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The Family Resource Center for Disabilities and Special Needs, Inc. is a not for profit organization located in Charleston, South Carolina, providing information services throughout the Lowcountry.

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The Family Resource Center promotes opportunities for learning, inclusion, and empowerment for individuals with disabilities and special needs, their families, and the community through education, advocacy, and outreach..

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The Parent Manual

Check out the array of resources we've compiled along with our Parent's Manual for Special Education Services. We think you will find these resources useful, relevant, and of high quality.

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I.D.E.A. Turns 45 Years Old

Congress enacted the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (Public Law 94-142) (EHA), in 1975, to support states and localities in protecting the rights of, meeting the individual needs of, and improving the results for infants, toddlers, children, and youth with disabilities and their families. This landmark law, whose 45th Anniversary we celebrate this year, is currently enacted as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), as amended in 2004.
See the timeline for I.D.E.A. over the past 4 decades.

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The Family Resource Center was organized to promote opportunities for learning, inclusion, and empowerment for individuals with disabilities and special needs, their families, and their communities through such means as education, advocacy, and outreach.

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About Family Resource Center

The Family Resource Center for Disabilities and Special Needs, Inc. (FRC) is a not for profit, 501(c) organization located in Charleston, South Carolina. The FRC provides information services throughout the Lowcountry and was organized to promote opportunities for learning, inclusion, and empowerment for individuals with disabilities and special needs, their families, and their communities through such means as education, advocacy, and outreach. The majority of seats on the Board of Directors is held by parents of children with disabilities under the age of 26. Donations to the Center are tax deductible according to federal guidelines. The Board invites inquiries regarding the activities of The Family Resource Center and welcomes support from the tri-county area to accomplish our mission.

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Home | Family Resource Center for Disabilities and Special Needs

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We transform great ideas into amazing digital products. See our work

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Kimberlé Crenshaw on Intersectionality, More than Two Decades Later

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Kimberlé Crenshaw on Intersectionality, More than Two Decades Later

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Kimberlé Crenshaw on Intersectionality, More than Two Decades Later

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Professor Crenshaw coined the term and co-founded the African American Policy Forum. Before AAPF’s 20th anniversary, Crenshaw reflects on where intersectionality is heading.

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Welcome! Use the buttons below to take you to the training modules. The Behavior Specialist Training includes all 7 modules and is for those who will be the leading behavior support efforts in the school. The School-wide Training consists of two modules for all staff in the school.

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Algozzine, B., Barrett, S., Eber, L., George, H., Horner, R., Lewis, T., Putnam, B., Swain-Bradway, J., McIntosh, K., & Sugai, G (2014). School-wide PBIS Tiered Fidelity Inventory. OSEP Technical Assistance Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports. www.pbis.org.

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Center on PBIS | Resource: PBIS Tiered Fidelity Inventory (TFI)

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PDF: The purpose of the SWPBIS Tiered Fidelity Inventory (TFI) is to provide a valid, reliable, and efficient measure of the extent to which school personnel are applying the core features of school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports (SWPBIS).

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Writing Behavior SMART Goals for the School-wide Positive Behavior Plan (SPBP)

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Writing Behavior SMART Goals for the School-wide Positive Behavior Plan (SPBP)

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How Can I Write SMART Goals for Behavior Problems?

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How Can I Write SMART Goals for Behavior Problems?

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Applied Behavior Analysis Programs Guide

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How Can I Write SMART Goals for Behavior Problems?

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When addressing problem behavior in the classroom or crafting a student’s IEP, one of the most challenging tasks involves creating meaningful and measurable goals. Special education professionals, teachers, and therapists must take what they know about a student and craft tools and strategies that result in the best outcomes for the learner. One approach to […]

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There are three ways to approach the Implicit Bias Module Series:

To obtain certification required by your Institution or Agency: Complete the 4 training modules and then go to Module 5, to test your knowledge and receive the certification via email.

