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The revolution of 1848 swept across Europe in Milan and Venice revolutionaries

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The Mexican war that began in 1810 lasted 11 years

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The Empire German speaking is the most powerful state in the holy roman empire.

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On May 14 he claimed that he ruled “in the name of Victor Emmanuel, king of Italy,”

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The democratic movement refused to consider the national revolution in any way complete so long as parts of the peninsula remained under the old sovereigns. Sicily, where autonomist opposition to the Bourbon government was endemic and extreme, was the most obvious place for a democratic revival. In April 1860 a Mazzinian-inspired insurrection broke out in Palermo (the Gancia revolt), and, although it was quickly quelled, it spread throughout the island. After the insurrection, Sicilian democrats demonstrated that they could overcome their deep divisions of ideology and class. In May they had the opportunity to assist Garibaldi's Expedition of the Thousand, a volunteer force that had set sail from Liguria to free the Italian south from Bourbon rule.

Despite scant preparations and a shortage of weapons, Garibaldi's volunteers landed at Marsala on May 11, 1860, and in less than three months conquered the entire island of Sicily. Garibaldi's daring and skill and the indigenous revolutionary ferment accounted for the success of the expedition. Still, the attitude of the Sicilian peasants was ambivalent. They initially welcomed the invading force but then quickly became disillusioned at Garibaldi's reluctance to order the breakup of secular, landed estates. Although Garibaldi declared on May 14 that he ruled "in the name of Victor Emmanuel, king of Italy," he entrusted the Sicilian provisional government to his associate, Francesco Crispi, who came into serious conflict with Cavour's emissaries on the island. Cavour feared the implications of a republican coup d'état. Meanwhile, as the European powers attempted mediation, the new king of the Two Sicilies, Francis II, granted a constitution and promised amnesty to Sicilian rebels. At this point, without the consent of Victor Emmanuel II and perhaps even against his wishes, Garibaldi crossed the Strait of Messina on August 19, 1860, and by September 7 made a triumphant entry into Naples. Francis II fled to Gaeta, and on October 1 the last serious resistance of the Bourbon army collapsed at the Battle of the Volturno, near Caserta.

The prestige of Garibaldi and the democrats had risen so high that Cavour felt compelled to seize the initiative once again. Having persuaded Napoleon III to limit his opposition to lodging a perfunctory protest, Cavour proceeded to occupy the central Papal States (Umbria and the Marche). Rome and its surrounding region (Lazio) remained under papal rule, but the remainder of the Italian peninsula, apart from Austrian Venetia, became one kingdom under a moderate constitution. On October 26, 1860, Victor Emmanuel II met with Garibaldi on Neapolitan soil and was greeted as "king of Italy." During October and November, plebiscites in the former papal and Bourbon provinces overwhelmingly endorsed annexation to the Kingdom of Italy.

The Kingdom of Italy was officially proclaimed on March 17, 1861, by a parliament assembled in Turin. Soon afterward Cavour asserted that Rome must become the capital of the new state within a context of separation between secular and religious authority. However, with Cavour's untimely death on June 6, 1861, the Roman Question remained unresolved.

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The democratic movement refused to consider the national revolution in any way complete so long as parts of the peninsula remained under the old sovereigns. Sicily, where autonomist opposition to the Bourbon government was endemic and extreme, was the most obvious place for a democratic revival.

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He was able to unite by getting people to attack him first then he would attack in self defense

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Otto von Bismarck, often referred to as the "Iron Chancellor," was the mastermind behind the unification of Germany. Through strategic diplomacy and nationalistic fervour, Bismarck paved the way for the birth of a united German nation.

With its newfound unity, Germany rapidly emerged as a formidable force in Europe. Bolstered by its industrial prowess, economic growth, and a powerful military, the nation exerted its influence on the global stage.

Under his leadership, the German Empire was formed, ending centuries of fragmentation. The symbolic significance of the unification ceremony cannot be understated. By deliberately choosing the Palace of Versailles, located outside Paris, as the venue instead of Berlin, Bismarck sent a powerful message. This decision represented a bold statement of military might and conquest, foreshadowing Germany's ambitions and its trajectory as a dominant European power throughout the first half of the 20th century.

Otto von Bismarck's legacy as the architect of German unification would shape not only the country's trajectory but also the geopolitical landscape of Europe for years to come.

A motley collection of states

Before 1871 Germany had always been a motley collection of states sharing little more than a common language.

