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In this assignment, there will be a discussion regarding what childhood is, how childhood is constructed and how childhood has changed over time. There will also be mentions of different theorists who studied childhood and its social construction. Some of these theorists that will be discussed are, Pavlov, Skinner, Postman, Piaget and Vygotsky.
Furthermore, there will be a discussion regarding Frank Field and Graham Allen's review on the importance of early childhood development. After this, there will be mentions of different theorists who studied childhood and its social construction. Some of these theorists that will be discussed are, Pavlov, Skinner, Postman, Piaget and Vygotsky. After this section, there will be a discussion about the inequalities of childhood, then there will be a section about brain development and how the brain slowly develops and forms in the foetus and also after when the baby is born.
Next, it will move on to more detail regarding pre-natal processes such as the zygote and embryo forming stages. Lastly, there will be a section about the different internal and external factors which affect child development.

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What is childhood?

According to (Merriam-Webster, 2021), 'childhood is the state or period of being a child' and also can be described as 'the early period in the development of something'.
Childhood is the time a child goes  through as he learns and develops his physical, cognitive, emotional and social stage. During this time, the child will gain attachment with their care giver if they receive the correct care and love from a young age.
Childhood is the time for children to play freely and be creative. They use their imagination to do fantasy play and make up different roles. They enjoy exploring by playing outdoors and with animals and insects. They engage in physical play in nursery and school.

How is childhood constructed?

Many theorists believe childhood is a social construction as childhood are influenced by the society they live in. Depending on where a child lives and which people he grows up with, the child is influenced by their behaviours, the way they talk and treat each other and what things are expected of them as to be the norm of the society. Societies have different things they are expected to do and how they are expected to behave and this varies to where each person grows up. Phillipe Aries believes 'that in the Middle Ages (the 10th to the 13th century) ‘the idea of childhood did not exist’ – children were not seen as essentially different to adults like they are today'. (Thompson, n.d.)
He claims that the reason for this is because between the 10th and 13th century, paintings show children would be dressed similarly to adults and there were no laws in regards to address adults and children separately. Children would so the same work as adults so there was not much differentiation in them. It was part of the norm of the society at that time that children worked from a very young age.

EYFS- review of childhood

The EYFS framework is based on the point that children should be support in seven main areas of learning and development in order for them to achieve the best quality of childhood learning. It is encouraged that they are supported throughout their school years by following the EYFS framework as this is the time when children can reach their potential by play and games (Importance of EYFS in Children's Progress - Edsys, 2016).
The seven areas are;

communication and language

physical development

personal, social and emotional development

literacy

mathematics

understanding the world

expressive arts and design (Early years foundation stage, 2021)

To promote the EYFS framework in early years settings, one way is by challenging children to encourage their learning. This can be done by play and having creative tasks set. Practitioners and school teachers must understand and observe the childs development by listening to the childs interests and then plan according to the childs interests and level of understanding. Gradually, when the child is progressing, the teacher can introduce new work and vocabulary.

Children's Act (2004)

The aim of this act is 'to ensure and provide the best levels of care and protection. The interests of children are paramount in their welfare and safeguarding, and anyone working with children has this responsibility' (What is the Children Act 2004? | iHASCO, 2020). One of the principles of the Children's Act (2004) is 'help achieve economic stability for the future of children' which will allow children to have higher chances of quality learning and development in school. If they are given support to the best of ability in their younger years then this allows them to do better in their learning. This includes ensuring children are eating healthy so can play well and explore new things. It also includes a safe environment so they are not at any risk of any harm or abuse. Think links to Maslow's hierarchy of needs which is also known as the humanistic approach as Maslow believes that if 5 basic needs are met then a person can reach self-actualisation and reach their goal. These basic needs are physiological, safety, love, esteem and self-actualisation. Looking at the safety factor, 'Once people’s physiological requirements are met, the next need that arises is a safe environment. Our safety needs are apparent even early in childhood, as children have a need for safe and predictable environments and typically react with fear or anxiety when these are not met'. (Hopper, 2020). This theory was tested by two researchers 'Louis Tay and Ed Diener looked at data from over 60,000 participants in over 120 different countries. They assessed six needs similar to Maslow’s: basic needs (similar to physiological needs), safety, love, pride and respect (similar to esteem needs), mastery, and autonomy' (Hopper, 2020).
By carrying this test out, it showed that for well being to be achieved, these basic needs of love and safety need to be met first as they support a person to grow mentally and be able to develop good relationships such as with parents, teachers and school mates. This is overall helping them progress well in their childhood.

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Attending school in South Africa is compulsory till age 15. The South African Constitution states that everyone has a right to basic education. The government invests in preschool and childcare centres as this is to help support the children's foundation years of learning. The children also have access to sports teams and have good developed curriculums.  So far, this is same as how British schools have their school system except in Britain, school is compulsory till the age of 18.
In Britain, there are government funded schools however in South Africa, children have to pay to go school. This affects some families who cannot afford the normal living standards and instead the children have to work because their parents cannot afford the fees, uniform and books. There are '3 underlying themes that influence the ability of children to remain in school, viz. health, policies and structures, and poverty'(Mokoena, Breda and D, 2021). Poverty is a main factor restricting children's learning to develop as they are do not have the financial means to afford a proper education. They have to find work to support their families so they can survive. They start work from childhood. They do not learn literacy and maths skills which affects the economy as a whole as the chances are that these children will not have good payed jobs and therefore affects the development of the country.

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The constructs of childhood are the different theories of what different theorists think about how childhood is formed and how children learn. One theorist is Neil Postman. He believed that ‘how we communicate strongly influences the ideas we communicate and this eventually makes up the contents of our culture’ (Schubert,2005).
He strongly believes that childhood does not exist but instead children should be working and are like young adults.
Postman highlights that in the middle ages when education was only for those who could afford it, children had less literacy knowledge in comparison to adults therefore there was a difference in adults and children. However now, as time goes on and technology is improving, children are learning more which Postman believes it distinguishes the difference between adults and children. He thinks this because children are not more literate and speaking same to adults (Thompson, 2011).

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LH4TRJ1oAnA

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Bookey: Empower your mind anywhere anytime

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🔥🔥The Disappearance of Childhood by Neil Postman (Summary) -- The Essence of Childhood

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Piaget believes that there are four stages of cognitive development and if a person goes through all of them successfully then they have reached complete human intelligence. The first stage is sensorimotor stage which is from birth to two yrs old. 'Piaget chose to call this stage the 'sensorimotor' stage because it is through the senses and motor abilities that infants gain a basic understanding of the world around them' (Cherry, 2019).
The second stage is the preoperational stage from age two to seven. This is when the child begins to use symbolic expressions. They can not use logic to think and understand but instead whatever they see they will believe it as they see it. They also imagine themselves to be different roles and think they are really another person. Toddlers often pretend to be people they are not (e.g. superheroes, policeman), and may play these roles with props that symbolize real life objects. Children may also invent an imaginary playmate (Mcleod, 2018).
The third stage is the concrete operational stage which is from ages 7 to 11. This is when the child begins to understand the logic behind how things work. The brain is developed to rearrange structures such as in maths, they will know that if two numbers are added together it will give this answer and if the sum is reversed then it will give them the first amount. They can logically process this information and think about different things from others point of view to a certain extent, they know that if they behave badly then they will have to face the consequences and the same for good actions, they will get rewarded. This helps the child think about their actions and know what the results of things could be.
The fourth stage is the formal operational stage that is from age 12 onwards. 'By approximately 12 years of age, adolescents enter the formal operational stage that takes them into adulthood. Emerging abstract thought and hypothetical reasoning mark this stage of cognitive development' (Picture Perfect Playgrounds, 2022).

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Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

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Another perspective of childhood development and learning is through the work of theorists Pavlov and Skinner. Pavlov's work is regarding classical conditioning. He used dogs to test if they salivate by conditioning them to think they will receive food by ringing a bell and then the dogs would think that whenever a bell is rung, they will be given food. This theory is shown in childhood development through behavioural therapy, for example, if a child is behaving well then he will receive a sticker. The child knows that in order to get a sticker then he must be well behaved. this is based on stimulus and response.
Skinners work is regarding operant condition. Skinner believed that children's behaviour can be changed by positive and negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement is used in the classroom today as teachers can use this to encourage children to do well again next time and an example of this is by praising children after they do a good piece of work. This encourages the child to work harder and feel appreciated that they did some good work and they want to do the same thing again next time (How the Work of Pavlov Influenced Education, 2013).

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Frank Field's Review
Frank Field believed that  for children to have a better childhood and good learning development, more money needs to be funded in their learning from an early age. He believed that if children have a good quality of life from birth onwards, they have better chances of good development than those who are supported by government funding. He suggested the government giving support from early years is better and believed poor lifestyle is not the cause of lack of money however it could be the poor quality of life the person may have had in their childhood. Therefore, it is important to conclude that his main concern was preparing children from birth years and childhood by giving utmost support as possible to prevent a poor quality of life in later life.
(Garboden, 2010).

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Childhood education in Australia is similar the United Kingdom. School is compulsory just as it is in the UK. They have a primary and secondary school however  there are three types of schools: Catholic schools, government schools and independent schools.
Children are taught survival skills of how to live outdoors and fight off wildlife. They will also be taught how to light fires and set up camps.  This is very different to the education system in Britain as it is not needed for children to learn these skills because there child here do not see wildlife in their everyday life. Children are mostly protected by their caregivers from a young age up until 18 years.

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Sociocultural perspectives; what is society and culture?

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Sociocultural perspectives; what is society and culture?

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'A society, or a human society, is a group of people involved with each other through persistent relations, or a large social grouping sharing the same geographical or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations' (Society, 2022).
'Culture can be described as the beliefs, behaviours, values and language that make up a persons way of life. This will influence a childs behaviour and way they talk' (Society and Culture Culture Summary & Analysis | SparkNotes, 2022).

Society and culture factors link with Vygoysky's theory of social constructivism because children learn new knowledge and skills through their society as they see and observe hence, the way the people of the community speak and socialise will influence the childs speech and communication skills too.

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Developmental Approaches to child development 

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Developmental Approaches to child development 

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There are 5 main developmental approaches.
Empiricism, nativism, behaviourism, constructivism and social constructivism.

What is empiricism?

Empiricism is receiving knowledge from sensory experiences. This means learning using sense of touch, taste, looking, smell and hear. It is learning through experience.
'Empiricism is the theory that human knowledge comes predominantly from experiences gathered through the five senses. In empiricism, concepts are spoken of as a posteriori or “from the latter” meaning from the experiences' (What is empiricism? - Definition from WhatIs.com, 2022). Alongside having new experiences, children use their senses to explore and discover new things which helps them try and test things which could be out of their comfort zone.
John Locke is a philosopher who created the theory referred as 'Tabula Rasa' which is that when humans are born, they are like a blank slate knowing nothing and then they learn as they grow and experience new things. He also believed that if someone thinks of a new idea, the things that make up that idea must have been seen or happened to the person before in the past. For example if someone makes up a new animal in their head using the eyes and horns of a bull, body of horse and feet as chicken, the person has to have experienced seeing these things in the past (John Locke’s Empiricism: Why We Are All Tabula Rasas (Blank Slates) | Philosophy Break, 2021).