Individual Module Verification: Select this option if your workplace/agency asks you to take individual or specific module(s) of this series. Go to that module, complete it and take the quiz via link provided at the end of each module. An email will be sent to verify completion of the individual module.

Anonymous Training: If you do not need any certificate or verification for going through the modules, you may still use the same quiz links provided after each quiz. No identifying information will be asked, and no email will be generated verifying the outcome.

Welcome

Welcome to the Kirwan Institute for the Study of Race & Ethnicity's Implicit Bias Module Series. At the Kirwan Institute at The Ohio State University, we are committed to the creation of a just and inclusive society, where all people and communities have the opportunity to succeed. Our commitment to this mission is why we work so hard to understand and overcome barriers that prevent access to opportunity in our society, such as implicit bias and racial disparities in our education system.

This course will introduce you to insights about how our minds operate and help you understand the origins of implicit associations. You will also uncover some of your own biases and learn strategies for addressing them. Each module is divided into a short series of lessons, many taking less than 10 minutes to complete. That way, even if you're pressed for time, you can complete the lessons and modules at your convenience.

We are excited that you are starting this process to explore implicit bias and what its operation means for your decisions and actions. Thank you for joining us!

About Us

The Kirwan Institute for the Study of Race and Ethnicity is an interdisciplinary engaged research institute at The Ohio State University established in May 2003. As a racial equity research institute, our goal is to connect individuals and communities with opportunities needed for thriving by educating the public, building the capacity of allied social justice organizations, and investing in efforts that support racial equity and inclusion. Here at the Kirwan Institute, we do this through research, engagement, and communication.

The Race and Cognition team at the Kirwan Institute would like to give thanks to all of those involved in the process of creating and launching the Online Implicit Bias training. Countless hours have been dedicated to the creation of the modules and we do not take that for granted. There are several people we would like to show an additional level of gratitude to:

Frequently Asked Questions
Why focus on implicit rather than explicit bias?
Although our modules focus primarily on implicit bias, Kirwan acknowledges that inclusion and equity efforts must also address explicit bias and discrimination in order to create real change. Our explicit and implicit attitudes are related constructs, and many times peoples' implicit and explicit attitudes are in alignment.

However, even though concepts are related, they are distinct. Someone can act in a biased manner based on their implicit associations, even if they do not indicate an explicit preference for certain individuals or groups. Learning about implicit bias provides a lens to help examine the causes of racial, gender, or other social disparities, even in the absence of explicit intent to discriminate or cause harm.
How long will it take me to complete these modules?
While everyone works at a different pace, these modules should take participants roughly 45 minutes to 1.5 hours to complete, depending on the time spent on activities and supplemental exercises.
Can I embed these training videos into my website?
The Kirwan Institute carefully tracks and uses data collected from this module series. While the embedding of these videos is restricted by the Kirwan Institute, we do allow organizations to iFrame this module series. The code to accomplish this is:

<iframe src="https://kirwaninstitute.osu.edu/implicit-bias-training" height="1000" width="1400" title="Implicit Bias Training"></iframe>
Are these modules supported by research?
Yes. The methods and research shared in these modules is supported by our annual flagship publication, the State of the Science Implicit Bias Review. Each year, Kirwan researchers compile studies on the subject of implicit bias into an interdisciplinary literature review in a format that is accessible and easy to understand from a wide range of academic and professional backgrounds.
Does implicit bias reflect my beliefs about equity or inclusion?
We will get more into this during Module 1, but our implicit preferences do not necessarily align with our explicit beliefs. For example, one can believe in equality of all people and still hold a pro-self-identity bias. Importantly, some people possess implicit attitudes that do not align with their own held identities.
If I didn't intend to be biased in the first place, how will learning about implicit bias help?
Becoming aware of what biases you possess and the decisions that are most likely to be influenced by our unconscious processing can help you build interventions and strategies to prevent the expression of bias and unwanted outcomes. Our training also includes information about empirically based interventions to both reduce the expression of bias and alter the associations we possess.
What is the connection between implicit bias and how people act?
Implicit bias has been shown to impact decision-making across a wide array of sectors, including employment, medicine, and education. However, there are limitations to the extent to which unconscious biases can predict individual behavior. People with an implicit preference for one identity may not act on this bias or make biased decisions, much of this depends on the circumstance.
Does this training apply to me if I don't have implicit bias?
We will touch on this during the modules, but because biases can be activated across a wide-range of identities, we all hold some implicit preferences. However, even people without an implicit preference can still act in ways that produce discriminatory behavior, such as not speaking up when they see bias in their environment. This need to translate knowledge into action is why Kirwan also emphasizes the importance of being an Active Bystander.
Will these modules eliminate bias?
These modules are not designed to eliminate bias. Rather, we hope that an awareness of implicit bias and how it operates will help participants engage in more equitable decision-making practices and behaviors. These strategies to reduce the expression of bias are only one piece of the puzzle and should be complemented by policies and strategies to address institutional and explicit discrimination.
I'm not a K-12 educator, are these modules for me?
This module series includes examples and activities that are uniquely tailored to the experience of those who work in a K-12 education setting or closely-related field. However, much of the content in Modules 1, 3, and 4 are generalizable enough to apply to most audiences.

Module 1: Introduction

In this first module, you will be introduced to the basics of implicit bias:

What is meant by "implicit" or "unconscious" associations or biases?

How are implicit biases different from explicit biases?

What does it look and/or feel like when implicit associations operate?

How do our biases form?

Why does all of this matter?

You are encouraged to complete each lesson in order and at your pace. Each lesson is followed by a quick check-in question that will help us gauge your understanding thus far.

We hope you enjoy this first module!

Module 1: Recap

Implicit bias operates outside of our conscious awareness.

Implicit bias is unconscious, automatic, and relies on associations that we form over time.

We can form bias toward groups of people based on what we see in the media, our background, and experiences.

Our biases reflect how we internalize messages about our society rather than our intent. Nevertheless, we can still act on our biases in ways that can harm others.

Module 2: Recap

Implicit bias can turn even our best intentions into unwanted outcomes.

Teacher's implicit biases can impact their perceptions of the quality of students' work and the teaching strategies they choose to implement.

Implicit biases can impact perceptions of students behavior and is a contributor to racial differences in school discipline outcomes-particularly between Black and White students.

Institutional and historic patterns of inequity within the education system contribute to the manifestation of implicit bias in schools. A targeted approach to address the negative effects of implicit bias must also include strategies to address these systemic issues.

Take the IAT!

You can find out your own biases by taking an implicit association test at: https://implicit.harvard.edu/

All tests are free and take roughly 5 minutes

Try taking 2-3 tests and reflect on your results

Module 3: Recap

There are two main ways in which we measure implicit bias. We can understand our biases through examinations of our behavior and by looking at how our brain is activated through the use of imaging technology.

One of the most utilized behavioral assessments of implicit bias is the Implicit Association Test (IAT), which measures if there are positive or negative attitudes toward a particular concept or social group.

You can better understand your own biases by taking the IAT, available at https://implicit.harvard.edu/

It is important to reflect on your results. Consider how your background and personal experiences may have impacted your results.

Our Brains are Malleable

In this process of understanding what implicit bias is and getting to learn about our own biases, it is normal to start to feel like they are too deeply ingrained in our thoughts and actions to be able to combat their effects. However, as more research comes to light, we are able to find more and more ways to either lessen the effects of bias, or change the biases themselves. Although the latter is certainly a larger undertaking, it is very possible to do so. In the same way that our implicit biases were learned over time, we can disrupt this process with intention, attention and time.

This is because the neural connections between our associations get stronger as we take in more information that confirms our stereotypes or biases. By paying better attention to what we are exposed to and making the intentional choice to seek out experiences that go against our biases, we are able to disrupt this automatic chain of events, and those physical connection in our mind can be weakened. Two interventions we will be talking about later-mindfulness and intergroup contact, have shown the ability to not only stop the manifestation of these biases, but alter the implicit biases we possess.

