivation: involves external motivators

-Why do you study?

Because high quality work (intrinsic)

Because grades (extrinsic)

-Self-regulation: you control behavior in order to achieve goals (get feedback, mood affected depending on how goals are going)
-Set good goals
-Plan and monitor goals

Emotion
-Feeling involves physiological arousal, consciousness, and behavioral expression
-Biological Factors: sympathetic nervous system

Increase in BP, HR

Increase in breathing

Increase in blood flow to brain/muscles

Stops digestion

-Parasympathetic nervous system:

Relaxation and healing

HR and BP decreases

Stomach activity/food digestion

Breathing decreases

-Evolved to enhance survival
-Emotions trigger SNS/PNS

Measuring Arousal
-Skin conductance level (SCC): increase in skin's electrical activity when sweat increases
-Polygraph: measures HR, breathing, SCC; these influenced by emotional states; not really accurate
-Polgraph really iffy
-Can't distinguish between anxiety and guilt
-Not allowed in court
-fMRI can be used for deception (changes in prefrontal cortex, studies better than chance but below perfection)

Theories
-James-Lange Theory: emotions happen after physiological reactions

Ex.: something happens --> aroused body --> sends sensory messages to brain --> emotion perceived

-Body's reaction=emotion

Critics:
-Cannon: different emotions don't have specific physiological responses (ANS too slow to account for emotions)

-Cannons-Bard Theory: emotion and physiological reactions happen together
-Body not REALLY important
-ANS stimulated (sends messages to cerebral cortex)
-Some emotion-specific responses

Amygdala:
-Has circuits that activate during negative emotions (really important in fear)
-LeDoux: fear
-Protects organism from danger
-Evolved to detect/respond to predators
-Emotion can follow 2 pathways
-Direct: thalamus --> amygdala (no detailed info., but FAST)
-Indirect: thalamus --> sensory cortex --> amygdala (nerve impulses from sensory organs --> amygdala)
-Amygdala linked with emotional memories
-Once we learn danger, we don't forget
-Why can't we change fears?

Amygdala LOVES cerebral cortex

Influences cerebral cortex because sends more connections

Also involved in positive emotions: DOPAMINE

Cerebral Hemispheres:
-Work differently in positive and negative emotions
-More left prefrontal cortex activity=happiness
-Endorphins and dopamine= positive emotions (happiness)
-Norepinephrine:: regulates arousal

Cognitive Aspect
-Do we think our emotions?

Two-Factor Theory:
-Schachter/Singer
-Emotion determined by physiological arousal/cognitive labeling
-Interpret external cues then label emotion

-Schachter/Singer shot people up with epinephrine
-Theory summed up: you misinterpret arousal which leads to intensified emotions
-Dutton/Aron: did bridge story study

-Zajonc and Lazarus: which comes first, thinking or feeling?
-Lazarus: thinking 1st
-Zajonc: emotions 1st "preferences need no inferences"
-Gut feeling needs no thought

-Both dudes correct
-Lazarus: events occur over a period of time (being in love for years)
-Zajonc: single events (car accidents)
-Some emotions instantaneous; no thinking
-Long-term feelings: (being depressed) thinking

Behavior and Emotion
-Can be verbal (saying stuff), nonverbal (facial expressions)
-Facial Feedback Hypothesis: expressions influence/reflect emotions (facial muscles send signals to brain which results in emotion)

-Darwin: facial expressions NOT LEARNED

Same in all culture

Evolved from emotions of animals

-Biological ties (blind children can smile and frown)
-Ekman: facial expressions don't really change in different cultures

-Display rules: social standards for when, where, and how emotion should be expressed
-Other universal nonverbal signals (Depression):

Slow body movement; slumped posture

-"Thumbs up": good in U.S., bad in Greece

Emoticons:
-Introduced by Fahlman
-Helps us compensate for vocal tone/facial expression
-Differs amongst cultures
-Show how important emotions are

Gender and Emotions:
-Not many differences
-Women good at recognizing emotions
-Tied to social beliefs
-Women=more emotions
-Women experience emotions longer

-Valence: is emotion pleasant or unpleasant? (emotions tend to go together based on valence)
-Negative Affect: unpleasant emotions (anger)
-Positive Affect: pleasant emotions
-Doesn't explain EVERY emotional state

-Arousal level: degree to which emotion reflected (engaged vs. calm)
-Circumplex model of mood: measures valence/arousal
-Valence and arousal: independent dimensions
-Excitement: high-arousal
-Rage: high-arousal