What is nativism?

'The Nativist Theory – Suggests that we’re born with a specific language-learning area in our brain. Nativists believe that children are wired to learn language, regardless of their environment' so it can be said that children are born with the ability to develop language naturally. They will start off by making gurgle sounds and use this to communicate however they form them sounds to meaningful words for example if they are hungry, the mum knows the child is asking for food as they are saying some sounds they have made up and try to construct phrases (How Do Children Learn Language?, 2019). Applying this to a classroom setting, children can enhance their vocabulary by using toys, objects and drawings to express and link what they want to say. They can associate words and objects together to show they understand the meaning of the vocabulary they use.
The theory of language acquisition- Chomsky (1950) is a theorist who believed children have the innate ability of language from birth as the brain has special language-learning mechanisms (THEORIES OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION, 2022). He believed humans have a learning acquisition device in the brain which helps enable humans to develop the language they hear from birth from their surroundings which is their native language (Lemetyinen, 2012). Opposing this is the theorist B.F Skinner who argues that children learn language based upon behaviour reinforcement because if the teacher is trying to teach a child new words, the teacher will say few words and ask the child to repeat it, if the child gives positive response and is able to say the words without any mistakes then the teacher can praise the child which is positive reinforcement. This will encourage the child to carry on learning and do better however if the child does not say it correctly then the teacher will show negative reinforcement by telling the student it was not correct. Doing so will help receive desired behaviour. (Mcleod, 2018)

What is behaviourism?

Behaviourism is observing actions and learning. Linking this to early childhood development, children look and learn. Right from birth, the child will be seeing their primary caregivers day to day actions and slowly as the child grows, they will copy them actions. This is also done in practice; an example is singing time in nursery, the teacher will start off and do hand actions alongside it then the children will follow on. They will hear new words and sounds and also learn new actions such as tapping and clapping hands.

Behaviourism is of 2 types; classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
Classical conditioning is creating behaviour unconsciously. Pavlov is the theorist who did a experiment using dogs in which a bell was rung and then food was given to the dogs. When the bell would ring, the dogs would salivate because they knew they would receive food. Then the second time, only the bell was rung and no food was given however the dogs were salivating because they associated the sound of the bell with food. The dogs were conditioned and therefore salivate with the bell sound thinking they are going to be given food. This is used for children too in school settings, an example is if a child answers a question wrong in maths class and the teacher humiliates the child in front of his classmates. The child will associate maths lessons with feeling embarrassed.
Operant conditioning is slightly different as this involves rewards and punishment. Skinners idea was that if someone is positively reinforced then they will do the action again and if something is negatively reinforced by punishment then a person will not do that action again.
'Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals which he placed in a 'Skinner Box'  (Mcleod, 2018).  He put a rat in a cage, there was also a lever and some food pieces. When the rat would move about in the cage, the lever would be pressed allowing the rat to get the food. This encouraged positive reinforcement because the rat knew for next time that in order to receive food, he must go on the lever. Then Skinner (1948) tested negative reinforcement by passing a electric current through to the box. When the rat moved about in the box, it accidently knocked the lever so then no electric shock was triggered so the rat learned that to avoid the electric current going through, he must move the lever. Then Skinner put a light on and then pressed the electric current so then the rat learned to press the lever whenever the light would come on to prevent any electric shock.
Positive and negative reinforcement can be used in early childhood development in schools. Teachers use positive reinforcement in the form of rewarding when doing something good. An example of negative reinforcement is by saying to the student if you do not complete a task then you have to stay in at lunch time to finish it off therefore the student will finish the work in class time to avoid having to stay in for lunch time. This encourages him to do a good behaviour.

What is constructivism?

Constructivism can be described as 'observing things and then reflecting back on it to build an understanding of what they learnt. This helps build on previous knowledge and study more about a certain subject' (Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning, 2004). An example of when children do this is if they learn numbers 1 to 10 in class. Then the child will retain this in the mind and play a computer game using numbers. It will help the child remember and learn number in an interactive way (Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning, 2004).
One element of constructivism is that 'learning is a social activity' therefore children can show this within their learning by working in groups. Group activities help children build communication and socialising skills. Children also learn simple rules of how to act within different social groups and around different people. They learn to share, take turns and   listen to others when they talk.

What is social constructivism?

Social constructivism is a variety of cognitive constructivism that emphasizes the collaborative nature of much learning' (Social Constructivism | GSI Teaching & Resource Center, 2021). He believed that society make up an idea which becomes the norm of them people within that society so that thing will be accepted by them people. An example is saying pink is for girls and blue is for boys.
Vygotsky strongly believed culture and language are the main factors which affect learning.  'Vygotsky emphasized the role of language and culture in cognitive development. According to Vygotsky, language and culture play essential roles both in human intellectual development and in how humans perceive the world' (Social Constructivism | GSI Teaching & Resource Center, 2021).

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Empiricism is the theory that human knowledge comes predominantly from experiences gathered through the five senses. In empiricism, concepts are spoken of as a posteriori or "from the latter" meaning from the experiences.

As philosophical theory, empiricism attempts to explain how humans acquire knowledge and conceptual understanding. In science, empiricism heavily emphasizes the use of experiments to collect evidence so that theories are applied to real world observations and recorded as empirical data. Empiricism is an important concept in IT as well. In areas including software development, data analytics and project management, empiricism is an evidence-based approach that relies on real-world data, metrics and results rather than theories and concepts.

Agile software development and agile project management, for example, are considered empirical approaches: Both are conducted in small sections called iterations; at the end of each iteration, the results are reviewed and critiqued by the project team. The decision as to what the next step should be is based on the experience of the iteration, in the form of the review. In the agile retrospective, each team member answers the questions, "What worked well for us?" and "What did not work well?" The answers to those questions guide another: "What actions can we take to improve our process going forward?"

The term empiricism comes from the Greek word for experience: empeiria. Empiricism contrasts with rationalism, according to which knowledge is said to also be largely developed through exploration of concepts, deduction, intuition and revelation. In rationalism, deductions based on intuition can create knowledge that is gained without prerequisite sensory experience, making them prior to experience (a priori). Empiricists, however, sometimes argue that all these mental processes also come from primary experiences initially.

Continue Reading About empiricism

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What is empiricism? - Definition from WhatIs.com

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empiricism: This definition explains what empiricism is and how it's applied in the sciences, including IT. We discuss its application to data analytics, software development and project management and provide an example of how it works in agile development. We also explain how empiricism contrasts with rationalism.

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In early childhood, there are different factors which can affect children's learning and development. One factor is poverty. If a family is from a poor background, they may not be able to afford the basic needs for the child. The child may not have hot and nutritional meals which can affect the child's concentration in school.
'Low brain function: Malnourished and exhausted children aren’t able to actively participate in their education, which may lead to poor performance and force them to drop out of school' and this will thereafter affect their home life and lessen the chances they will have further education for better quality of life and get a good payed job (How Does Poverty Impact Child Development | ChildFund Australia, 2019). In some undeveloped countries such as some parts of Africa, children are 'forced to work' and these jobs are often things like farming and agriculture, which involves them carrying out intense physical work even if the child is physically not at the age and has body strength to withhold that much work.
In the article, 'Long-Term Effects of Childhood Nutrition: Evidence from a School Lunch Reform', it highlights 'pupils exposed to the program during their entire primary school period have 3% higher lifetime income'; therefore it proves children who have good meals allow them to perform well in school and have more chances of creating a better life for themselves (the review of economic studies,2021). The study focuses on 'long-term impact of a policy-driven change in childhood nutrition.' This emphasises the need for hot meals and nutritional food for better growth and development in early years. Linking this to theories, it is part of Maslow's hierarchy of needs; he believes there are stages of basic needs and if they are fulfilled then a person can grow physically and mentally. Food and nutrition is part of the psychological needs which is the first section of his theoretical triangle.

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Think back to your childhood. Were your parents, family and teachers invested in ensuring you grew up to reach your full potential? This support is essential to ensuring children develop into adults who are healthy, education and have the necessary social skills and learned behaviours to enable them to contribute to and participate in society.

Unfortunately, poverty has a devastating effect upon a child's development. The impact can be direct, such as malnutrition and illness and other forms of hardship, such as a lack of access to education

A life of poverty can put a child's physical health, social skills, behavioural learning and emotional wellbeing at risk.

If we are going to reduce poverty, it's important to understand how a childhood of disadvantage can affect a child's development.

You can also download this blog post as an infographic for reference:

What is child development?

Child development is the sequential process of physical, social, behavioural and emotional changes or learnings that enable a child to become a healthy adult.

A child's development is informed by their environment and experiences, particularly at ages 0-5. During this period, the brain develops the most and the fastest than at any other stage in life. As children develop, they'll learn:

Fine motor skills

Gross motor skills

Phonological awareness

Play and social skills

Self-care and organisation

Sensory processing

Speech sounds

Language

Written communication

Now let's look at how poverty can affect these processes, and act as an obstacle to children learning the skills they need to become healthy adults.

Poverty can affect a child's health

Growing up in poverty increases the likelihood that children will have poor health.

Physical health

In many rural communities families survive on low incomes, which means it can be more difficult to ensure their children have optimal physical health. This can be impacted by:

Malnutrition: In large families or areas affected by drought, children may not have enough to eat, which stunts growth and suppresses the immune system.

Preventable diseases: Not all cultures value vaccinations in the same way we do, which means children overseas may not be vaccinated against preventable diseases.

Low brain function: Malnourished and exhausted children aren't able to actively participate in their education, which may lead to poor performance and force them to drop out of school.

Children without a proper education can often be forced to work as unskilled and manual labourers, usually in agriculture, mining or manufacturing. These jobs are physically intensive, low paid and many children aren't old enough to handle working in such tough industries. This makes them vulnerable to injury and exploitation by their employers.

Mental and emotional health

Children who grow up in poverty are at greater risk of developing psychological problems in childhood and adulthood. This is because young children learn about themselves and the world around them by growing up in a safe and carefree environment. During play, children explore, observe, experiment and solve problems.

Manychildren living in developing communities have little time for play and recreation. Children need toys, books, and safe indoor and outdoor space to make the most of their play. Outdoor play also exposes a child to nature, which helps inspire their creativity, and develop a stronger immune system.

Children need the opportunity to play alone and in groups to build their social skills. During group play, a child acquires additional speech sounds and organisational skills from the other children in the group.

Young people in disadvantaged communities carry the burden of far less enjoyable, and far less carefree, extracurricular activities - from daily water collection on foot, to working on the family farm, to caring for siblings and undertaking household jobs while parents are at work. This lack of time presents a huge obstacle to play and free time.