Over 300 distinct states existed within the region, each differing in customs, systems of rule, and even religion. Unification seemed improbable and was often dismissed, much like the contemporary notion of a United States of Europe. However, the vision and determination of Otto von Bismarck would change the course of history.

As the 19th century progressed, a wave of nationalism began to sweep through Germany. The defeat of Napoleon by several German states played a significant role in fueling this nationalistic fervor. Initially, the call for unity was championed by students and middle-class liberal intellectuals who emphasised the importance of a shared language and a somewhat tenuous common history as unifying factors.

Few people took much notice beyond a few mildly nationalistic festivals, and the fact that the movement was confined to intellectuals was illustrated poignantly in the European revolutions of 1848, where a brief stab at a national German parliament quickly fizzled out and this attempted Reichstag never held much political power.

After this, it seemed that German unification was no nearer to happening than ever. The kings, princes and dukes of the German states, typically opposed to unification for obvious reasons, generally retained their power.

The power of Prussia

The power balance of the German states was important, for if one was ever more powerful than the others put together, then it might attempt conquest of intimidation. By 1848 Prussia, a conservative and militaristic kingdom in the east of Germany, had been the strongest of the states for a century.

However, it was restrained by the combined strength of the other states, and, more importantly, by the influence of the neighbouring Austrian Empire, which would not allow any German state to have too much power and become a possible rival.

After a brief flirtation with revolution in 1848, the Austrians had restored order and the status quo, humiliating Prussia in the process. When the formidable statesman von Bismarck was appointed Minister-President of that country in 1862, he aimed to restore Prussia as a great European power.

After effectively taking command of the country unconstitutionally, he vastly improved the military for which Prussia would become famous. Bismarck harnessed the aspirations of the German people and united them under a singular cause.

The defeat of Austria in the Seven Weeks' War

The war that followed in 1866 was a resounding Prussian victory which radically changed a European political landscape which had remained virtually the same since the defeat of Napoleon.

Many of Prussia's rival states had joined Austria and been cowed and defeated, and the Empire then turned its attentions away from Germany in order to restore some of its severely battered prestige. The ethnic tensions that this move created would later kick-start World War One.

Prussia, meanwhile, was able to form the other beaten states in North Germany into a coalition which was effectively the beginnings of a Prussian Empire. Bismarck had masterminded the whole business and now reigned supreme - and though not a natural nationalist he was now seeing the potential of a fully united Germany ruled by Prussia.

This was a far cry from the heady dreams of the earlier intellectuals, but, as Bismarck famously said, unification would have to be achieved, if it was to be achieved, by "blood and iron."

He knew, however, that he could not rule a united country dogged by infighting. The south remained unconquered and the north was only tenuously under his control. It would take a war against a foreign and historic enemy to unite Germany, and the one that he had in mind was particularly hated across Germany after Napoleon's wars.

The Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71

France was ruled at this point by the great man's nephew, Napoleon III, who did not have his uncle's brilliance or military skill.

Through a series of clever diplomatic tactics Bismarck was able to provoke Napoleon into declaring war on Prussia, and this seemingly aggressive move on France's part kept the other European powers such as Britain from joining her side.

It also created a furious anti-French feeling across Germany, and when Bismarck moved Prussia's armies into position, they were joined - for the first time in history - by men from every other German state. The following war was devastating for the French.

The large and well trained German armies won many victories - most notably at Sedan in September 1870, a defeat which persuaded Napoleon to resign and live out the last miserable year of his life in exile in England. The war did not end there however, and the French fought on without their Emperor.

A few weeks after Sedan, Paris was under siege, and the war only ended when it fell in late January 1871. In the meantime, Bismarck had gathered the German generals princes and Kings at Versailles and proclaimed the new and ominously powerful country of Germany, changing the political landscape of Europe.

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Otto von Bismarck: Architect of German Unification

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Otto von Bismarck, often referred to as the "Iron Chancellor," was the mastermind behind the unification of Germany. Through strategic...

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Hidalgo Was captured and executed by royal troops

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Named for the revolutionary leader Miguel Hidalgo, the state is fiercely independent: The Mexican Revolution lasted longer in this state than in any other. Today, Hidalgo relies on extensive silver, gold and mineral deposits to fuel its economy. La Huasteca, a fertile lowland region covering the northern part of the state, produces some of Hidalgo's chief crops, including sugarcane, corn, oats, barley, wheat, beans, chilies, coffee and fruits.