-Negative emotions: something is wrong and we need to fix it
-Positive emotions: everything is good
-Broaden-and-build model: (Fredrickson) and moods increase attention/ability to build resources
-Positive emotions are good for doing good stuff

Resilience
-Bouncing back after everything falls apart
-Resilient people more optimistic
-Tugade, Fredrickson, Barrett: good coping comes from using positive emotions
-You bend but don't break

Happiness
-Genetic: 50-80% heritability (influenced by experience)
-Set point? your happiness when you're not trying to increase/decrease it
-Happiness fluctuates
-You're not doomed to an unhappy life

-Hedonic Treadmill: anything that makes you happy doesn't last forever because we adapt to changes
-Happiness as the goal won't work
-Linking everyday goals to happiness NOT good

-Lyubomirsky: want happiness? Do intentional things like exercise, kind acts, etc.
-Altruism: increases happiness
-Emmons/McCullough: study: counting blessings increases well-being
-Meaningful goals

SET GOALS BRO

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Chapter 3-Biological Foundations of Behavior

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Chapter 3-Biological Foundations of Behavior

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Characteristics of the Nervous System
1. Complexity
2.Integration
3. Adaptability
4. Electrochemical Transmission

Afferent Nerves- (sensory) information to brain and spinal cord

Efferent Nerves- (motor)carry info out of brain and spinal cord

Divisions of the Nervous System

1. Central nervous system- Brain and spinal cord

2. Peripheral nervous system- Network of nerves that connects the brain and spinal cord to other parts

3. Somatic nervous system- Sensory nerves, conveys info from the skin and muscles to cns about pain and temperature , and motor nerves

4. Autonomic nervous system- messages to and from internal organs (heart rate)

Sympathetic nervous system-arouses body

Parasympathetic nervous system- calms body

Cell Structure

Dendrites- receive information and orient it towards the neuron's cell body

Axon- carries information away from the body towards other cells

Myelin Sheath- encases and insulates most axons (speed up nerve impulse)

Terminal Branches-end of cell

Neural Impulse
Polarized- most negatively charged ions on the inside of the cell and most positively charged ions on the outside
Depolarization- sodium gates open briefly, positively charged neuron. Potassium channels open and they move out through semipermeable membrane
Action potential- brief wave of positive electrical charge , lasts 1/1000th of a second

Structures and Functions of Human Brain

Cerebral Cortex- higher brain functions, thinking, learning consciousness

Amygdala- fear and discrimination  of objects necessary for survival

Hippocampus-memory

Cerebellum-motor coordination

Medulla- breathing and reflexes

Pons-sleep and arousal

Reticular Formation- arousal and stereotyped patterns like walking

Hypothalamus- eating, drinking, sex; emotion,stress,reward

Thalamus-relays info between lower and higher brain centers

Cerebral Lobes

Frontal- cognition, recent memory, planning of movement, some aspects of emotion

Parietal- bodily sensation

Occipital- vision

Temporal-hearing and advanced visual processing

Hemispheres of the Brain
Left

Main language center, speech and grammar

Receives info from right side of body and controls it

Right

Nonverbal information;perception, visual recognition, emotion

Controls left side of body

Neurotransmitters

ACh- stimulates firing of neurons and is involved in muscle action, learning, and memory ; ACh deficiency= Alzheimer's

GABA- CNS, inhibits brainn's firing of neurons, the brake pedal- Low levels=anxiety

Norepinephrine- stimualted by stress, helps control alertness- Too little norepinephrine= is associated with depression and too much= agitated states. Norepinephrine works with ACh to regulate sleep and wakefulness. Amphetamines and cocaine- increase in norepinephrine

Glutamate- exciting many neurons, involved in learning and memory. Too much can trigger migraines or seizures. Factor in anxiety, depression, schizophrenia, Alzheimer disease, Parkinson's

Dopamine- Helps control voluntary movement and affects sleep,mood,attention,learning, and the ability to recognize opportunities for rewarding experiences. Low levels of dopamine= Parkinson's disease, High levels=Schizophrenia

Serotonin- regulation of sleep, mood, attention, and learning. Teams with ACh and norepinephrine. Low levels= depression . Prozac slows reuptake of serotonin. 15 receptors

Endorphins- eliminate pain, depress nervous system.