A child's environment can also affect their mental and emotional health. If parents are stressed because of debt, low income or poor quality housing, their children are more likely to become stressed or anxious, and develop psychological problems.

Poverty can impact a child's education

Education is vital to a happy and healthy childhood. One of the biggest challenges children in developing communities face is access to a quality education, and the ability to actively pursue an education beyond primary school.

How does school contribute to a child's development?

Attending school regularly helps a child to reach their academic potential, develop life skills and provides an opportunity for social interaction with other children.

Every child's maximum academic potential will vary, and each will be stronger across different aspects of the curriculum. Academic potential is influenced by:

Natural talent: Some students will naturally be more suited to particular lessons or classes than others based on the way their brain functions.

Brain function: Children with low brain function will have reduced thinking capacity, problem-solving ability and information retention. This will impact how effectively they engage with the curriculum.

School environment: Access to quality educational facilities and supplies is essential for a child to receive a quality education. A school environment should be safe and stimulating.

Home environment: A stable home is an essential refuge for children. It's also a quiet place where they can do their homework, read and ask their parents questions about what they're learning at school.

While not taught directly, school provides an opportunity for children to develop important life skills including:

Problem solving

Critical thinking

Teamwork

Communication

Organisation

Emotional intelligence

Independence

School also facilitates opportunities for social interaction with other children in a number of ways, such as:

Play time at recess and lunch

Group projects

Sports, music and artistic pursuits

Cultural festivals and celebrations

How can poverty affect a child's education?

Poverty can have a detrimental effect on a child's education. It can prevent the child from accessing quality facilities, or leave them unfit to actively engage with their studies.

Poverty affects children's education in the following ways:

Distance: Children living in rural areas might not have a school in their town or village. This means their families need to decide between a long and potentially dangerous journey to school, or their child missing out on an education.

Quality: Not all schools are equipped with the supplies, facilities or staff to provide the education that children need to help them develop.

Exclusion: Children might be excluded from school by their parents or community. This can happen due to cultural values surrounding gender, ethnicity, caste and religion.

Health: Physical, mental and emotional wellbeing are critical for optimum performance in school. Children in poverty often suffer from poor health, and can have difficulty concentrating on their schoolwork, or miss days because of illness

Poverty affects child development, but it doesn't have to

Poverty deprives millions of children around the world of the opportunity to learn and grow through play and school. This means the affected children miss out on vital learning and development opportunities, but they don't have to.

Learn how you can help a child enjoy a happier, healthier childhood here.

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How Does Poverty Impact Child Development | ChildFund Australia

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Think back to your childhood. Were your parents, family and teachers invested in ensuring you grew up to reach your full potential? This support is essential to ensuring children develop into adults who are healthy, education and have the necessary social skills and learned behaviours to enable them to contribute to and participate in society.

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 Vygotsky's Theory (Socio-cultural perspectives) 

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 Vygotsky's Theory (Socio-cultural perspectives) 

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Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory- he believes in the importance of socialising and human interaction for good learning and development. 'Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of human learning describes learning as a social process and the origination of human intelligence in society or culture. The major theme of Vygotsky’s theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition' (Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory, 2022).

'The concept, zone of proximal development was developed by Soviet psychologist and social constructivist Lev Vygotsky (1896 – 1934)' (Mcleod, 2019).
Vygotsky believed that if a person is in the zone of proximal development meaning he is close to achieving his target work, and provided with correct support and guidance from the right teacher who has the knowledge of the subject then the person will be able to achieve the task. Alongside having a knowledge teacher of the subject, there learner should be provided with social interactions with the teacher who can see if the learner is practicing and learning well and also, educational activities to encourage and support the learning.

Bruner (1966), Wood (1975) and Ross (1976)
These theorists continued the work of Vygotsky and believed culture is significant in learning and language is the root of culture. Therefore individuals learn within their community and culture. An example of this is a child from a poor family, he is most likely to grow up and live a low quality life. Therefore it is agreed that adults in society have an active role in influencing children's learning and development as the adult can aid to make the environment the best for the childs interest. In school settings, this can be achieved by having numerous resources and display work to aid the childs learning and cognitive development. Maths and literacy work displays are a great way to attract childrens to learning and support their memory.

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Abuse is another factor which affects childhood development. One of the affect that abuse causes is emotional scars.  'Many children suffer low self-esteem and feelings of guilt, often blaming themselves for the abuse.  Children can find it difficult to have trusting relationships and experience loneliness and bullying' (What are the effects of child abuse? - Moray Council, 2022). They may feel suicidal or want to self harm, they may hate themselves for having this life and lose hope to live. Children often have feelings of hopelessness, hate, despair, misery, and rage, sometimes talking about feeling suicidal or self-harm. These children may most likely have formed an attachment with their primary care giver therefore struggle to trust anyone and build a bond with someone. They may not have anyone to speak up to and tell them about the abuse. Attachment links with Bowlby's attachment theory which highlights 'a child has an innate (i.e. inborn) need to attach to one main attachment figure. This is called monotropy. This concept of monotropy suggests that there is one relationship which is more important than all the rest' (Mcleod,2017).

Daniel Pelka
Daniel Pelka, a four years old child was abused and murdered by his parents in 2012. A serious case review was done on his case and it was gathered that none of the agencies who were in contacted suspected that he was being abused and would lead to his death. The agencies had poor communication and awareness of his abuse therefore led to his tragic death (Rogers, 2013).
'Daniel’s presentation of scavenging for food and excessive eating when he found some, linked to weight loss, was rare in a child and assumptions were then too readily made that his problems were medically based' (Rogers, 2013). This was one of the reasons why practitioners did not raise any awareness about his hunger and weight loss as they thought it was medically based. They did not think he was not given food. Children need food and water for basic needs and good growth. Daniel Pelka was deprived of this.
'It is relatively rare in cases of child abuse that one child is singled out as Daniel was; the apparent good care of the other children appeared to give a false impression that Daniel’s problems were not related to abuse' (Rogers, 2013). Daniels sibling was taken good care of therefore it was not thought for the other child not to be not taken care of which can mistaken the practitioners to ignore little little signs of any marks and bruises.

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Physical development includes fine and gross motor skills. Fine skills can be hand eye coordination and using finger tips and getting grip of little items. Gross motor skills are whole bodily motions such as running, jumping and throwing. 'Gross motor skill development involves the large muscles in the arms, legs and torso. Gross motor abilities also form the basis for fine motor skills and relate to body awareness, reaction speed, balance and strength' (Gross motor skills: birth to 5 years | Children's Hospital of Richmond at VCU, 2022).
Arnold Gesell (1925) believed motor development was controlled by the aging process and it can not be supported. This can be argued that it is not correct because children can be supported with learning from different resources and teachers guidance. By looking at Skinners theory, it is understood he believed that children can be conditioned. 'The theory of B.F. Skinner is based upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual’s response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment'. Therefore, if children are made to understand that if they do something well they will be rewarded, for example their maths work then they will try their best and hope for a reward (Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner) - InstructionalDesign.org, 2022).

Physical growth is influenced by the following genetic factors; body size,  eye colour, facial features, hair (type and colour) and complexion.
Exercise and growth is also part of physical development. Children need to be active and be involved in sport games to help them grow and keep them healthy. P.E lessons in school are vital to help support childrens fitness. It encourages them to play outdoors more often and live a active lifestyle.

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Gross motor skills: birth to 5 years | Children’s Hospital of Richmond at VCU

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Gross motor skills involve the larger muscles in the arms, legs and torso. Here are gross motor skill development guidelines for children ages 0 to 5 years.

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Cognitive development is developing skills, knowledge and the construction of though processes. Relating this to childhood development, 'Cognitive development means how children think, explore and figure things out' (Help Me Grow MN, 2022).
Piaget's theory of cognitive development links in this factor because he believes intellectual growth happens through adapting to the environment. 'He attempted to document the stages of cognitive development by observing the memory processes of children' (Kurt, 2020).
On the other hand, Jerome Bruner believes learning happens when the learner selects information and using their thought processes to create a hypothesis about the information.  'In his view, discovering information was a more effective way of learning than just being told by a teacher' (Editor, 2022).
He also believed children learn best when the learning is structured which will help the child take in and process the information better. He also adds that if learners are given extra intervention and information then the learner can go beyond his learning and explore more knowledge.

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Social and emotional development is about children developing relations with whoever they are in contact with such as carers, teachers, siblings and friends. Sometimes, it can be the case that some children may find it difficult to understand their emotions and express their feelings to words. As children's circles of relations widen, they will see and observe others behaviours and how they express feelings which will allow them to understand others emotions. They will observe why people behave they way they do such as what emotion would someone show when sad, happy or excited.
John Bowlby (1958) studied emotional development in children. 'Bowlby (1958) proposed that attachment can be understood within an evolutionary context in that the caregiver provides safety and security for the infant' (Mcleod, 2017). He also agreed that children are already pre-programmed to form attachments and they have an innate need to form bonds with an attachment figure. There are different reasons why some children may have insecure attachment with their caregiver. One reason is if there are frequent changes in primary care. The mother of the child may not want the baby and so the grandparents may look after the baby so it builds a close bond with the grandparents. Another reason is if the baby is put in an incubator then the mother may feel loss of attachment with the baby as cannot spend time and hold the baby. Another reason could be disability. The mother may not have the knowledge regarding the baby's disability so may not know how to support their special needs. They may not be aware of the services to contact for extra support.

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The Factory Act (1833) was made to improve the working conditions of the workers. It also made it clear what ages it is safe to work. 'This wide-ranging and detailed Act consolidated all previous legislation relating to working conditions in factories and other industrial premises' (Gillard, 2022). The Factory Act (1833) established certain hours of work for children, '48 hours was set for those aged 9 to 13, limited to eight hours a day; and for children between 13 and 18 it was limited to 12 hours daily' (The 1833 Factory Act, 2022). It was made compulsory for children under 13 to attend school two hours each day (The 1833 Factory Act, 2022). This helped children receive their education too as well as going to work.

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In Sweden, school is compulsory by the age of 6 however in England, it is compulsory at the age of 5.

'The grading in the Swedish school system was also updated in 2011, to a scale with six grades from A to F, where A to E are passing grades, and F represents a failing grade' (The grading scale in the Swedish educational system, 2022). This is same in England as schools in England use grades A to F.

In Sweden, there are four types of  activities to facilitate for children up to age 12. The first type is having pedagogical care which is family day care of practitioners who look after children in their own homes for children whose parents work. The next facility is open preschool which is for parents who stay at home and the teachers work to set activities for the children to do at home. The third type of activity is leisure time centres, they are 'educational group facilities, operating during the times of the day and year when schools are closed for enrolled children whose parents are working or studying or for children who are in need of the facilities' (Early childhood education and care - Eurydice - European Commission, 2021). The fourth facility given is 'care at uncomfortable time' (Early childhood education and care - Eurydice - European Commission, 2021). In the town/city a person living, the local governing group are responsible to provide care for children and families at times when leisure centres are not open.
In Sweden, there is no school uniform rule set for children. The academic school year starts in August and finishes in June which is different in England where the academic year begins in September till July.