Module 4: Recap

There are long term strategies and changes that we can engage in to reduce our unwanted biases, such as mindfulness and intergroup contact.

One of the best ways to prevent and intervene against bias, is by knowing when you are more susceptible to acting on it, such as moments of high ambiguity, subjectivity, or stress.

Knowledge about the operation of implicit bias can help inform the individual and institutional approaches you take to address inequitable outcomes in your classroom or school.

Learning about implicit bias provides a lens to help examine causes of racial, gender, or other social disparities, even in the absence of explicit intent to discriminate.

How long will it take me to complete this certificate process?
While everyone works at a different pace, this test should take individuals roughly 20-40 minutes to finish, depending on the time spent on the open-ended reflection questions.
How does this certificate process work?
There are roughly 30 questions in the test, including 16 graded questions, a number of open-ended reflection questions, and some demographic questions. Individuals will need to earn a minimum of 14 points out of 16 to get a certificate to verify actual completion of the Implicit Bias training modules. Participants will be asked to enter their name, email address at the beginning of the test. For those who pass the test, an email containing information verifying their completion of the Implicit Bias training modules will be sent automatically to the email address they entered.
What if I do not pass the test at 80%?
This certification process requires a minimum of 14 points out of 16 to pass. Individuals who score less than 14 points will need to retake the test if they would like to get a certificate of their actual completion of the Implicit Bias training modules. For those who do not wish to retake the test, we also offer to send an email to verify that they have at least gone through the training. All individuals will be able to indicate their choice once the score is displayed.
How many times can I take the test?
Individuals may take the test as many times as they would like. However, retaking the test too quickly without any review will be flagged in our completion report as it is indicative of false learning through simple repetition. It is recommended that individuals allow at least 30 minutes before restarting the test and take time to refresh their knowledge on implicit bias by going through the modules again.
Why can't I find the email verification of completion?
Emails sent from Kirwan Institute through Qualtrics systems can sometimes end up in your spam folder or "Other" category in your inbox, please check these locations if you are having trouble locating the email of verification for the Implicit Bias training. If you are sure that you have completed the test and earned at least 14 points but still having trouble locating the verification email, please send your name to us at kirwan-admin@osu.edu. We will try to locate your score and other information in our completion report and get back to you as soon as possible.

Additional Resources

Downloads

State of the Science Implicit Bias Review

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There are three ways to approach the Implicit Bias Module Series: To obtain certification required by your Institution or Agency: Complete the 4 training modules and then go to Module 5, to test your knowledge and receive the certification via email.

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The International Institute for Restorative Practices

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The International Institute for Restorative Practices

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We believe that human beings are instilled with the need to connect and grow with each other, but not the methods. Here at the International Institute for Restorative Practices (IIRP), we provide our students with the tools they need to effect change within their own lives as well as their schools, their organizations, and their communities. Through intimate learning communities of faculty and students, we teach together, we learn together, and we strive to effect real change. Together.

Restorative practices is a field within the social sciences that studies how to strengthen relationships between individuals as well as social connections within communities. Learn more

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IIRP Graduate School :: Institute for Restorative Practices

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The International Institute for Restorative Practices is the world's first accredited graduate school that specializes in studying the field of restorative practices, providing education, research, and consulting services.

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Behavior Interview and Reinforcement Survey

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Behavior Interview and Reinforcement Survey

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Student Behavior Interview and Reinforcement Survey

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Developing the Cultural Awareness Skills of Behavior Analysts

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Developing the Cultural Awareness Skills of Behavior Analysts

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Abstract

All individuals are a part of at least one culture. These cultural contingencies shape behavior, behavior that may or may not be acceptable or familiar to behavior analysts from another culture. To better serve individuals, assessments and interventions should be selected with a consideration of cultural factors, including cultural preferences and norms. The purpose of this paper is to provide suggestions to serve as a starting point for developing behavior analysts' cultural awareness skills. We present strategies for understanding behavior analysts' personal cultural values and contingencies and those of their clients, integrating cultural awareness practices into service delivery, supervision, and professional development, and becoming culturally aware in everyday practice.