Early History
Throughout the pre-Columbian era, the Hidalgo region was predominantly under the influence of the city of Teotihuacán (in the modern state of Mexico) and, to a lesser degree, the Tajín culture (centered near Veracruz). After the collapse of Teotihuacán in the 8th and 9th centuries, the city of Tula (or Tollán) in Hidalgo emerged as the capital of the Toltec Empire. According to legend, a Toltec chief named Mixcóatl led his tribe into Hidalgo from the northwest. His son, Topiltzin, founded Tula in southern Hidalgo around 950 A.D. Conflicts broke out between those who worshipped the peaceful Quetzalcóatl and those who followed the warlike god Tezcatlipoca. Topiltzin, an adherent of Quetzalcóatl, was expelled from the city around 987. He is believed to have set sail from the Gulf Coast in a raft, vowing to return one day. Many legends arose about his journeys.

Did you know? The Reloj Monumental (monumental clock), built in 1904, is Pachuca's central clock tower. Its bell was crafted by the Whitechapel Bell Foundry, the same company that made the Liberty Bell and London's Big Ben.

During the height of Tula's power, between 900 and 1100, the city encompassed some 13 square kilometers (five square miles) with around 60,000 inhabitants. By mid-12th century, Tula collapsed due to internal strife, and the survivors spread out to settle lands as far away as Yucatán. In 1156, the Otomí and Chichimeca Indians occupied Tula, calling it Namenhí(place of many people). They, in turn, fell to the Mexica and were incorporated into the Aztec Empire by Moctezuma Ilhuicamina in the 15th century.

Middle History
In his quest to conquer the Aztec empire, the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés entered Hidalgo in 1520. The following year he besieged and destroyed the nearby Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán, establishing Spanish authority in the region. By mid-century, Spanish settlers introduced to the area cattle, new crops and the Catholic faith preached by Franciscan missionaries.

Beginning in 1552, rich silver deposits were discovered in the vicinity of Pachuca and Real del Monte, spurring a new wave of Spanish settlement. A few years later Bartolomé de Medina perfected the amalgamation method of extracting silver using mercury and copper plates, which rapidly became the dominant technique in the Americas. As mining activity escalated, the settlers increasingly relied on encomiendas, royal grants authorizing individual Spaniards to require labor from a specified number of native inhabitants placed under their authority. In 1717 the Spanish crown abolished the encomienda system, confirming the decision with additional decrees in 1720 and 1721. In practice, however, many Spaniards ignored the decrees and continued to force the indigenous population to work the mines.

The many rich mines around Pachuca made it the center of activity during Hidalgo's colonial period, and much later it would become the state's capital. Its name is thought to have come from the Náhuatl word Patlachiuhacan, meaning place of silver and gold.

Recent History
In the early 19th century Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a priest in the town of Dolores, Guanajuato, began to advocate Mexican independence from Spain, rallying the state's patriots and parish priests in support of the cause. In 1810, he raised an army of more than six thousand men and led them to several victories. Although Father Hidalgo was later captured and executed by royal troops, his movement continued, leading to Mexico's independence in 1821. The state of Hidalgo was later named in his honor.

In 1861 President Benito Juárez suspended payments on Mexico's foreign debts; the French responded by invading the country the following year, occupying it from 1863 to 1867. After the French were finally expelled and the Mexican Republic restored, Hidalgo became a separate state in 1869, taking its name from the hero of Mexican independence, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla.

Although political conflict did not disappear, the presidency of Porfirio Díaz (1877-1880 and 1884-1911) brought a period of relative stability, with government policies focused on modernizing the nation's railways, roads and communications. However, opposition mounted to Díaz's autocratic methods, and in 1910 the Mexican Revolution broke out under the leadership of Francisco I. Madero. The following year, Madero's followers occupied Pachuca, Hidalgo's capital, and engaged Díaz's troops in battles throughout the state. After Díaz abdicated and left the country in May 1911, Madero was elected President.

In 1917 a new federal constitution put political and economic restrictions on the Roman Catholic Church in response to claims that the church had abused its power. Conflict between the government and the church seethed during the 1920s and eventually erupted into a struggle known as the Cristero War. The fighting claimed 90,000 lives before it was finally resolved by negotiations that relaxed some restrictions on the church. The most important provision allowed the clergy to regain control of their land and buildings, although the facilities technically remained federal property.