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Introduction

The Swedish Parliament ( riksdagen) and Government ( regeringen) set out the goals and guidelines for the preschool (förskolan), preschool class (förskoleklassen), leisure-time centres (fritidshem) and compulsory school (grundskolan) through the Education Act and the Curricula. The preschool, preschool class, leisure-time centre and compuslory school are all regulated in the Education Act (Skollagen SFS 2010:800). The preschool has its own curriculum while the preschool class and leisure-time centre are included in the curriculum for the compulsory school, see the sections below for each type of ECEC. The Swedish National Agency for Education (Skolverket) is the central administrative authority for the publicly organised preschools and school age childcare. The mission of the agency is to actively work for the attainment of the goals. The municipalities () and the grant-aided independent schools (fristående skolor) are the principal organisers in the school system, they allocate resources and organise activities so that pupils can attain the national goals of education. The Swedish National Agency for Education supervises, supports, follows up and evaluates the school system in order to improve quality and outcomes. For statistics on ECEC, see chapter 2.8 Statistics on Organisation and Governance.

Early childhood education and care can with slight variations be divided into two age groups targeting children between the age 1-5 and 6-12.

Preschool

The preschool is a form of early childhood education and care in for children aged between 1-5 years who have not yet entered into the mandatory preschool class. Municipalities are required by the Education Act to provide preschool activities and childcare to all children that live in Sweden and are not enrolled in a preschool class or compulsory education. Generally children should be offered a spot in preschool from the age of 1. Children have the right to attend preschool to the extent necessary for their parents to be able to work or study or based on the child's own needs. This requirement includes preschool for children whose parents are unemployed or on parental leave with another sibling. These children should be offered a place in preschool for at least three hours per day or 15 hours per week. All children are entitled to free preschool for at least 525 hours per year from the autumn term when they turn three years old.

In 2019, 85.4 percent of children aged 1-5 years attended preschool. The percentage is lower in larger cities and higher in smaller cities. The distribution between boys and girls is generally equal. The proportion of enrolled children has increased to some extent in all age groups. 50.5 percent of one-year-olds attended preschool, 90.6 and 94.0 percent respectively of two- and three-year-olds and 95.3 percent of all four- and five-year-olds.

Sweden's maximum fee policy makes childcare affordable. Fees are calculated according to income with low-income families paying nothing while the cost is capped for all families. The upper income limit is 49 280 SEK (approximately 4800 Euro)/month in 2020. For more information on fees within ECEC, see chapter 4.1 Access.

Grant-aided independent schools and preschools can be organised in different forms. The municipalities distribute grants to grant-aided independent preschools and they are also responsible for ensuring that the operations meet the requirements of quality and safety. The same laws and frameworks apply to grant-aided independent preschools and municipal preschools. For more information on grant-aided independent education providers, see chapter 2.4 Organisation of Private Education.

The open preschool is an alternative option to the preschool. The open preschool is mainly for stay at home parents and their children. The parents together with the staff have the opportunity to develop educational group activities for the childrens' development. The children are not enrolled in the open preschool and the attendance together with parents is volountary. For more information on alternative structures within ECEC, see chapter 4.5 Organisational Variations and Alternative Structures in ECEC.

Preschool class

Starting from the autumn of 2018 the preschool class is mandatory for all children living in Sweden from the age of six. The compulsory school and the preschool class, as well as the leisure-time centre, share a common curriculum, the curriculum for the compulsory school, preschool class and the leisure-time centre (Läroplan för grundskolan, förskoleklassen och fritidshemmet 2011). In 2016 a specific section was added to the curriculum covering the objectives and core content of the preschool class.

The activities in preschool classes should be considered as teaching in the same sense as in other types of education. The education in preschool class will encourage each child's learning and development at the same time as providing a foundation for continued schooling. It is mandatory for municipalities to provide preschool classes and for all six-year-olds to be offered a place for a minimum of 525 hours. It is the school head that decides how to distribute these hours over the school year. There are no regulations regarding how many days a week a pupil should attend the preschool class. The mandatory activity may however cover no more than 190 days per academic year and six hours per day. It is important to structure the education so that the children have sufficient opportunities to rest and play, based on their age and needs. The best interests of the child should always be the starting point when the activities in preschool classes are organised.

In the school year 2019/2020 almost 98 percent of all children aged six were enrolled in a preschool class. Over 10 percent of pupils attend grant-aided independently organised preschool class. The proportion of pupils attending independent facilities varies between municipalities and was highest in major cities and metropolitan municipalities.

According to the Education Act (Skollagen SFS 2010:800) and Curriculum for the compulsory school, preschool class and the leisure-time centre (Läroplan för grundskolan, förskoleklassen och fritidshemmet 2011), the preschool class should contribute to develop students with a mother tongue other than Swedish abilities to communicate in Swedish as well as in their mother tongue. In the preschool class, there were almost 31 900 pupils with a native language other than Swedish in 2019/20, this is approximately 26 percent of the pupils. The number of pupils with a mother tongue other than Swedish has increased during the recent school years (in 2012/13 it was 21 067 or 19.6 percent).

The leisure-time centre

Leisure-time centres are educational group facilities, operating during the times of the day and year when schools are closed for enrolled children whose parents are working or studying or for children who are in need of the facilities. Generally leisure -time centres are integrated within schools. Leisure-time centres are aimed at children from the age of 6 up to 12 years-old that attend preschool class or compulsory school. The leisure-time center should stimulate the pupils' development, deepen their knowledge and experience and contribute to a meaningful leisure time and social community. The education should take into account the pupils' needs, interests and experiences and should also be adapted to their different conditions. In the leisure-time centre pupils have the opportunity to practice democracy, influence and responsibility. Play, movement and creative activities are important. The groups should have an appropriate composition and size and provide the students with a good environment. The leisure-time center collaborates with the preschool, preschool class and school to support the pupils long-term development. The leisure-time center is governed by the the Education Act (Skollagen SFS 2010:800) and the curriculum for the compulsory school, preschool class and the leisure-time centre (Läroplan för grundskolan, förskoleklassen och fritidshemmet 2011). In 2016 a specific section was added to the curriculum covering the objectives and core content of the leisure-time centre.

Municipalities may charge a fee for the leisure-time centre. It is the municipality that determines how much a spot in the leisure-time centre will cost. All municipalities use the system of upper capped limits for the fee. The upper limit determines how much a spot in a leisure-time centre can cost for different families. For more information on fees within ECEC, see chapter 4.1 Access.

Organisational Variations and Alternative Structures in Early Childhood Education and Care

In Sweden the alternative structures in early childhood education and care within the formal system primarly encompasses four types of care and activities for children up to the age of 12. These activities go under the name- Other pedagogical activities.

Pedagogical care (pedagogisk omsorg) in family daycare homes (familjedaghem) is run by registered childminders in their own homes, looking after children aged one to twelve while their parents work or study.

The Open preschool (öppen förskola) is for stay at home parents and their children. The parents together with the staff have the opportunity to develop educational group activities for the children. The children are not enrolled.

Open leisure-time activities (öppen fritidsverksamhet) is an alternative to leisure-time centres and educational activities for all children in the age group 10-12 years. The children are not enrolled and the families decide when and how often the children attend.

Care at uncomfortable times. According to the Education Act (Skollagen) the municipality should offer care for children during the times that preschool or leisure-time centres isn't offered and it should be offered to the extent that is needed based on the parents work and the family situation in general.

For more information about alternative structures within ECEC, see chapters 4.4 Home-based ECEC and 4.5 Organisational Variations and Alternative Structures in ECEC.

Providers

Alongside the municipal preschools and schools there are grant-aided independent preschools and schools. Grant-aided independent preschools and schools have a different principal organiser than the municipality or county council. For more information about grant-aided independent preschools and schools see chapter 2.4 Organisation of private education. Independently organised and grant aided childcare is more common in bigger cities and their suburbs. The table below shows the different kinds of institutions in early childhood education and care. It also shows how many of them that are independently organised (the statistics are from 2019 or the school year 2019/20).

The Swedish National Agency for Education ( Skolverket)

Curriculum for the preschool ( Läroplan för förskolan Lpfö 18) ( English translation)

Curriculum for the compulsory school, preschool class and the leisure-time centre, 2011 ( Läroplan för grundskolan, förskoleklassen och fritidshemmet 2011)

The Education Act ( Skollagen SFS 2010:800)

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Early Childhood Education and Care - Eurydice - European Commission

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The Swedish Parliament ( riksdagen) and Government ( regeringen) set out the goals and guidelines for the preschool (förskolan ), preschool class (förskoleklassen ), leisure-time centres (fritidshem ) and compulsory school (grundskolan ) through the Education Act and the Curricula. The preschool, preschool class, leisure-time centre and compuslory school are all regulated in the Education Act (Skollagen SFS 2010:800 ).

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Image showing the embryo develop from 9 weeks up till 40 weeks 

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First is the period of the zygote. 'A zygote, also known as a fertilized ovum or fertilized egg, is the union of a sperm cell and an egg cell' (Cherry, 2021).
The zygote time lasts about 4 days in which time it divides from a single cell to multiple cells which is called blastulation. The zygote single cell has 46 chromosomes inside it; 23 from the egg cell and 23 from the sperm cell.
Next, after the zygote phase is the period of the embryo. The embryo starts to develop and grow, the hands, toes, face structure and ears start to form. This takes up to seven weeks (Wakim and Grewal, 2021).
Then after the embryo, it is the period of the foetus. This begins in the 9th week. During this time, the limbs will slowly begin to grow more and become more visible.  The arms and legs will start to move sometimes. The sex organs will appear too depending on which gender it will be. Around the 16th week, the toes and fingers will be completely developed and then by the 24th week, the internal organs such as heart and lungs are developed (Prenatal Development | Boundless Psychology, 2022).

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The first trimester of pregnancy is the time for the egg cells to form into a foetus to then develop the limbs and feature's further.
1st month- Once the egg has been fertilized by the sperm reaching the egg cell, 'a water-tight sac forms around it, gradually filling with fluid. This is called the amniotic sac, and it helps cushion the growing embryo'. In addition to this, the placenta also grows which is a round organ attached from mothers stomach to the foetus and food nutrients reach the foetus. During this period, the limbs begin to form, the mouth and jaw area forms, the ear, hands and toes also slowly start to take shape however very little. The size of the foetus is about the size of a rice grain at this point (Fetal development: Month-By-Month Stages of Pregnancy, 2020).

2nd month- By the second month, the limbs have been growing more from little bud like shapes into slightly more recognisable features. The folds of the ear also start to show. The sensory organs which are the brain, spinal cord and other tissues which have control of the body have also formed. The cartilage changes to bone too.