Oxytocin- love and social bonding

Brain imaging
EEG-electrodes, record's brain's electrical activity
CAT/CT scan- 3D xray, location and extent of damage
PET-metabolic changes in brain. Measures glucose levels
MRI- construct images of brain (brain's interior)
fMRI- function and structure of brain
TMS- magnetic coils- causes of brain activities and brain areas. induce brief electrical current pulses in the brain which trigger action potentials.
Hindbrain

medulla

cerebellum

pons

Limbic system- hippocampus and amygdala

Basal Ganglia- large neuron clusters located above the thalamus and under the cerebral cortex that work with the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex to control and coordinate voluntary movements
*Isabel Gauthier- recognizing greebles faceless creatures

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Metacognition- refers to thinking about thinking

Global brain workspace- involves a variety of brain areas working in parallel.
*Anterior Cingulate- associated with acts of will and association areas.

Arousal is a physiological state determined by the reticular activating system,  network of structures including the brain stem,  medulla, and thalamus.
Controlled processes- most alert states of human consciousness, actively focus their efforts towards a goal.
1. Higher-Level, math or science problem
2. Lower-level, gazing at a sunset, punching in a number on cell phone
3. Altered States, hypnosis, feeling the effects of taking alcohol or psychedelic drugs
4. Subconscious, sleeping and dreaming
5. No awareness, Having unconscious thoughts, anesthetized

Altered-States of Consciousness
hallucinating, hypnosis,  trauma, fatigue

-Subconscious Awareness
Incubation- subconscious processing that leads to a solution to a problem after a break from conscious thought about the problem
When we sleep we are still aware o external stimuli

Unconscious thought- Freud, a reservoir of unacceptable wishes, feelings, and thoughts that are beyond conscious awareness

Suprachiasmatic nucleus- uses input from retina to synchronize rhythm. Sends information to the hypothalamus and pineal gand to regulate daily rhythms. Communicates with reticular formation to regulate sleep and wakefulness.
*YOU GO TO SLEEP- BODY TEMP. DROPS
In the morning, adrenal glands release cortisol.
Theories of sleep
protection at night
conserve energy
brain's plasticity
consolidation of memory
Effects of chronic sleep deprivation
1. decreases brain activity in thalamus and prefrontal cortex
2. reduces complexity of brain activity
3. Influence moral judgement

Wakefulness Stages
Beta Waves- concentration and alertness (dysynchronous)
Alpha Waves- Relaxation or drowsiness (synchronous)
Theta Waves- Stage 1, slow frequency, greater amplitude
Myoclonic jerks- Sudden muscle movements (IM FALLING WHILE SLEEPING)
Stage 2- Sleep spindles, sudden increase in wave frequency
Stage 3 and 4- delta waves, slowest and highest amplitude brain waves during sleep.
REM SLEEP- memory
60% percent in stages 1 and 2
20% in delta sleep
20% in REM sleep
Melatonin is secreted an hour later in older adolescents, which can explain why they're more tired.
Sleep- ACH, norepinephrine, and serotonin.
Sleep begins, neurotransmitter levels drop until stage 4. REM SLEEP, rise in ach, which activates cerebal cortex. REM sleep ends with a rise in serotonin and norepinephrine, which increase level of forebrain activity.
*CYTOKINES- sleep inducing, infection fighting
Night terror vs nightmare
-Night terror, stage 4, sudden arousal
Nightmare- REM SLEEP
CPAP- continous positive airway pressure, treats sleep apnea

SIDS- sudden infant death syndrome
abnormality in brain stem

Cognitive theory of dreaming- subconscious cognitive processing

Activation synthesis theory- cerebral cortex synthesis neural signals generated from activity in lower part of brain, BRAIN TRIES TO FIND LOGIC OUT OF RANDOM BRAIN ACTIVITY

Psychoactive Drugs

VTA- midbrain above pons, secretes dopamine

NA- forebrain, prefrontal cortex

Basal ganglia- demand for alcohol

alcohol can increase dopamine concentration

George Valliant- 1/3 alcoholism by 65
dead, beating, done
Recovery

1. negative experience

2. substitute dependency

3. new positive relationships

4. join support group

Barbiturates
heavy dosage=impaired memory
combined with alcohol can be lethal
Tranquilizers-high dosage, drowsiness and confusion
*Nicotine raises dopamine levels*
Amphetamines

increase release of dopamine
example= crystal meth, large amounts of dopamine and can potentially damage receptors
Cocaine
depletion of dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine

-agitated,depressed mood
*Cocaine binds to the uptake pumps and prevents them from removing dopamine from synapse. More dopamine collects in synapse and more receptors are activated
Ecstasy
stimulant and hallucinogenic properties "empathogen"=warm bond when taken
releases serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine. Depletes serotonin
LSD
bad temper, paranoia, homicidal and suicidal impulses
Mainly affects serotonin but may affect dopamine
Rules for hypnotizing
1. minimize
2. concentrate
3. inform (expectations)
4. suggest (know is happening)
Divided consciousness view of hypnosis
Ernest Hilgard - hidden observer

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Chapter 2- Psychology's Scientific Method

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Chapter 2- Psychology's Scientific Method

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Psychology's Scientific Method
-Theory: explains relationship between variables on CONCEPTUAL level (Why things happen)
-Use of scientific method is what makes psychology a science
-Five Steps:
1. Observing some phenomenon
2. Formulating hypotheses and predictions
3. Testing through empirical research
4. Drawing conclusions
5. Evaluating the theory

-Hypothesis MUST be testable
-Hypothesis comes from a theory

Types of Psychological Research
Descriptive Research
-Does not determine cause
-DESCRIBES
-Methods: observation, surveys, interviews, case studies
-What it studies: What is it? How often does it occur? etc.
-Observation:
Tells you the who, when, where, how, form of documentation
-Surveys:
*People make themselves look good
*Quick
*Cannot study unconscious variables
*Language must be clear
*Can cover variety of topics
-Case Studies:
*Used when unique aspects of people cannot be duplicated
*ONE person's information (Family, hopes, goals, etc.)
*Valuable at the beginning of scientific method
*CANNOT BE GENERALIZED
Correlational Research
-Goal: examine whether and how 2 variables CHANGE TOGETHER (co-relationship
-Correlational studies allow you to make predictions
-Expressed as "correlational coefficient" (r) {coefficient: strength and direction}
- Value always falls between +1.00 and -1.00
- (Ex. +1.00) Number = strength; Sign (- or +) = direction
- Closer to +/- 1.00 = stronger relationship
-If 2 variables move in the same direction, it is positive (--> --> = +)
-If 2 variables move in opposite directions, it is negative (--> <-- = -)
-Synonyms for correlation: link, associated, relationship
-Correlation = prediction, NOT causation
-Always think of third variable (aka confound)
*Confound variable is the unwanted influence in research
-Correlation is not causation. Correlation is not causation. CORRELATION IS NOT CAUSATION.
*Even if it seems plausible, never assume that a relationship between two variables means that one causes the other.
-Why use correlation?
*Can predict person's score
*Biological sex, personality traits, genetic factors, ethnic background
*Real-world events
*Ethical
*Everyday experience

Longitudinal Designs
-Correlational = relationship between 2 variables
-Longitudinal = CAUSAL relations; long-term studies
-Not 100% reliable
*Other influences

Experimental Research
-Looks for cause/effect relationship
-People randomly assigned to groups
-Reduces likelihood of other variables affecting result
-Independent Variable: manipulation, potential cause
-Confederate = actor
-Dependent Variable: responding variable, effect
-Experimental Group: receives independent variable
-Control Group: no change
-External Validity: do the results generalize? Focuses on real-world issues
-Internal Validity: biases? Logical errors?
-Experimenter Bias:
*Experimenter influences = bias
*Systematic biases: confounds
-Participant Bias:
*Participant's expectations influence results
*Placebo: sugar pill (no physiological effect)

Research Samples and Settings
-Population < Sample
-Random Sample :)
-Random Sample is no the same thing as random assignment
-Random Assignment: experimental and control groups = ?
-Random Sample = representative of population
-Setting does not determine type of research
-E.g. labs, nature
*Cons:
1. Participants know they're being studied
2. Unnatural Behavior
3. May not be representative
4. Mind and behavior difficult to study

Analyzing and Interpreting
-Statistics: describe and summarize
-MCT (Mean, median, mode): indicates overall characteristics of a set of data
-Mean used most often (not useful if there are extreme numbers, small cases
-Mean unaffected by extreme score
-Even number? Average 2 middle numbers
-Organize scores highest to lowest
-Mode least used (Preference, popularity)
-Measures of Dispersion:
*How much scores differ from another
*Amount of variability
*Range: distance between highest and lowest score
*Estimate of variability
-Standard Deviation: smaller SD = less variability
larger SD = more variability
-SD how much scores vary on average
-Differences should be able to be replicated
-Inferential Statistics:
*Date = hypothesis?
*5/100 or .05 = Statistically significant (Confidence level)
*Bridge between sample and population
*The higher the number of cases = easier to get statistically significant