Keywords: Culture, Cultural awareness, Applied behavior analysis, Diversity

Skinner ( 1953) defined culture as variables "arranged by other people" (p. 419). That is, humans control contingencies of reinforcement and punishment that affect the behavior and learned reinforcers and punishers of a person or a group of people. Culture may be further defined as "the extent to which a group of individuals engage in overt and verbal behavior reflecting shared behavioral learning histories, serving to differentiate the group from other groups, and predicting how individuals within the group act in specific setting conditions" (Sugai et al. 2012, p. 200). Distinguishable stimuli and response classes that occur in cultures include race, socioeconomic class, age, religion, sexual orientation, ethnicity, disability, nationality, and geographic context (Sugai et al. 2012). An individual's unique set of distinguishable stimuli and response classes are collectively referred to as an individual's cultural identity. One benefit of determining cultural identity is it can allow behavior analysts to develop an awareness of a client's personal cultural values, preferences (i.e., learned reinforcers), characteristics, and circumstances (contingencies at the third level of selection; Skinner 1981). There are possible benefits for society, too, such as to better guide assessment and intervention practices. By acknowledging the importance of culture, behavior analysts can help achieve socially meaningful goals such as reducing disparities in access to services and improving the quality of services for diverse populations in behavioral health systems (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 2001).

Culturally aware behavior analysts should understand their own cultural values, preferences, characteristics, and circumstances and seek to learn about those of their clients. That is, behavior analysts should be aware about their own personal biases and how they compare to and may affect their relationship with their client. This awareness of both self and clients may be important because, as Spring ( 2007) suggests, evidence-based services require a combination of clinical expertise and knowledge of the client's preferences and learning histories. Behaviorally, cultural awareness may be defined as the discriminated operant of tacting contingencies of reinforcement and punishment administered by a group of individuals. In other words, a behavior analyst who is culturally aware is able to identify the reinforcement and punishment contingencies that have been established by themselves, their colleagues, their family, and any other social group they may belong to or identify with. Behavior analysts' ability to tact contingencies for self and others may facilitate development of a behavior change program that is informed by their clients' specific cultural contingencies.

Further, cultural awareness may be important because behavioral patterns that are viewed as problematic in our own culture may be the norm in other cultures (Goldiamond 2002; Vandenberghe 2008). Consider the following example of a child who was referred for a functional assessment for "withdrawn" behavior. The behavior analyst and a special education observed the student became "withdrawn" after receiving verbal praise. In fact, the student ultimately stopped engaging in any appropriate behavior which lead to the verbal praise. While collaborating with the family to gather data during the functional assessment, they determined that the student's "withdrawn" behavior occurred because of child's lack of comfort with receiving individual attention. In the child's culture, the whole (i.e., community) comes before the individual. However, neither the behavior analyst nor the special education teacher questioned their personal assumption that the behavior is inappropriate for the classroom or their preferences about how children should act after receiving praise. Because the student's withdrawn behavior is maintained by a lack of attention, the behavior analyst and special education teacher suggest administering praise privately. In this case, their lack of understanding about how the cultural contingencies support the client's "inappropriate behavior" may have resulted in a treatment recommendation that was incongruent with cultural values. However, a culturally aware intervention, which seeks understanding of client values, characteristics, preferences, and circumstances would honor the client's culture and allow the client to successful in a given environment.

A thorough behavior analytic intervention may be effective with individuals across various cultures (Kauffman et al. 2008; Tanaka-Matsumi et al. 1996). However, skilled, thorough, and well-trained behavior analysts may not always consider client culture. When assessing an individual's or a group's behavior, behavior analysts often collect data about motivating operations, antecedents, behaviors, and consequences. However, common functional assessment data collection strategies and interview forms may not thoroughly explore cultural preferences and norms. Behavior analysts may consider the intersection of a cultural and linguistic context with the terms, concepts, and science of behavior analysis (Jones and Hoerger 2009). It is possible that, without information about cultural preferences and norms, behavior analysts may unintentionally provide less than optimal service delivery.