3th month- Reaching the third month, the hands, arms, feet and toes are now complete so the fingernails and toenails begin to take shape. By the end of the third month, the foetus is complete and the organs are also completely formed however are still developing for them to be functional (Fetal development: Month-By-Month Stages of Pregnancy, 2020).

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What are the three stages of fetal development called?

Fetal development is an orderly and intricate process. It begins before you even know you're pregnant and ends with the birth of your baby. Between conception and delivery, there are many detailed steps that have to occur.

There are three stages of fetal development: germinal, embryonic and fetal. Most people don't talk about their pregnancy in these terms, but it can be helpful to know.

Germinal stage

The germinal stage is the shortest stage of fetal development. It begins at conception when a sperm and egg join in your fallopian tube. The sperm fertilizes the egg and creates a zygote. The zygote begins its journey down to your uterus over the course of about one week. During this journey, the zygote divides many times, eventually creating two separate structures. One structure eventually becomes the embryo (and later, the fetus) and the other becomes the placenta. Cell division continues at a rapid pace. Eventually, the zygote turns into a blastocyst. The blastocyst arrives at your uterus and implants into your uterine lining. If implantation is successful, your body immediately begins producing hormones to support a pregnancy. This also stops your menstrual period.

Embryonic stage

The embryonic stage lasts from about the third week of pregnancy until the end of the eighth week of pregnancy. The blastocyst begins to take on distinct human characteristics. It's now called an embryo. Structures and organs like the neural tube (which later becomes the brain and spinal cord), head, eyes, mouth and limbs form. The cells that will form the fetal heart begin to cluster around five to six weeks and can pulse. Buds that will become arms and legs also form around the sixth week. By the end of the eighth week, most of the embryo's organs and systems take shape. For a lot of people, this is the point in pregnancy where morning sickness begins.

Fetal stage

The fetal stage of development begins around the ninth week and lasts until birth. This is when the embryo officially turns into a fetus. The fetus gets its assigned sex around nine weeks of pregnancy, although your healthcare provider can't detect it on ultrasound yet. The fetus's major organs and body systems continue to grow and mature. Things like fingernails, eyelashes and hair also grow. The fetus is able to move its limbs, although you may not feel it until 20 weeks of pregnancy. The majority of growth - in both weight and length - happens in the fetal stage.

When does a pregnancy start?

The start of pregnancy is actually the first day of your last menstrual period (LMP). This is the gestational age of the fetus. It's about two weeks ahead of when conception actually occurs. Though it may seem strange, the date of the first day of your last period will be an important date when determining your due date. Your healthcare provider will ask you about this date and will use it to figure out how far along you are in your pregnancy.

How does conception work?

Each month, your body goes through a reproductive cycle that can end in one of two ways. You'll either have a menstrual period or become pregnant. This cycle is continuously happening during your reproductive years - from starting your period to menopause around age 50.

In a cycle that ends with pregnancy, there are several steps. First, a group of eggs (called oocytes) gets ready to leave your ovary for ovulation (release of the egg). The eggs develop in small, fluid-filled cysts called follicles. Think of these follicles as small containers for each immature egg. Out of this group of eggs, one will become mature and continue through the cycle.

The mature follicle now opens and releases the egg from your ovary. This is ovulation.

After ovulation, the opened follicle develops into a structure called the corpus luteum. This releases the hormones progesterone and estrogen. Progesterone helps prepare your uterine lining for pregnancy. If you don't become pregnant during a cycle, this lining is what your body sheds during your period. If sperm fertilizes the egg, conception occurs and the fertilized egg begins its journey to your uterus, where it will implant.

How long is a pregnancy?

Traditionally, we think of pregnancy as a nine-month process. However, this isn't always the case. A full-term pregnancy is 40 weeks, or 280 days. Depending on what months you're pregnant during (some are shorter and some longer) and what week you deliver, you could be pregnant for either nine months or 10 months. This is completely normal and healthy.

Stages of Growth Month-by-Month in Pregnancy

The fetus will change a lot throughout a typical pregnancy. This time is divided into three stages, called trimesters. Each trimester is a set of about three months. Your healthcare provider will probably talk to you about fetal development in terms of weeks. So, if you're three months pregnant, you're about 12 weeks.

You'll see distinct changes in the fetus, and yourself, during each trimester of pregnancy.

First trimester

The first trimester will span from conception to 12 weeks. This is generally the first three months of pregnancy. During this trimester, the fertilized egg will change from a small grouping of cells to a fetus that begins to have human features. The first trimester is exciting, but also when most people develop unpleasant symptoms like morning sickness and fatigue.

Month 1 (weeks 1 through 4)

Although it's strange, the first two weeks of pregnancy are a "getting ready" period. Your body slowly releases more hormones and your uterus prepares for a potential pregnancy. At the end of the second week, your ovary releases an egg (ovulation). If sperm meets an egg just after ovulation, the process to pregnancy continues.

Week 3: Fertilization occurs during the third week. A sperm and egg join and create a zygote.

Week 4: The tiny bundle of cells turns into a blastocyst and implants into your uterine lining. The beginning of what will become the placenta forms. A water-tight sac forms around the blastocyst. This is the amniotic sac, and it provides cushioning to a fetus during pregnancy.

By the end of the fourth week, the blastocyst is about 2 millimeters (mm) long - the size of a poppy seed.

Month 2 (weeks 5 through 8)

The second month of pregnancy is when most people realize they're pregnant. Pregnancy hormones go into overdrive, and by about the fifth week, an at-home pregnancy test will show as positive. This is when many people begin to feel symptoms of pregnancy.

Week 5: The neural tube (brain, spinal cord and other neural tissue of the central nervous system) forms. The tiny "heart" tube will pulse 110 times a minute by the end of the fifth week.

Week 6: Tiny buds that become arms and legs also develop. Blood cells are taking shape, and circulation will begin. Structures that'll become the ears, eyes and mouth take form. Your healthcare provider can probably detect pulses in the cluster of cells that will form the heart on a vaginal ultrasound.

Week 7: Bones begin replacing soft cartilage and genitals begin to form. The embryo's head is large in proportion to the rest of its body. Some people think the embryo resembles a small tadpole or seahorse due to its prominent tail (which becomes legs) and large head.

Week 8: All of the major organs and body systems are developing. The embryo has web-like hands and feet. Eyes become visible and ears begin to form. The umbilical cord is fully developed and helps to transport oxygen and blood to the embryo.

After the 8th week, healthcare providers refer to the embryo as a fetus. It will remain a fetus until birth.

By the end of the second month, the fetus is about 0.5 to 1 inch (in) long - about the size of a black bean.

Month 3 (weeks 9 through 12)

The third month of pregnancy is when an embryo becomes a fetus. It's a period of rapid growth and development. The fetus develops distinct facial features, limbs, organs, bones and muscles. By the end of the 12th week, the fetus has an assigned sex, but it won't be visible on ultrasound for several more weeks.

Week 9: The beginnings of teeth and taste buds are forming. Its muscles are forming and its body shape takes on more of a human appearance. But, its head is still 50% of its length. Your provider may be able to hear its heartbeat with a Doppler ultrasound.

Week 10: The arms, hands, fingers, feet and toes are fully formed (no more webbed fingers). Fingernails and toenails are beginning to develop and the external ears form. The external genitals also begin to form, but it's too soon to see them on an ultrasound.

Week 11: The fetus is starting to explore a bit by doing things like opening and closing its fists and mouth. Its knees, elbows and ankles are working, but it's too soon to feel any kicks. The bones are hardening, but its skin is still see-through. Facial features are more prominent.

Week 12: All the organs, limbs, bones and muscles are present and will continue to develop in order to become fully functional. The circulatory, digestive and urinary systems are also working and the liver produces bile. The fetus is drinking and peeing amniotic fluid.

Since the most critical development has taken place, your chance of miscarriage drops considerably after 12 weeks (the end of the first trimester). Most people begin feeling some relief from morning sickness now, too.

At the end of the third month, the fetus is about 2.5 to 3 inches long - about the size of a plum.

Second trimester

The second trimester of pregnancy is often thought of as the best part of the experience. By this time, any morning sickness is probably gone and the discomfort of early pregnancy has faded. You may also start to feel movement as the fetus flips and turns in your uterus. During this trimester, many people find out about the fetus's assigned sex. This is typically done during an anatomy scan (an ultrasound that checks physical development) at around 20 weeks.

Month 4 (weeks 13 through 16)

Many people begin showing signs of being pregnant at this point in pregnancy, especially if you've been pregnant before. Your pregnancy care provider can hear the fetal heartbeat loud and clear on a Doppler ultrasound. The fetus can even suck its thumb, yawn, stretch and make faces.

Week 13: Vocal cords form and the fetus's large head begins to grow proportionate to its body.

Week 14: The fetus's skin starts to thicken and fine hair begins to grow. It can start bringing its fingers to its mouth and turn its head. External genitals are fully developed and fingerprints begin to form.

Week 15: Some organs, like intestines and ears, are moving to their permanent location. The fetus still uses amniotic fluid to practice breathing, but its lungs are beginning to develop. The fetus begins to make more purposeful movements, like sucking its thumb or smiling.

Week 16: The fetus has lips and its ears are developed enough that it can hear you talk. Even though its eyes are closed, the fetus can react to light by turning away from it.

By the end of the fourth month, the fetus is about 5 inches long and weighs about 4 ounces. For reference, that's about as big as an avocado.

Month 5 (weeks 17 through 20)

By the end of the fifth month of pregnancy, most people begin to feel the fetus moving around. The first movements are called quickening and can feel like a flutter. If your pregnancy has been healthy to this point, you'll finally get your first ultrasound. You may even get to find out the fetus's assigned sex.

Week 17: The fetus still has thin skin, but will start to put on fat. Its skin is covered with a whitish coating called vernix. This "cheesy" substance is thought to protect fetal skin from long-term exposure to amniotic fluid.

Week 18: The fetus is covered in lanugo, a peach fuzz-like hair. It helps keep the fetus warm and provides another layer of protection. The fetus may have a sleep-wake cycle, and loud noises may wake the fetus if it's asleep.

Week 19: The fetus is getting stronger and most people begin to feel kicks and punches. The fetus also has its own unique set of fingerprints and can hiccup.

Week 20: The fetus's nails grow towards the end of its fingers. The area of the brain responsible for its five senses begins to develop.

By the end of the fifth month, the fetus is about 9 to 10 inches long and weighs about 1 pound.

Month 6 (weeks 21 through 24)

If you could look inside your uterus right now, you'd see that the fetus's skin is reddish in color, wrinkled and veins are visible through translucent skin. In the sixth month of pregnancy, its eyelids begin to part and you may notice regular, jerky movements. The fetus responds to sounds by moving or increasing its pulse.

Week 21: Limb movements are coordinated and frequent. The fetus has bone marrow that helps it produce blood cells.

Week 22: The fetus's grasp is getting stronger and it can touch its ears and the umbilical cord. It can hear your heartbeat, your stomach rumble and your breathing.

