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More resources: Writing and Spelling (PBS Launching Young Readers series) Growing Writers (PBS Launching Young Readers series) Looking at Writing Writing: Course Module Writing Apps Topics A-Z: Writing A child's writing development parallels the child's development as a reader.

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Students gradually develop their writing skills just as they gradually develop their reading skills.

When I was a preschool teacher, I watched students going through their pre-reading and writing stages. Students would flip pages in books, pretending to read as they prepared to become readers. Similarly, students would hold pencils and write random letters or symbols resembling letters to show they were nearing writing.

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First, students copy the writing that they see.

Many of my students in ESE who are not yet reading or writing independently use this strategy to practice writing.

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"Good writers are created through systematic, explicit instruction."

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Basic writing skills
Text Generation
Writing Processes
Writing Knowledge

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spelling, capitalization, punctuation, handwriting/keyboarding, and sentence structure

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" translating one’s thoughts into language, what might be thought of as the “content” of writing."

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"includes word choice (vocabulary), elaboration of detail, and clarity of expression."

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"planning, revising, and editing one’s work"

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Writing appropriately for your topic or audience

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RAFT is a writing strategy that helps students understand their roles as writers, the audience they will address, the varied formats for writing, and the topic they will be writing about. By using this strategy, teachers encourage students to write creatively, to consider a topic from a different pe…

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Dysgraphia: A Student's Perspective on Writing

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Dysgraphia: A Student's Perspective on Writing

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"Writing is definitely the worst task of all. It's just way too hard to remember all the things I need, like periods and capital letters. Then, it's almost impossible to think about how to spell words when I'm busy trying to think about the story. It's so hard to remember what I'm writing about .... I figure it's easier to write just a few sentences. That doesn't hurt my hand so much either. My teachers complain, but I just keep writing very short stories. After all, teachers don't understand what it's like to struggle and struggle to write and still have the paper turn out sloppy and full of mistakes. They always tell me how messy my papers are. They just can't understand how hard I try. No matter how carefully I work, the words don't look the way they look for the other kids. Sometimes I know how I want the word to look, but it just doesn't turn out that way." ¹

Eli's ongoing lament about the writing process highlights many of the key struggles of students: writing is so very hard, the process contains multiple components, and no one understands the struggles. The questions we, as parents and teachers, face as we try to assist students who struggle with writing, include:

1. How can I help the student chunk the task into smaller, more manageable units?

2. How can I help the student recall all the necessary components for the writing task?

3. How can I provide authentic positive comments which reinforce what the child does appropriately, no matter how small the component?

Chunking the task into smaller, more manageable units

When presented with a writing task in school, Eli's friend reminds him he has strengths to use to help him get through the assignment. "Sam leans over and to my surprise whispers, 'Eli, I know you hate writing, but remember you have strengths too.' Then I smile, take a deep breath, and think about my strategies. If I just take one step at a time, maybe I can manage this." ¹

The plan here is to have a strategies list, and use this list to identify each step in the process of writing the assignment. One valuable strategy is to use the key word "POWER," in which each letter stands for one step in the process.

P - prepare, list all your ideas
O - organize, assemble the ideas
W - write the draft
E - edit, looking for and correcting any errors
R - revise, write the final draft

In step 1, the "P" step, the students prepares all the ideas. It's similar to a brainstorming process. A visual or graphic organizer is useful at this stage, especially since it may also be used in the next step. Visual organization strategies are effective because they provide a concrete alternative to traditional outlining. Organizers allow students to organize material in a visual pattern and enable them to see the relationships among the information. This facilitate students' ability to represent connections more easily while promoting fluency, flexibility, and more originality.

In a simple graphic organizer, the student may have one larger circle for the main idea and three (or more) circles for supporting facts. Having this framework helps students focus on the main components of the writing assignment, highlighting one portion at a time. Many types of graphic organizers are available, and it is highly efficient to begin teaching these to students as soon as they begin the writing process. A few of the many valuable online references that include samples of a variety of graphic organizer types include: www.edHelper.com; www.smartdraw.com; www.inspirations.com; and www.imindmap.com. Some books that contain samples of graphic organizers are LEARN ², The Source For Learning and Memory Strategies ³, and The Source For Reading Comprehension Strategies. ⁴

In step 2, the "O" stage, students must organize the information, including sequencing the ideas and the flow. Many students who struggle with this aspect of writing find that having a graphic reminder of the components eases the way for them. It helps them visualize the entire process or concept, which is essential to knowing where an idea comes from and where it's going. Two common graphics to help students remember the flow necessary for writing a paragraph or story are the dinosaur and a hamburger.

The dinosaur graphic represents the three main components of a paragraph, or story. The head represents the introduction, just as the head of the dinosaur leads him where he is going. The long neck represents the supporting details, as the dinosaur's neck supports his head. The tail represents the conclusion, or the ending.