Consider an example of a behavior analyst who provided in-home and community services to the family of a child with severe autism. The family, to whom church is very important, attended a weekly three hour church service. The behavior analyst, who did not attend church and was not a religious person, failed to inquire in detail about the family's and child's experience at church. Eventually, the family specifically asked the behavior analyst to teach the child the necessary skills to participate in the church service. However, the behavior analyst still did not assign a high priority to teaching the child the skills needed for successful church attendance. The behavior analyst's choices demonstrated a lack of understanding of the client's values, characteristics, preferences, and circumstances. In contrast, a culturally aware behavior analyst may be aware that "the selection of target behaviors is an expression of values" (Kauffman et al. 2008, p. 254) and that parental expectations of children are likely controlled by cultural contingencies (Akcinar and Baydar 2014).

In addition to the previous two examples, being culturally aware may also increase the probability that behavior analysts will engage in behaviors that are socially acceptable to people from diverse cultural backgrounds. These behaviors include selecting culturally appropriate treatments (see Rispoli et al. 2011), recognizing that "parenting styles that are culture specific could lead to distinct behavioral consequences for a child" (Akcinar and Baydar 2014, p. 119), and implementing culturally appropriate language acquisition programs (see Brodhead et al. 2014). Cultural awareness could also ensure that behavior analysts treat service delivery as "always a two- way street" (Bolling 2002), meaning that the relationship between the behavior analyst and the stakeholders should include input about what cultural contingencies and values may contribute to an effective relationship and intervention.

Finally, increasing cultural awareness may also decrease the probability of behavior analysts expecting the clients they serve to conform to their own cultural and scientific values and contingencies. The science of applied behavior analysis (ABA) is a unique cultural system (see Glenn 1993). Given that the science of ABA inherently embodies a certain set of values such as a Westernized model of science and health care, the cultural values and contingencies of ABA may not always align with those of the client. As Bolling ( 2002) noted,

It is difficult for people in the US cultural mainstream, including researchers, to believe that there are any assumptions other than their own about how the world works, what a 'person' is, how we function, how time works, what feelings are, how to use language, what the goal of life is, how people interrelate, [and] how and where it is appropriate to show feelings or to seek help. (p. 22)

Awareness of cultural differences and similarities may allow for programmatic modifications that result in more culturally appropriate models of behavior analytic service delivery.

In summary, there may be many important reasons for behavior analysts to develop cultural awareness skills.

Although there is a growing interest in conceptual (e.g., Brodhead et al. 2014; Fong and Tanaka 2013) and applied strategies for administering behavioral interventions for clients from diverse cultural backgrounds (e.g., Padilla Dalamau et al. 2011; Rispoli et al. 2011; Washio and Houmanfar 2007), there is little guidance concerning how practicing behavior analysts can become culturally aware or further develop that awareness. Therefore, guidance on how to become culturally aware may be an important resource for behavior analysts.

The purpose of this paper is to offer suggestions that can serve as a starting point for how behavior analysts may further increase their cultural awareness. We believe that cultural awareness, as described herein, reflect Baer et al. ( 1968) statement that the "behavior, stimuli and/or organism under study are chosen because of their importance to man and society" (p. 92). Individuals participating in behavior change programs and those who provide significant support for them should determine what is important to them, to their society, and to their culture. In this paper, we discuss strategies for understanding a client's cultural values and contingencies, as well as those of the behavior analyst. Then, we describe strategies for embedding cultural awareness practices into behavior analytic service delivery, supervision, and professional development. Finally, we conclude with additional discussion and considerations for becoming culturally aware in everyday practice.