Week 23: If born prematurely, the fetus may survive after the 23rd week with intensive care. It will begin rapidly adding fat to its body.

Week 24: The fetus's lungs are fully developed, but not well enough to work outside your uterus.

By the end of the sixth month, the fetus is about 12 inches long and weighs about 2 pounds.

Month 7 (weeks 25 through 28)

The fetus continues to mature and develop reserves of body fat. The fetus changes position frequently and responds to stimuli, including sound, pain and light. The amniotic fluid begins to diminish.

Third trimester

This is the final part of your pregnancy. You may be tempted to start counting down the days to your due date and hope that it comes early, but each week of this final stage of development helps the fetus prepare for birth. Throughout the third trimester, the fetus gains weight quickly, adding body fat that'll help after birth.

Your healthcare provider will monitor you closely as you approach your due date. You'll visit your provider biweekly and then weekly. Make sure to ask your provider any questions you have about labor and delivery.

Month 8 (weeks 29 through 32)

The fetus continues to mature and develop reserves of body fat. The brain develops most rapidly during this time. The fetus can see and hear most stimuli. Most internal systems are well-developed, but the lungs may still be immature.

The fetus is about 17 to 18 inches long and weighs as much as 5 pounds.

Month 9 (weeks 33 through 36)

During this stage, the fetus continues to grow and mature. The lungs are close to being fully developed at this point in pregnancy. The ninth month is mostly about putting the finishing touch on growth and brain development.

The fetus is about 17 to 19 inches long and weighs from 6 to 7 pounds.

Month 10 (Weeks 37 through 40)

In this final month, you could go into labor at any time. At this point, the fetus's position may have changed to prepare for birth. Ideally, it's head-down in your uterus. You may feel very uncomfortable in this final stretch of time as the fetus drops down into your pelvis and prepares for birth. Your provider may encourage you to perform kick counts, which is a way to track how much the fetus moves.

The fetus is about 18 to 20 inches long and weighs about 7 to 9 pounds.

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Fetal Development: Week-by-Week Stages of Pregnancy

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Fetal development is how a fetus grows during pregnancy. It begins at conception and ends at birth. Many changes occur to the fetus and the pregnant person in this time.

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Image showing the foetus grow and develop in the second trimester of pregnancy.

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During this second trimester, there are many new changes for the foetus. The eyelids slowly begin to open and eyelashes and eyebrows have also formed too. The hair on the head also grows. 'A creamy white substance (called vernix caseosa, or simply vernix) begins to appear on the fetus and helps to protect the thin fetal skin' (The Second Trimester, 2022).
This substance sometimes stays on the skin after birth too but goes after some time.

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In the 6th month of pregnancy, it is roughly the 26th to 28th week period. During this time, the foetus will begin to make more movements such as kicking its feet, 'baby's eyelids can partially open and eyelashes have formed. The central nervous system can direct rhythmic breathing movements and control body temperature' (Fetal development: What happens during the 3rd trimester?, 2020).
By the 29th week the foetus can also stretch and kicks more actively and more often.
By the 30th week, the foetus weights approximately about 3 pounds. Also, the head hair has grown more. Going onto the 31st and 32nd week, 'the foetus weight increases more to about weigh 3 3/4 pounds (1,700 grams)' and the height is approximately '11 inches (280 millimeters) long from crown to rump' (Fetal development: What happens during the 3rd trimester?, 2020).

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Fetal development: The 3rd trimester

Fetal development continues during the third trimester. Your baby will open his or her eyes, gain more weight, and prepare for delivery.
By Mayo Clinic Staff
The end of your pregnancy is near! By now, you're eager to meet your baby face to face. Your uterus, however, is still a busy place. Here's a weekly calendar of events for fetal development during the third trimester. Keep in mind that measurements are approximate.

Week 28: Baby's eyes partially open

Twenty-eight weeks into your pregnancy, or 26 weeks after conception, your baby's eyelids can partially open and eyelashes have formed. The central nervous system can direct rhythmic breathing movements and control body temperature.

By now your baby might be nearly 10 inches (250 millimeters) long from crown to rump and weigh nearly 2 1/4 pounds (1,000 grams).

Week 29: Baby kicks and stretches

Twenty-nine weeks into your pregnancy, or 27 weeks after conception, your baby can kick, stretch and make grasping movements.

Week 30: Baby's hair grows

Thirty weeks into your pregnancy, or 28 weeks after conception, your baby's eyes can open wide. Your baby might have a good head of hair by this week. Red blood cells are forming in your baby's bone marrow.

By now your baby might be more than 10 1/2 inches (270 millimeters) long from crown to rump and weigh nearly 3 pounds (1,300 grams).

Week 31: Baby's rapid weight gain begins

Thirty-one weeks into your pregnancy, or 29 weeks after conception, your baby has finished most of his or her major development. Now it's time to gain weight - quickly.

Week 32: Baby practices breathing

Thirty-two weeks into your pregnancy, or 30 weeks after conception, your baby's toenails are visible.

The layer of soft, downy hair that has covered your baby's skin for the past few months (lanugo) starts to fall off this week.

By now your baby might be 11 inches (280 millimeters) long from crown to rump and weigh 3 3/4 pounds (1,700 grams).

Week 33: Baby detects light

Thirty-three weeks into your pregnancy, or 31 weeks after conception, your baby's pupils can change size in response to a stimulus caused by light. His or her bones are hardening. However, the skull remains soft and flexible.

Week 34: Baby's fingernails grow

Thirty-four weeks into your pregnancy, or 32 weeks after conception, your baby's fingernails have reached his or her fingertips.

By now your baby might be nearly 12 inches (300 millimeters) long from crown to rump and weigh more than 4 1/2 pounds (2,100 grams).

Week 35: Baby's skin is smooth

Thirty-five weeks into your pregnancy, or 33 weeks after conception, your baby's skin is becoming smooth. His or her limbs have a chubby appearance.

Week 36: Baby takes up most of the amniotic sac

Thirty-six weeks into your pregnancy, or 34 weeks after conception, the crowded conditions inside your uterus might make it harder for your baby to give you a punch. However, you'll probably still feel lots of stretches, rolls and wiggles.

Week 37: Baby might turn head down

Thirty-seven weeks into your pregnancy, or 35 weeks after conception, your baby has a firm grasp.

To prepare for birth, your baby's head might start descending into your pelvis. If your baby isn't head down, your health care provider will talk to you about ways to deal with this issue.

Week 38: Baby's toenails grow

Thirty-eight weeks into your pregnancy, or 36 weeks after conception, the circumference of your baby's head and abdomen are about the same.

Your baby's toenails have reached the tips of his or her toes. Your baby has mostly shed all of his or her lanugo.

By now your baby might weigh about 6 1/2 pounds (2,900 grams).

Week 39: Baby's chest is prominent

Thirty-nine weeks into your pregnancy, or 37 weeks after conception, your baby's chest is becoming more prominent. For boys, the testes continue to descend into the scrotum. Fat is being added all over your baby's body to keep him or her warm after birth.

Week 40: Your due date arrives

Forty weeks into your pregnancy, or 38 weeks after conception, your baby might have a crown-to-rump length of around 14 inches (360 millimeters) and weigh 7 1/2 pounds (3,400 grams). Remember, however, that healthy babies come in different sizes.

Don't be alarmed if your due date comes and goes with no signs of labor starting. Your due date is simply a calculated estimate of when your pregnancy will be 40 weeks. It does not estimate when your baby will arrive. It's normal to give birth before or after your due date.

Show references

See more In-depth

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Fetal development: What happens during the 3rd trimester?

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Fetal development continues during the third trimester. Your baby will open his or her eyes, gain more weight, and prepare for delivery. By Mayo Clinic Staff The end of your pregnancy is near! By now, you're eager to meet your baby face to face. Your uterus, however, is still a busy place.

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At in the beginning stage of pregnancy, the neural tube forms. The neural tube is that which forms into the babys brain and spinal cord (Spina bifida, 2020). Then at 'around the 6th week, there are now three main parts of the brain; forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain' (De Bellefonds, 2021). After this, during the 7th week, 250,000 neurons form in the brain and electrical impulses start activating which lasts until the 21st week of pregnancy (Flo health, 2022). In the first trimester of pregnancy, the babys brain is formed approximately 10 percent in comparison to the baby's body weight. By the 10th week of pregnancy, the basic brain formation begins; and looks like  'a small, smooth structure' (De Bellefonds, C., 2021).
By the third trimester, the brain has formed much more as the ridges of the cerebrum begin to show and now is tripled in size.
Alcohol is a major factor which impacts brain development to the foetus's brain. It can cause fetal alcohol syndrome which gives high chance of the baby having sever brain damage (Flo health, 2020).

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Spina bifida is when a baby's spine and spinal cord does not develop properly in the womb, causing a gap in the spine.
Spina bifida is a type of neural tube defect. The neural tube is the structure that eventually develops into the baby's brain and spinal cord.

The neural tube starts to form in early pregnancy and closes about 4 weeks after conception.

In spina bifida, part of the neural tube does not develop or close properly, leading to defects in the spinal cord and bones of the spine (vertebrae).

It's not known what causes spina bifida, but a lack of folic acid before and in the early stages of pregnancy is a significant risk factor.

Types of spina bifida

There are several different types of spina bifida, including:

myelomeningocele - the most severe type of spina bifida; the baby's spinal canal remains open along several vertebrae in the back, allowing the spinal cord and protective membranes around it to push out and form a sac in the baby's back

meningocele - another serious type of spina bifida where the protective membranes around the spinal cord (meninges) push out through the spine; the spinal cord usually develops normally so surgery can often be used to remove the membranes without damaging the nerves

spina bifida occulta - the most common and mildest type of spina bifida; 1 or more vertebrae does not form properly, but the gap in the spine is very small; spina bifida occulta does not usually cause any problems and most people are unaware they have it

These pages focus on myelomeningocele, the most severe type of spina bifida, and this is the type usually referred to whenever the term spina bifida is used.

Shine is a charity that provides help and support for people affected by spina bifida.

Their website has more information about the other types of spina bifida.

Symptoms of spina bifida

Most people with spina bifida are able to have surgery to close the opening in the spine.

But the nervous system will usually already have been damaged, which can lead to problems such as:

Many babies will have or develop hydrocephalus (a build-up of fluid on the brain), which can further damage the brain.

Most people with spina bifida have normal intelligence, but some have learning difficulties.

Read more about the symptoms of spina bifida.

Causes of spina bifida

The cause of spina bifida is unknown, but a number of factors can increase the risk of a baby developing the condition.

These include:

low folic acid intake during pregnancy

having a family history of spina bifida

medicines - taking certain medicines such as valproic acid (used to prevent seizures) during pregnancy has been linked to an increased risk of having a baby with spina bifida

Read more about the causes of spina bifida.