The hamburger also represents the three main components of a paragraph, or story. There is the top bun, or the introduction. There is filling, representing the internal or supporting information. The bottom bun represents the conclusion.

To help the student sequence the information within a passage, he uses his graphic organizer and decides what goes first, second, etc. It is important to stress to the student that effective writing is absolutely dependent on good organization skills. Generally, students who struggle to sort and organize language-based information will also struggle with clarity, conciseness, and effectiveness of written assignments. It is imperative that such students understand how to structure different tasks for different purposes. Concrete visual techniques are extremely helpful and include a wide range of strategies such as pre-writing worksheets, frames, visual organizers, mind maps, and clusters.

Recalling the necessary components for a writing task

This represents another major struggle for many students. As expressed by Eli, "Am I stupid? Does my brain just stop working sometimes? I think I know the words, but then when they're all together on a page, they get jumbled. Mom keeps telling me I'm not stupid, but she's just Mom. It's so frustrating. I feel I can't rely on or trust my brain". ¹

One of the most successful strategies for struggling students is to use a visual organizer in the form of a frame. A frame presents the various components which are necessary and serves as a reminder to recall each step and to do the steps, one at a time.

Two examples of a basic frame follow. In the first one, the student first draws a picture for the beginning, the ending and then the middle of the story. After that, he writes about his beginning, middle, and end. In the Main Idea and Details Organizer, the student writes the main ideas in the big boxes on the left and then supports each with details.

Providing authentic positive comments to reinforce what the child does appropriately

There are so many components to the writing process that students who struggle easily become overloaded. Therefore, it is very important to highlight what the child has done appropriately, regardless of how small the component, or how many other parts remain inefficient.

Mel Levine refers to the processes of demystification ⁵, a vital aspect of which is to identify and reinforce the strengths and beauty in each child and adolescent. In Eli's story, being able to understand himself and his learning style is probably the key factor involved with his overall success, in spite of many learning challenges, all of which are lifelong issues. It is critical that we help such students learn to cope with their life as well as the daily activities in school.

Some examples of authentic positive comments about a small component are:

You have a great description of the beach in your story. I like the way you described the sounds and the wind.

You sequenced your ideas really well-the order is logical and easy to follow.

After your positive comments, then select one or two areas that need improvement and list those. There is no need to highlight every thing that the child did wrong in his writing assignment. After all, he will be unable to fix everything at once. In contrast, if you provide only a few areas for improvement, then the child can work on those before moving on to others.

Conclusion

It is valuable to recall the words by Gordon Sherman, former president of the International Dyslexia Association, and assistant professor of neurology at Harvard Medical School , who states that we all have different brains. Each person's brain is different and processes information differently. This variation is called cerebrodiversity, and is the cause of learning differences. It may result in some students having difficulties in the classroom, because there is no such thing as an ideal, optimal brain. Understanding that each individual actually processes information differently is the key to understanding basic learning differences. Sherman stresses that learning differences are not disabilities. It is one's learning environment that makes learning differences problematic.

Eli concludes in the Epilogue to his story,

"I know my thinking is different from other people. So many times, having a different thinking pattern gets me in trouble and it definitely causes me to have to work harder. Other times, being different is like having a gift. Working with machines is one of my many wonderful gifts ...."

"It is my hope that teachers, parents and other students will realize that everyone has his or her own set of strengths and weaknesses. It is indeed true that we have all kinds of minds and all kinds of talents". ¹

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Dysgraphia: A Student's Perspective on Writing

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Eli, a young boy, tells us what it is like to have dysgraphia. Regina Richards, a well-known expert on dysgraphia (and Eli's mom), explains how to help children who struggle with the challenges Eli describes. Practical techniques discussed include POWER: Prepare, Organize, Write, Edit, Revise.

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Graphic Organizers to Help Kids With Writing

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Discover four graphic organizers that can help kids organize their ideas in a very visual way. They also help break a writing project into smaller, more manageable steps. Graphic organizers are especially helpful for children with dysgraphia, executive functioning issues, and other issues that can cause trouble with writing.

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Mary Amato's Tips for Keeping a Writer's Notebook

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Find out why it's a good idea for young aspiring writers to keep a journal, and get practical tips on journal writing from children's author and writing coach Mary Amato. She says, don't forget to bring a writing journal everywhere you go!

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Science Notebooks | Reading Rockets

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Rationale

A science notebook, such as the one shown in the figure below, is a strategy for students to record and reflect on inquiry-based observations, activities, investigations, and experiments in order to increase their understanding of science instruction.

Science notebooks are also an excellent tool for students to communicate their understanding of science concepts, for teachers to provide students with feedback, and, finally, to assess students (Shepardson & Britsch, 2000, 2001).