Conducting Ethical Research
-Nobody wants to be like Hitler
-IRB: Institutional Review Board and APA have ethics guidelines
-Ethics Guidelines:
1. Informed Consent
2. Confidentiality (KEEP QUIET)
3. Debriefing
4. Deception (It's okay to deceive)
-Office for Human Protection: ensures well-being of participants
-5% animals: 90% rats and mice
-Ethical guidelines for humans and mice
Values
-Values? No values?
-Take stand?
-PARTICIPANTS HAVE RIGHTS

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Therapies
Biological Therapies- treatments that reduce the symptoms of psychological  disorders by altering aspects of body functioning.
Drug Therapy-
antianxiety drugs: commonly known as tranquilizers. These drugs reduce anxiety by making the individual calmer and less excitable. The most frequently prescribed medicine are Xanax, Valium, and Librium.
All drugs have side effects, including drowsiness, loss of coordination, fatigue, and mental slowing.
Antidepressant drugs regulate mood. The four main classes of antidepressant drugs are tricyclics such as Elavil, tetracyclics such as Avanza, inhibitors such as Prozac.
Lithium is widely used to treat bipolar disorders.
Antipsychotic drugs are powerful drugs that diminish agitated behavior , reduce tension, . decrease hallucinations, improve social behavior, and produce better sleep patterns in individuals who have a severe psychological disorder, especially schizophrenia
Electroconvulsive Therapy commonly called shock therapy

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Defining Psychology:
-Psychology: study of behavior and mental processes
*Science? Uses scientific method
-Goals: describe, predict, and explain behavior; controlling/changing behavior
-Behavior: actions that can be observed
-Mental Processes: stuff that goes on in our head (cannot be directly observed)

-Apply scientific method to answer life's question
-Physiology + Philosophy = Psychology

[4 Attitudes]
1. Critical Thinking: thinking deeply (How do I know this?)
-Reduces unreliable/biased opinions/beliefs in conclusions
2. Skepticism: questioning common beliefs
-Pseudo = false
3.Objectivity: seeing things how they really are instead of how we want to see them
-Empirical Method: acquiring knowledge through observation
-Assumptions based on EVIDENCE, not hunches
4. Curiosity:
-Scientists are curious
-What is it? Why?
-Debate and controversy allow for the advancement of psychology
-Evidence MUST support claims

-Psychology = general science
-Freud HEAVILY influenced psychology
-Psychology is not only about psychology disorders
-Focuses on all aspects of human life
-Positive Psychology: yay humans!

History (Wundt)
-First lab.: 1879 @ University of Leipzig
-Wundt and Titchener = structuralism -> what?
-Studied relationship between brain and nervous system
-Used introspection: looking inside
-Basic elements of mind

History (James)
-American founding father for psychology
-Functionalism (why?): purpose/function of mind and behavior in person's adaptation to environment
-Constant stream of information: "stream of consciousness"
-Why is human thought adaptive?

History (Darwin)
-Natural Selection: fittest species survive and procreate
-Only genetic traits can be passed on
-We are the way we are because it makes us well-suited to survival in our environment

Biological Approach
-Focus on brain and nervous system
-Neuroscience: study of structure/function. development, genetics, and biochemistry of nervous system
-Brain and nervous system important to understanding behavior, thought, and emotion
-Thoughts and emotions have physical bases in brain
-Neural impulse release chemical substances that allow us to think, feel, and behave
-Though brain is complex, this approach has simplified it

Behavioral Approach
-Study of overt behavior and environment/determinants
-Screw thoughts and feelings
-Skinner, Pavlov, Watson -->  rewards and punishments determine behavior
-Psychology  should only focus on over behavior, not cognition

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Approach
-Emphasizes unconscious thought, conflict between biological drives, society's demands, early childhood and family experiences
-Sigmund Freud
-Psychoanalysis = Talk Therapy

Humanistic Approach
-Focuses on positive crap
-Humans are in control of themselves
People can live by higher human values, e.g. altruism, free will