Diagnosing spina bifida

Spina bifida is often detected during the mid-pregnancy anomaly scan, which is offered to all pregnant women between 18 and 21 weeks of pregnancy.

If tests confirm that your baby has spina bifida, the implications will be discussed with you.

This will include a discussion about the possible problems associated with the condition, the treatment and support your child may need if you decide to continue with the pregnancy, and what your options are regarding ending the pregnancy, if that's your choice.

Tests after birth

Once the baby is born, a number of tests may be carried out to find out how bad the condition is and help decide which treatments are likely to be the best option.

Tests may include:

monitoring your child's head growth and carrying out a brain scan, using an ultrasound scan, CT scan or MRI scan, to check for hydrocephalus (excess fluid on the brain)

ultrasound scans of the bladder and kidneys to check whether your baby stores their pee normally

an assessment of your baby's movements to check for paralysis

Surgery to repair the spine will usually be recommended soon after your baby is born.

Treating spina bifida

Treatments for the symptoms or conditions associated with spina bifida include:

surgery soon after birth to close the opening in the spine and treat hydrocephalus

therapies to help make day-to-day life easier and improve independence, such as physiotherapy and occupational therapy

assistive devices and mobility equipment, such as a wheelchair, or walking aids

treatments for bowel and urinary problems

With the right treatment and support, many children with spina bifida survive well into adulthood.

It can be a challenging condition to live with, but many adults with spina bifida are able to lead independent and fulfilling lives.

Read more about treating spina bifida.

Preventing spina bifida with folic acid

The best way to prevent spina bifida is to take folic acid supplements before and during pregnancy.

Folic acid recommendations

You should take a 400 microgram folic acid tablet every day while you're trying to get pregnant and until you're 12 weeks pregnant.

If you did not take folic acid before you conceived, you should start as soon as you find out you're pregnant.

Folic acid tablets are available from pharmacies and supermarkets, or a GP may be able to prescribe them for you.

You should also try to eat foods that contain folate (the natural form of folic acid), such as broccoli, spinach and chickpeas.

Read more about folic acid, including folic acid supplements and foods containing folate.

Recommendations for women at higher risk of spina bifida

Women thought to be at higher risk of having a child with spina bifida need to be prescribed a higher (5 milligram) dose of folic acid by a GP.

Women at higher risk include those:

with a family history of neural tube defects

with a partner with a family history of neural tube defects

who have had a previous pregnancy affected by a neural tube defect

with diabetes

A GP can advise you further about this.

If you're taking medicine to treat epilepsy, you should ask your GP for advice. You may also need to take a higher dose of folic acid.

Help and support

If you have a child with spina bifida or you've been diagnosed with the condition yourself, you may find it helpful to speak to other people affected by it.

Shine, the spina bifida and hydrocephalus charity, can provide you with details about local support groups and organisations.

You can find and contact your regional Shine team or read about support for carers on the Shine website.

National Congenital Anomaly and Rare Disease Registration Service

If you or your child has spina bifida, your clinical team will pass information about you or your child on to the National Congenital Anomaly and Rare Disease Registration Service (NCARDRS).

The NCARDRS helps scientists look for better ways to prevent and treat this condition. You can opt out of the register at any time.

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Spina bifida is when a baby's spine and spinal cord does not develop properly in the womb, causing a gap in the spine. Spina bifida is a type of neural tube defect. The neural tube is the structure that eventually develops into the baby's brain and spinal cord.

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There are different factors which can affect women in the prenatal period. One factor is nutrition. The mother should be eating healthy and nutritional foods as the nutrients of the food are fed to the baby through the umbilical cord and placenta. If the mother has a poor diet then the baby will not be receiving the good  nutrients it needs to develop healthily. A good diet should include proteins, carbohydrates, fruit and veg and dairy too. This will help the mother have a variety of foods in the diet to give good nutrients to the child.
Another factor which affects prenatal development is illness and disease. 'Subsequent studies have shown that maternal diseases like depression and anxiety, epilepsy, asthma, anemia and metabolic disorders, like diabetes, are able to determine alterations in growth and fetal development' (Capra, Tezza, Mazzai and Boner, 2013).

Drugs, alcohol and smoking are also have a major impact on prenatal development, the side affects can affect the mother and child too. The affects of having alcohol whilst pregnant are 'premature birth, low birth weight, impacting on the physical and mental development of the child, a condition known as Foetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)' (Alcohol, smoking and drugs in pregnancy, 2022).
'Alcohol passes to the baby in small amounts in breast milk. The milk will smell different to the baby and may affect their feeding, sleeping or digestion. The best advice is to avoid drinking shortly before a baby’s feed' (Alcohol, smoking and drugs in pregnancy, 2022).

For this reason, it is best for women to not drink during pregnancy to not increase any risk of having a miscarriage.

Stress is another factor which affects prenatal development.  'Maternal stress has been associated with increased rates of infant mortality, low birthweight and preterm birth, all of which may have long term consequences for health and development throughout childhood to adulthood' (Stress and Pregnancy, 2022).

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Drinking alcohol, smoking or taking drugs during pregnancy or while breastfeeding can affect your child's health. Women who are pregnant, trying to conceive or breastfeeding should avoid smoking, drinking alcohol or taking illegal drugs. Always speak with your doctor or midwife before taking any medication.

Alcohol guidelines

The current medical guidelines are that:

if you are pregnant or planning a pregnancy, the safest approach is not to drink alcohol at all to keep risks to your baby to a minimum

drinking in pregnancy can lead to long-term harm to the baby, and the more you drink the greater the risk

If you are trying to get pregnant, you need to be aware that drinking alcohol can reduce your fertility and ability to conceive. Drinking too much, especially getting drunk, can lead to a miscarriage in the early stages of pregnancy.

To keep the risks to an absolute minimum, the safest approach is not to drink at all.

When a pregnant woman drinks alcohol, the alcohol passes through the placenta and can affect the baby's development. This happens throughout the pregnancy, not just in the first few weeks.

Drinking too much can lead to:

premature birth

low birth weight

impacting on the physical and mental development of the child, a condition known as Foetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

Women are therefore strongly advised to not drink alcohol at all at any stage during pregnancy because there may be an increased risk of miscarriage. The current advice is to avoid alcohol completely.

Alcohol and breastfeeding

Alcohol passes to the baby in small amounts in breast milk. The milk will smell different to the baby and may affect their feeding, sleeping or digestion. The best advice is to avoid drinking shortly before a baby's feed.

Whether you're breastfeeding or not, the recommended benchmark is to consume no more than 14 units of alcohol per week, spread evenly over three days or more because if you have one or two heavy drinking sessions, you increase your health risks.

Foetal Alcohol Syndrome

Children born with FAS can have growth problems, facial defects and lifelong learning and behaviour problems.

Foetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) describes the range of less obvious effects that can be mild to severe and relate to one or more of the following symptoms of FASD;

low birth size

problems eating and sleeping

problems seeing and hearing

difficulty following directions and learning to do simple things

trouble paying attention and learning in school

trouble getting along with others and controlling their behaviour

Children with FASD may need medical care all their lives or may need special educational support.

FAS and FASD are completely preventable by not drinking alcohol during pregnancy.

Advice from your doctor

Your doctor can help you to get advice and a referral to services for help with an alcohol or drug addiction problem.

Smoking

Smoking while pregnant not only damages your own health, but can also harm your baby.

It has been linked to a variety of health problems, including:

Every year, more than 17,000 children under the age of five are admitted to hospital because of the effects of secondhand smoke. If you stop smoking, you will reduce the risk of harm to yourself and your baby.

If you are struggling to quit smoking, having a cigarette after feeding, rather than before, will help reduce your baby's exposure to nicotine. Only giving up cigarettes altogether, however, will completely protect them.

Giving up smoking

If you're trying to give up smoking, also encourage those around you to do the same. Second hand smoke contains tar and toxic chemicals that are harmful to you and your baby's health.

Only you can decide to quit, but you can get help and support to stay a non-smoker.

Illegal drugs

Illegal drugs like cannabis, ecstasy, cocaine and heroin can harm your baby. If you use any of these drugs, it is important to talk to your doctor or midwife so they can provide you with advice and support to help you stop.

They can also refer you for additional support. Some dependent drug users will need treatment to stabilise or come off drugs to keep the baby safe.

Pills, medicines and other drugs

As well as illegal drugs, some medicines, including some common painkillers, can harm your baby's health. This can include medication to treat long-term conditions such as asthma, thyroid disease, diabetes and epilepsy.

To be safe, you should:

keep taking your medication until you check with your doctor

always check with your doctor, midwife or pharmacist before taking any new medication

make sure your doctor, dentist or other health professional know you are pregnant before they prescribe you any medication or give any treatment

talk to your doctor if you take regular medication, ideally before trying for a baby or as soon as you know you are pregnant

use as few over the counter medicines as possible

Medicines and treatments that are usually safe include paracetamol, most antibiotics, dental treatments (including local anaesthetics) some immunisations (including tetanus and flu) and nicotine replacement therapy.

You should still check with your GP, pharmacist or midwife, however, if you are using any of these.

More useful links

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Drinking alcohol, smoking or taking drugs during pregnancy or while breastfeeding can affect your child's health. Women who are pregnant, trying to conceive or breastfeeding should avoid smoking, drinking alcohol or taking illegal drugs. Always speak with your doctor or midwife before taking any medication.

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One example of an external factor which can affect prenatal development is death of a close friend/relative. Upon the death, it causes grief and sadness and the mother may have depression from this. She may not want to go outside and interact, she may not want to do any work and may have to take time off work.
Another factor is abuse. Verbal abuse and physical abuse is both included as they can mentally affect the brain. It can make the mother feel useless and as though of no worth. During the pregnancy, she may feel upset and want to talk to somebody about the abuse however may not have someone whom she can trust. Her partner may be the one who is abusing her. She may feel shame telling her friends and family and therefore not telling anyone, the sadness and anxiety will build up inside.

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Factors That Influence the Growth and Development of a Child- Video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FKvcXo3e78g

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There are many internal factors which affect postnatal development of a child. One factor is basic needs. This entails poverty. If the family is from a poor background, then the parents may not be able to afford to give the child nutritious food. They may live off packaged, canned and processed foods. This can cause the child to not grow to the best possible. The child may lack vitamins and minerals. They may feel tired at school and may not be able to concentrate in lesson. Poverty also affects the house. The house where the child and family lives may be too cold and damp so this links into external factors too.
Another internal factor is chronic illness. If the family has history of chronic illnesses, then there can be a chance the child also gets the disease too. An example of chronic illness is diabetes. If the grandparents have diabetes and the parents too, then there are chances the child may have it in the future.
Another internal factor is sleep. If a child does not have enough sleep on a regular basis then they will be able to grow to optimal state. Sleep helps the child grow, it also allows child to feel active and fresh so they can play well.
Another factor which can have an internal impact on postnatal development is hormones. It is normal for hormones to work in a timely manner for example, girls have monthly periods and different hormones secrete at different stages however hormonal imbalances can also happen which can cause birth defects, diseases and behavioural problems too (FirstCry Parenting, 2020). Some children's hormones may be imbalanced therefore they may feel emotional a lot of the time and not know why this is happening. This can affect their school life as well as home life.  They may not be able to control their moods.