Science notebooks are also a way for teachers to integrate science experiences with literacy and mathematics because they combine science inquiry, written communication, and data using measurement (Gilbert & Kotelman, 2005; Klentschy, 2005; Yore, Bisanz, & Hand, 2003).

Science notebook, behavior of mealworms, 3/4 grade

Science notebooks are modeled after the way scientists really work, and each scientist's notebook is unique to that person, area of inquiry, type of experiment, and investigation. Student scientists record their observations, ideas, drawings, and other illustrations such as charts, tables, models, and graphs, along with their questions, ideas, and reflections in a running record of their thinking. A notebook may follow a general organization, but the contents can vary from student to student. Writing frames have also proven useful as prompts for students' entries in their notebooks (Warwick, Stephenson, Webster, & Bourne, 2003).

Research has shown that science notebooks support differentiated instruction for English learners through the use of this open format and other useful strategies for teaching English learners such as tapping prior knowledge, the five senses, interaction in groups, and primary language support. (Amaral, Garrison, & Klentschy, 2002). Teachers can use science notebooks to conference with students for purposes of assessment and guidance (Aschbacher & Alonzo, 2006; Ruiz-Primo & Li, 2004).

Strategy

Introduce the use of science notebooks with children's books that are based on the notebooks, journals, diaries, and records of scientists appropriate for each grade level. Discuss the books with students using reader response questions and prompts to engage them. Then model how to use a science notebook before, during, and after classroom science experiences, observations, and investigations.

A template can be used with students on a classroom chart, poster, or overhead transparency, with an individual copy for each student that includes the parts of a notebook - including places where students can formulate and develop their questions, make predictions, record observational data, describe procedures and results, write thoughtful reflections, and keep a record of the new concepts they are learning.

While each teacher will differentiate science notebook organization according to the grade level, interests, abilities, and individual needs of their students, here are the parts of science notebooks frequently used by teachers:

There are several ways to make science notebooks: in a composition book, a spiral notebook, a three ring binder with loose leaf paper and section dividers, or in a three-prong paper folder.

Writing frames can be provided for students to begin their entries, and they can bevaried by grade level. For example:

"We are trying to find out ..." (Grade 4)

"We made the test fair by ..." (Grade 4)

"By carrying out these measurements we are able to find the connection between ... and ..." (Grade 6)

"My results are accurate and reliable because ..." (Grade 7)

Technology

Students can also word process notes and use drawing functions and other types of graphics on programs like Word, such as charts, graphs, tables, and so on. Older and more advanced students could keep an online science notebook and create a blog so other students in the class could comment on and compare their findings. In addition to using nonfiction literature to supplement observations and inquiries in a science notebook, students can do online research.

Find out more about science notebooks.

Grade-level modifications

K-2nd Grade

Introduce science notebooks on the weather by reading the fictional story Cloudy With a Chance of Meatballs (Barrett, 1978). This is a humorous story of a town where the weather comes at breakfast, lunch, and dinner in the form of food. It was recently made into a major motion picture. Discuss the book with reader response questions and prompts:

What did you think of the weather in the book?

What kind of weather can you imagine?

Other good read aloud books for pre-K or K are Like a Windy Day (Asch & Asch, 2008), When the Wind Stops (Zolotow, 1997), and The Storm Book (Zolotow, 1989); for K through 2 in general is Oh Say Can You Say What's the Weather Today? All About the Weather (Cat in the Hat) (Rabe, 2004).

After modeling the use of science notebooks with students, plan daily observations of the weather. Students can note the date, time, and weather conditions, including measurements of the temperature using a thermometer, rainfall using a rain gauge, and wind using an anemometer. For younger students, record students' spoken observations on a large wall chart or calendar. Students can also make their own observations, records, and reflections in an individual notebook. Students can add drawings, charts, graphs, comments, predictions, and questions in these science notebooks.

Bring students together to discuss what they observed and recorded in their notebooks, ask questions, pose problems, and continue with further inquiry about weather. With each change in the weather, read a nonfiction book about it, discuss it with students, do activities, and students can add to their notebooks. Make a list of weather words on a poster in the room and also give each student a list of the words to keep in their notebook. Students can add drawings and definitions and create a glossary for the notebook. A good introduction to weather words is the book Weather Words and What They Mean (Gibbons, 1992).

Recommended children's books

3rd Grade-5th Grade

Introduce keeping a science notebook by reading aloud the journals of famous scientists, such as Galileo's Journal, 1609-1610 (Pettenati, 2006) and My Season With Penguins: An Antarctic Journal (Webb, 2000). Next, introduce keeping a science notebook on the behavior of mealworms by reading aloud the novel The Mealworm Diaries (Kerz, 2009), which is about two students working on a science project together and the personal problems they encounter while doing so. Lead a discussion about these books using reader response questions and prompts:

As a scientist, what would you want to write about in your notebook?