Cognitive Approach
-Emphasizes mental processes in knowing
-Scientists focus on information processing
-Mind = active and aware problem- solving system
-Mental processes control behavior

Evolutionary Approach
-Uses evolutionary ideas (adaptation, reproduction, and natural selection) to explain specific human behaviors
-"Unifies" psychology
-Evolution molds mental processes

Sociocultural Approach
-How social and cultural environment influence behavior
-Compares people from different societies/cultures
-To understand behavior, one most understand culture

-Multiple Approaches = Multiple Perspectives

-Psychologists engage in "evidence-based practice"
-Therapeutic tools must be supported by empirical research
-Psychology: PhD, no drugs
-Psychiatry: MD, drugs
-Academic division between teaching and researching

-56 Divisions in American Psychological Association (APA)
-Division 2: Society for the Teaching of Psychology
- Devising best ways to help kids learn

Psychological Psychology and Behavioral Neuroscience
-Physical processes behind mental processes
-Behavioral Neuroscience: biological processes; brain's role in behavior

Sensation and Perception
-Focus on physical and psychology processes that allow us to experience the world

Learning
-Animal Research
-Addressed from behavioral and cognitive POVs
-Learning: behavior changes because of changing circumstances

Developmental Psychology
-"Experimental Psychologists"
-Attention, consciousness, information processing, memory, problem solving, decision making, intelligence

Motivation and Emotion
-How people develop from conception to death
-Focus on biological and environmental factors
-Child, adult, aging
-Emotions universal?
-Why keep trying to attain goal?
-Physical and biological processes

Psychology of Women and Gender
-Psychological, social, and cultural influences on women
-Gender
-Biological sex influences ideas of ourselves

Personality Psychology
-Long-lasting characteristics
-Traits, goals, motives, genetics, personality, development, well-being
-What makes you, you?

Social Psychology
-How one interacts with another
-How groups influence people
-How groups influence attitudes
-Interpersonal relationships

Industrial and Organizational (I/O) Psychology
-Workplace: employees and employers
-Personal matters
-Human resource management: Industrial/Personnel Psychology
-Social influences on organizations and organizational leadership: Organizational Psychology

Clinical and Counseling Psychology
-Most popular
-Diagnose and treat
-Counseling: career
-Psychopathology: scientific study of their work

Health Psychology
-Stress and coping
-Emphasizes psychological factors, lifestyle, and health-care delivery system

Community Psychology
-Make society and community better
-Goal: support
-Provide programs
-Lower risks (e.g. suicide)

School and Educational Psychology
-Children's learning and adjustment in school
-Teach
-Test children, place them in programs, recommendations

Environmental Psychology
-People and their environments
-Effects of physical settings in major areas of psychology (i.g. cognition)

Forensic Psychology
-Psychology + Legal
-Jury selection
-Asked to testify
-Is person a danger to society?
-Think of Asian guy from Law and Order: SVU

Sport Psychology
-Sport improvement
-Enjoying sport participation
-New field

Cross-Cultural Psychology
-Culture's role in behavior, thought, and emotion
-Is psychological phenomena universal?

How the Mind Impacts the Bod
-Mental processes change with physical processes

How the Body Impacts the Mind
-Everything we do, see, think, and feel can impact health
-Nature vs. Nurture: body influences mind (e.g. sleep)

Psychology is about you.

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What is abnormal behavior? Abnormal Behavior is behavior that is deviant, maladaptive, or personally distressful over a relatively long period of time.
• Abnormal behavior is deviant. Which is atypical or statistically unusual
•Abnormal behavior is maladaptive. It is the behavior that interferes with a person's ability to to function effectively.
•Abnormal behavior involves personal distress over a long period of time.

Classifying Abnormal Behavior
• DSM V
• Anxiety Disorder
Anxiety Disorder
Dissociative Identity Disorder

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Social Psychology is the study of how people think about, influence, and relate to other people.
* Self-fulfilling prophecy is when expectations cause individuals to act in ways that serve to make expectations come true.
- Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobsen conducted a study on self-fulling prophecy in 1968.(Late-bloomers)

Attribution
it is the process by which we come to understand the causes of others' behavior and form an impression of them as individuals
-Attribution theory views people as motivated to discover the underlying causes of behavior as part of their effort to make sense of the behavior