Hidalgo Today

Industrial development has flourished in Hidalgo over the last few decades; textiles and cement products are currently the state's primary exports. The state's mines yield valuable metal ores such as manganese, zinc, iron, copper, gold and silver. Other useful minerals include gypsum, refractory clays and lime. Additional sources of revenue are derived from auto parts, metalworking and oil production, and the state is fast becoming one of Mexico's leaders in the assembly of subway and railroad cars, heavy machinery, automobiles and trucks.

Another major crop is the maguey cactus, an agave plant also known as the American aloe-even though it is not related to true aloes. In arid and rocky areas where crops cannot be irrigated, maguey cultivation provides reliable income. A liquid called agua miel (honey water) is collected from the plant's center and fermented to make the popular drink pulque.

Facts & Figures

Capital: Pachuca

Major Cities (population): Pachuca de Soto (275,578) Tulancingo de Bravo (129,935) Huejutla de Reyes (115,786) Tula de Allende (93,296) Ixmiquilpan (73,903)

Size/Area: 8,036 square miles

Population: 2,345,514 (2005 Census)

Year of statehood: 1869

Fun Facts

Set against a blue sky, the green mountains in the upper half of Hidalgo's coat of arms symbolize the state's rich natural resources. To the left is the Bell of Dolores, which rallied the state's citizens to fight for independence in 1810; on the right is a red Phrygian cap with laurel branches, symbols of their victory in 1821. The lower half of the seal displays a round military box in remembrance of the country's three greatest conflicts: Independence (1810-1821), Reform (1858-1861) and Revolution (1910-1917). The three holes in the field suggest the mouths of mines, the primary source of the state's wealth. To the left of the shield flies the banner of the Virgin of Guadalupe, used by Father Miguel Hidalgo in the movement for independence; to the right is Mexico's national flag.

About one-sixth of the state's population speaks an indigenous language.

Pachuca, Hidalgo, is referred to as La Bella Airosa (the beautiful windy city) due to the strong northeastern winds that can reach 75 kilometers (47 miles) per hour. At more than 2,400 meters (7,874 feet) in elevation, it is also one of Mexico's highest and coldest cities.

The Reloj Monumental (monumental clock), built in 1904, is Pachuca's central clock tower. Its bell was crafted by the Whitechapel Bell Foundry, the same company that made the Liberty Bell and London's Big Ben.

The state of Hidalgo is named after Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a priest who led the fight for independence from Spanish rule.

Residents of Hidalgo cook and eat both ants' eggs (escamoles) and grubs (chinicuiles) that thrive in the maguey cactus.

The 1998 film, The Mask of Zorro, featuring Antonio Banderes and Catherine Zeta-Jones was partly filmed in Hidalgo.

Though the state is named after Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, the town of Dolores, where he started the cry for revolution, is actually located in Guanajuato, not Hidalgo, Mexico.

Landmarks

Real del Monte
Once the richest municipality in the state of Hidalgo, the town of Real del Monte offers visitors a glimpse into the region's mining heritage. Popular attractions include Casas Quemadas (the site of a battle in 1866), Monumento al Minero (Monument to Mining) and Museo de Medicina Laboral, a museum that shows visitors how workers were treated for mine-related injuries and illnesses such as silicosis.

Vistors can tour the mines at Mina La Rica, Mina de Dolores and Mina de Acosta. Nearby is a tribute to the miners of England's Cornwall County, who revitalized Mexico's silver industry in the early 1800s by introducing more modern methods of production.

Huasca de Ocampo
Surrounded by forests and located near the former mining haciendas of San Miguel and Santa Maria Regla, Huasca de Ocampo is a quaint town with white houses, clay roofs and stone streets. The town's name derives from the Náhuatl word Huascazaloyam (happiness) and the name of a regional lawyer and politician, Melchor Ocampo.

Ruins
The archeological site of Tula, just outside the modern town of Tula de Allende, is spread over a wide area. The largest cluster of ceremonial structures is nicknamed Tula Grande, while a smaller group is called Tula Chico. The site features a terraced pyramid, the towering Atlantes warrior statues, the Palacio Quemado and reclining sculptures believed to depict the rain god Tlaloc. Two large courts bear witness to the popularity of the Mesoamerican ballgame Tlachtli (or Tlaxco), which was played by the Toltecs centuries ago. According to legend, Tula is where the gods Quetzalcóatl and Tezcatlipoca fought an epic battle between light and dark.

PHOTO GALLERIES

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Named for the revolutionary leader Miguel Hidalgo, the state is fiercely independent: The Mexican Revolution lasted longer in this state than in any other. Today, Hidalgo relies on extensive silver, gold and mineral deposits to fuel its economy.