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Factors That Influence the Growth and Development of a Child

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There are many different external factors which affect postnatal development. One factor is family influences. If a family gives a child time and shows love then the child will feel loved and encouraged to do well in whatever they do. They will work well and know they have supportive family members. Children whose families are not supportive by not playing with the children and talking to them then this has a negative impact on the child's social skills. The child may not know how to behave properly in front of different people and communicate (FirstCry Parenting, 2020).
Another external factor is parents work. Parents being at work can hinder them to spend quality time with the child. Parents may do extra work shifts so the child may be staying with a friend or grandparents. This affects the child because they may not form an attachment bond with the parents. The child may be more closer to the grandparents and friends as they see them more often. Playing with children and having quality time such as playing games and sitting and chatting helps the child build an emotional connection. Reading books to children before bed and sitting together helps create a emotional bond too.

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Here is a diagram showing the main sections of the brain and its functions. 

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There are 4 main sections of the brain. The first part is called the frontal lobe. This functions as helping with voluntary movement, expressing language and behaviour and also for cognitive skills which including organising and planning (Brain Map Frontal Lobes | Queensland Health, 2021).

The second part of the brain are the temporal lobes. 'The temporal lobes sit behind the ears and are the second largest lobe'. These lobes function to help 'process auditory information and memory'. The temporal lobes are of 2 parts; the left side is the dominant lobe which helps with language learning and retaining information and the right side known as the non dominant side which is for remembering non verbal information such as musical sounds and rhythms (Brain Map Temporal Lobes | Queensland Health, 2021).

The third part of the brain is the parietal lobes. The parietal lobes have 2 sections; the somatosensory cortex and posterior parietal cortex. The somatosensory cortex controls feeling of pain, pressure and touch whereas the posterior parietal cortex is for attention in terms of through physical touch, one can know there is an object or someone in the environment (Brain Map Parietal Lobes | Queensland Health, 2021).

The fourth part of the brain is called the occipital lobe. This lobe helps with vision, face and colour recognition, distance of objects, movement, and also memory. The occipital lobes are very significant because they work along with the temporal lobes. The temporal lobes take in and retain information and then the occipital lobes help to decode this information by seeing and envisioning the thing (Occipital lobe: Definition, function, and linked conditions, 2020).

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'Allen’s report focuses heavily on the importance of early development and urges the government to take extra measures to ensure that all children, regardless of their background, are socially, cognitively and psychologically ‘school ready’ at the age of five' (Unlocking early intervention: key messages from the Allen Review | IMPOWER, 2011).
His work focuses on getting children ready for school and helping children connect with learning as early as possible. He also believes if the child's parents understand the child better from their birth years then they can emotionally and socially understand the child better and see what interventions the child needs based on the childs individual needs. If the parent figures out the child has some delay in the hearing or could be that the child has delay in understanding when told to do something then the parents can find support for the child at an early stage.
Allen believes 'all parents need to know how to "recognise and respond to a baby's cues, attune with infants and stimulate them from the very start, and how to foster empathy' (Sellgren, 2011).
His aim is to help parents get to know they children well. He believes that those children who have are emotionally stable and socially skilled are more likely to be more productive in creating a better life in the future in comparison to those children whom emotions weren't understood and did not have a close attachment figure to who they can openly talk to.

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The front cover of "Early Intervention: The Next Steps" contains a startling image- the brain of a normal three year old child next to that of one who has suffered extreme neglect. Even to the untrained eye the differences between the two CT scans are clear; children who are neglected have significantly smaller brains than those who grow up in stable households.

Allen's report focuses heavily on the importance of early development and urges the government to take extra measures to ensure that all children, regardless of their background, are socially, cognitively and psychologically 'school ready' at the age of five. IMPOWER particularly welcomes his recommendation that a cross party consensus is needed to build a solid foundation for long term intervention programmes and that the government must foster an environment that ensures best practice techniques are shared. The report also notes the success of interventions such as Family Nurse Partnerships, which gives invaluable support to first time mothers - particularly young mothers, and advocates the roll out of these initiatives.

These recommendations are sensible, but do they actually reveal anything new? The answer, arguably, is no. While the strong focus on early years development is important there is little in the report which is not already clear to those who work in Children's Services.

One of Allen's initiatives is the development of fifteen local Early Intervention Places to pioneer best practice programmes. Establishing which preventative investments are the most effective is imperative but we believe it would be more useful to encourage all local authorities to share their experiences, learn from mistakes and develop best practice. Collaboration and honesty are essential to improving the nation's child protection and the government could play a vital role in removing the competitive barriers which exist between councils. In suggesting that only fifteen local authorities should be used to pioneer the best practice programmes, Allen risks creating a divide; focusing on the achievements of councils which are already performing well rather than assisting those which are struggling will not help to reach the most vulnerable children.

The backdrop of economic uncertainty against which early intervention campaigns must be developed is not adequately addressed in the report. Cuts to local authority budgets have been confirmed and now more than ever, directorates need to justify every penny spent. Intervention in later life is both expensive and ineffective so preventative investment is crucial to curbing long term costs and improving outcomes for vulnerable children. For example we know that youth crime is reported to cost the economy at least £8.5 billion per annum and that the total cost of drug misuse is around £77 billion; the nation wastes significant resources tackling these problems which could have been negated with earlier intervention.

Allen notes that intervention programmes will pay for themselves in future savings but does little to suggest how local authorities will find the upfront investment needed. Nor does he outline the robust measures which are needed to evaluate current strategies, allowing councils to focus on the best programmes, and to change tack if interventions are proving ineffective. IMPOWER's work with local authorities has given us a clear picture of the challenges facing Children's Services. Our projects are increasingly geared towards identifying efficiencies but are underpinned by the principle that councils should not slash services to generate quick savings. We know that effective early intervention is crucial not only to improving the lives of children but also to helping Children's Services to reduce their expenditure on families with complex and persistent needs.

The principle aim of local authorities is to provide services to improve the lives of people in their area. We live in a society where knowledge is power, financial resources are limited and quantifying outcomes is essential. Although based on sound fundamental principles, the Allen Review stops short of making the practical recommendations which are needed to ensure real improvements in early intervention provision.

Alix Cordell, assistant director, IMPOWER Consulting

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Unlocking early intervention: key messages from the Allen Review | IMPOWER

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The front cover of "Early Intervention: The Next Steps" contains a startling image- the brain of a normal three year old child next to that of one who has suffered extreme neglect. Even to the untrained eye the differences between the two CT scans are clear; children who are neglected have significantly smaller brains than...

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After birth, in the first 3 months, babies go through different development stages as they grow and learn.
Physical development- a babies average growth rate in terms of weight for boys and girls is 1 and 1/2 to 2 pounds each month. The average height is growing over 1 inch each month. The head size grows approximately 1/2 inch each month (The Growing Child: 1 to 3 Months, 2022).

Babies also begin to recognise their parents voice when the parents regularly talk and play with the baby. Baby also makes eye contact and smile when they recognise familiar faces. Babies will also cry and make coo noises to communicate what they want. Also during the first 3 months, the baby will follow light, faces, objects and listen to sounds. REF They know when objects are moved in front of them. They also begin to grab toys and try putting to their mouth.
By the end of the 3 months, 'babies are able to raise head and chest when placed on belly and also reach forward to toys put near or over them' (The Growing Child: 1 to 3 Months, 2022).

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Physical development- By 4 months, babies weight gain is double of their birth weight. Babies height and head size continue to grow approximately 1-1.5 inch every month.
Between 4-6 months the baby is growing more and learning to move around more. Babies can sit up for longer with support and then by the 6th month they dont need to lean on something or have someone hold their back.
Babies at this stage can also begin to try reach out for toes when lying on their back (The Growing Child: 4 to 6 Months, 2022).

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What does the EYFS state regarding early childhood development? 

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What does the EYFS state regarding early childhood development? 

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The EYFS has set up a framework which states children must be looked after well and are in a safe environment. The children must be given support in their learning and the teachers and child-minders must set targets to ensure they can support the children to the best optimum.
Regarding learning, the EYFS has set up targets for knowledge and skills that children must achieve before going to reception class. It is also required that teachers make assessments which are used to check up on the childs progress and achievements.
The EYFS states that at different levels of learning, children should be able to listen and respond to questions and comments, ask questions regarding what is being talked about and have one to one conversations. This will show the childs understanding and speech development. (Statutory framework for the early years foundation stage, 2021).

Statutory framework for the early years foundation stage (publishing.service.gov.uk)

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In conclusion, there are different theories which support early childhood development. This padlet also includes the different developmental approaches in child development as they are the major aspects in this subject. There is also a explanation regarding what the EYFS states regarding early childhood development, the 7 areas of development and how teachers can support a child's learning and readiness for school.
There is a review of Frank Field and Graham Allens viewpoints on how children should be nurtured and parented for school readiness. They each have a report about the importance of supporting childrens learning.
There is also mention of what a zygote is, the embryo and what main development takes place in the foetus, prenatal and postnatal development, internal and external factors which impact prenatal and postnatal development.

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Bronfenbrenner (1974) believed that there it is the environment which affects a child and development. He categorised environmental factors into different parts which are: the micro system, mesosystem, exo-system, macrosystem and chronosystem (Argueta, 2018).

Microsystem- the microsystem can be described as the childs home where the immediate and close family members are, the community of where they are involved in, and school (peers).
Mesosystem- this section is the relationship the child forms with the people he lives with, peers, neighbours and community people. An example of this is if the childs parents have friendship with the neighbours. By seeing them often and keeping communication with them, the child may form friendship with the neighbours children too. They may play together and start talking. This is important for the childs social development as the child is expanding his circle and conversing play with them.
Exosystem- this includes having a relationship with another system however it does not directly affect the child. An example of this is if a parent works and has a bad day at work as they may have had an argument, the parent may come home and take anger out at home to the child. The parent may feel tired and annoyed from a bad day however this has a negative impact on the childs development. This is because the child will feel confused and annoyed that the parents work does not have a link to the child.
Macrosystem- The macrosystem can be described as the childs culture and society he has grown up in. It also includes social statues, whether from a poor or wealthy family and ethnicity. Children around the world will have different macrosystems because their environment is of a different culture and background. Third world countries may have more poverty and low social class in comparison to developed countries.
Chronosystem- This includes major life changes such as moving towns, changing schools, divorce of a parent and death of a caregiver. Moving towns and changing schools majorly impacts a childs emotional development because the child may have formed strong bond with the peers at the school and teachers. They may have fit in well with their classmates however when a child moves to another school, they may have to make new friends and see which group they will fit in. They may not feel comfortable with the change of environment and class setting. (Argueta, 2018).

Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory - YouTube