Internal/external

Stable/unstable

Controllable/uncontrollable

*Fundamental attribution error
observers overestimate the importance internal traits and underestimate the importance of external situations when they seek explanations of an actor's behavior
* False consensus effect
overestimation of the degree to which everybody else thinks or acts the way we do
The Self as a Social Object
* self-objectification- Apple of another person's eye
*Stereotype threat- fear of being judged based on  negative stereotype about his or her group
*social comparison-process by which we evaluate our thoughts,feelings,behaviors, and abilities in relation to other people
Attitudes guide actions

When the person's attitudes are strong

When the person shows a strong awareness of his or her attitudes and when the person rehearses and practices them

When the person has a vested interest

Cognitive Dissonance- concept developed by Festinger, is an individual's psychological discomfort(dissonance) caused by two inconsistent thoughts (hypocrite)
*Experimenter by Festinger and J. Merrill Carlsmith
asked college students to engage in boring tasks ($20,$1)
-Effort justification means rationalizing the amount of effort we put into something.
- Self-perception theory, Daryl Bem's take on how behavior influences attitudes
*Behaviors can cause attitudes, when we are questioned about our attitudes,  we think back on our behaviors for information
Persuasion
Elements of persuasion , identified by Carl Hovland and colleagues

The communicator (source)

The medium

The target(audience)

The message

Elaboration likelihood model- two ways to persuade: Central route and peripheral route
Persuasion techniques:
Door-in-the-face
Foot-in-the-door
Resisting Persuasion:
Inoculation- like giving a vaccine, a weaker version of information

Egoism- giving to another person to gain reciprocity
Aggression
Aggressive behavior often results when areas such as the limbic system are stimulated by electric currents
Frontal lobes implicated in aggression
Lower levels of serotonin have been linked to aggressive behavior
-Testosterone
John Dollard, frustration-aggression hypothesis
Cultures of Honors- Dov Cohen
Media Violence
Solomon Asch- experiment on conformity (which line is the same size as the other one out of three) Pressure to conform is strong
- Informational Social Influence influence other people have on us because we want to be right
-Normative Social influence is the influence others have on us because we want them to like us.
*Obedience - Stanley Milligram Shock experiment
Deindividuation - being part of a group reduces personal identity and erodes a sense of personal responsibility, gives anonymity- KKK
Social Contagion- imitative behavior involving the spread of actions, emotions, and ideas

Social Facilitation- Improvement in an individual's performance because of the presence of others

Social Loafing- Each person's tendency  to exert less effort in a group because of reduced accountability for individual (WHEN U DONT DO GROUP WORK)

Risky Shift- tendency for a group decision to be riskier than the average decision made by the individual group members.

Group polarization effect- The solidification and further strengthening of an individual's position as a consequence of a group discussion or interaction

Groupthink- The impaired group decision making that occurs when making the right decision is less important than maintaining group harmony. "get with the program" VALUE CONFORMITY OVER ACCURACY
*Irving Janis- decision making errors in history (Pearl Harbor, Vietnam War, Challenger spaceshuttle disaster)
can be prevented if groups avoid isolation
Social identity- The way we define ourselves in terms of our group membership- u can identify with a country, social organization, religious group etc.
*Henry Tajfel* Social identity theory- Our social identities are a crucial part of our self-image and a valuable source of positive feelings about ourselves
1. in-group
2. out-group
Marianne Bertrand and Sendhil Mullainathan- Resumes that were different stereo typically on how White or Black their names sounded but had the same qualifications in Boston and Chicago. White-sounding names were 50% more likely to be called for an interview.
Explicit vs. Implicit racism - Consciously aware and others hidden at a deeper level
*Implicit racism- Implicit Associations Test (IAT) computerized survey that assesses the ease with which a person can associate a Black or White person with good things and bad things. Based on the idea that preexisting biases may make it easier to associate some social stimuli with positive rather than negative items.
Muzafer Sherif- Robber's Cave experiment
Eliot Aronson- Jigsaw classroom, equal in ethnic composition and academic achievement

CLOSE RELATIONSHIPS
Mere exposure effect- The phenomenon that the more we encounter someone or something, the more probable it is that we will start liking the person or thing even if we do not realize we have seen it before.
*Consensual validation- people are attracted to others who are similar to them. Since they share similar values, our attitudes and behavior validate ours.

Social Exchange theory- The view of social relationships as involving an exchange of goods, the objective of which is to minimize costs and maximize benefits (You give me this i give you that)

Investment Model- examines the ways that commitment, investment, and the availability of attractive alternative partners predict satisfaction and stability in relationships.