What are some things you have wondered about worms?

After modeling the use of a science notebook, provide mealworms for students to observe. Mealworms can be obtained from pet stores and biological supply houses. They can be kept in containers with a layer of bran and observed. Students can work in pairs to ask questions about mealworm behavior, pose hypotheses, collect and record data, make predictions, comment, and write reflections. Nonfiction books on mealworms can be used to supplement their observations of a living organism.

Recommended children's books

English language learners

English language learners can use visuals such as drawings, tables, graphs, charts, or models instead of language to make their ideas concrete and to demonstrate their understandings in a nonlinguistic way. Science notebooks also rely on the use of the five senses, tapping into prior knowledge - also excellent strategies for English language learners. Group discussions of science notebooks also provide teacher to student or student to student interaction, including the use of primary language support.

Books in students' primary language related to the topic of the science notebook canalso be used.

Recommended children's books

Struggling students

Writing frames for science notebook entries modeled by the teacher and co-created with students provide excellent scaffolding for struggling students or students with disabilities. The use of visual entries such as drawings, charts, graphs, diagrams, models,and so on also allow students to make entries even if they are struggling with writing.

Take dictation related to these drawings, and so forth, for students to model the writing down of their observations and ideas. A list of the science vocabulary needed for the notebooks can be posted in the room and each student provided with a copy, and materials used for the science notebooks can be labeled so that students can copy the words into their notebooks when needed.

Writing frames for science notebook entries can be posted in the room or on a copy for each student:

"I observed ..."

"I (saw, smelled, felt, heard) ..."

"My (experiment, investigation) was ..."

"I found that ..."

"I think this because ..."

Assessment

Student science notebooks can be assessed, at a minimum, for organization and completeness according to the following rubric:

Table of contents

All parts included
Page numbers indicated

Organization

Titles of activity or section
All dates and times
All pages numbered

Written entries and reflections

Appropriately titled
Includes main ideas
Provides necessary details
Shows understanding

Illustrations: drawings, graphs,
charts, tables, diagrams, etc.

Titled and labeled
Supports ideas

With younger students, science notebooks can be an excellent tool to assess student performance, understanding, and needs in a conference. Peer-conferences and peer-assessment using the rubric can be used in Grades 3 through 8, along with periodic conferences where questions can be asked and answered and a dialogue can be shared about the contents of the science notebook.

Resources

Campbell, B., & Fulton, L. (2003). Science notebooks: Writing about inquiry. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

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literature-based teaching in the content areas

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Keeping a science notebook encourages students to record and reflect on inquiry-based observations, activities, investigations, and experiments. Science notebooks are also an excellent way for students to communicate their understanding of science concepts, and for teachers to provide students with feedback.

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Handwriting: What's Normal, What's Not | Reading Rockets

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Learn some of the milestones to look for as your child's handwriting skills begin to develop, as well as some of the signs and symptoms of dysgraphia; a learning disability that affects a child's handwriting and ability to hold a pen, pencil, or crayon.

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It provides a framework for writing strong paragraphs

The frame guides students by providing the transitional phrases for sentences

It can incorporate various sentence types: long and short, simple and complex.

How to use framed paragraphs

1. Discuss how to write a framed paragraph by using:

A topic sentence - a general statement or opinion

Three to five examples that develop the topic or opinion

Transitions when needed

A summary sentence at the end

2. Provide students with a blank frame.

3. Ask students fill in the missing portions of the frame to write a complete paragraph.

4. Encourage students to incorporate a variety of sentences: long and short, simple and complex.

Download blank template

There are many ways to create a frame for a paragraph. This simple template helps children summarize what they learned from their reading.

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Framed Paragraphs | Classroom Strategy | Reading Rockets

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Framed paragraphs are pre-writing tools that help students write well-developed paragraphs. They are skeleton formats containing information about the main ideas and transition words that guide the organization and the development of supportive details. Framed paragraphs offer a structure for students to use as they begin to write paragraphs and essays.

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Writing is a form of expressive communication.  Students should learn to communicate with this method effectively and clearly by planning out their writing and following established spelling and grammar rules. Students can also communicate more effectively by planning and outlining before writing.

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There is writing to be done in science, beginning in the elementary grades, but building toward higher level science classes, which include lab reports.  Lab reports must be detailed and clear, and include text evidence.  Because some scientific ideas may be considered to still be theories, science literacy can also involve defending and debating scientific ideas.

Literacy in the disciplines p. 25

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Writing is something all students have to do in school. Teachers can do a lot to help make writing accessible to all students. Teachers can post vocabulary on word walls, provide students with sentence starters, and use graphic organizers like the hamburger organizer to make writing more accessible to all students.