Strategies for Developing Cultural Awareness

The following two sections describe how behavior analysts can become more aware of personal cultural values and contingencies and how they can develop skills to learn about their clients' cultural identities. We will refer to cultural values and contingencies as the cultural system, except where values or contingencies play an independent role in our analysis of developing cultural awareness. We will refer to cultural identity as characteristics that extend beyond individual differences to those traits that members of a given culture share with one another (Adler 1998). For example, an individual from Africa may express their cultural identity through their belief structure, attire, foods eaten, or hair style. Even though this individual might identify as African, there are subcultures to which they might further identify with. Our suggestions are meant to serve as a starting point for furthering a behavior analytic understanding of cultural awareness and how that awareness can be integrated and improved upon in everyday practice. It is recommended that behavior analysts concurrently engage in cultural awareness practices concerning their own behavior as well as those of their clients. It is important to be aware of one's own biases or preconceived notions as a behavior analyst, as well acknowledging limitations in one's cultural knowledge. Lastly, our suggestions are not intended to result in a rigid set of rules or practices. Rather, our hope is the suggestions will lead to broad practices that develop and continually refine cultural awareness, which will hopefully allow behavior analysts to be more open and flexible to the various cultures that will be experienced. Openness and flexibility in the presence of various cultures will hopefully result in better outcomes for those we serve.

Developing Cultural Awareness of Self

From a behavior analytic perspective, self-awareness can be defined as verbal discrimination of our own behavior (Barnes-Holmes et al. 2001). Sugai et al. ( 2012) describe culture as common behaviors related by comparable learning histories, social and environmental contingencies, contexts and stimuli, so self-awareness might also include verbal discrimination of these aspects of personal experience. An understanding of our own cultural system may be an important first step toward correcting biases that affect our interactions with others (Lillis and Hayes 2007). The American Psychological Association's (APA) ( 2003) multicultural guidelines encourage clinicians to "recognize that, as cultural beings, they may hold attitudes and beliefs that can detrimentally influence their perceptions of and interactions with individuals who are ethnically and racially different from themselves" (p. 382). Developing self-awareness may prevent our biases from impeding how we serve culturally diverse clients.

One strategy to enhance cultural self-awareness is talking about our diverse client interactions with a professional community in group discussions, written forums, journals, mentorship meetings, verbal feedback sessions, or self-reflective exercises (Tervalon and Murray-Garcia 1998). Skinner ( 1974) emphasized the relationship between self-awareness and control over our own behavior,and proposed that talking about our behavior is how we achieve self-awareness. Recent behavior analytic research indicates that when individuals verbally describe their own behavior, the behavior may change (Tourinho 2006). Discussion with mentors and colleagues may help behavior analysts learn about themselves and also change their cross-cultural interactions for the better.

Another suggestion is to be "mindful" by attending fully and alertly, in the moment, to client interactions and our own private events, without judging or evaluating the events as they occur (Bishop et al. 2004; Hayes and Plumb 2007; Vandenberghe 2008). We recommend practitioners hone their ability to attend closely to clients and self, in context, for two reasons related to self-awareness. First, such attention may help enhance skills of self-observation and self-description regarding our overt and covert behavior. Also, while we can remain committed to overtly behaving in ways consistent with values of multiculturalism, even in the presence of values and contingencies that create bias, mindfulness may reduce the biases that produce thoughts, feelings, and reactions to culturally diverse people (Lillis and Hayes 2007). Attending closely to our clients and being active and alert is good practice for building rapport, too.

Clinicians can engage in more culturally aware practice by assessing, collecting data, and testing hypotheses rather than accepting their own experiences and biases as the norm (Sue 1998). Scientific mindedness is a characteristic of clinicians and human service providers who develop theories about client behaviors by analyzing data rather than by dependence on their personal assumptions (Sue 1998), and may reduce bias and foster better understanding of client behavior. A reliance on scientific, behavior analytic knowledge when working with clients is also required by the Professional and Ethical Compliance Code for Behavior Analysts (BACB 2015).

While mindful attention focuses on the interaction between the behavior analyst and the client/family, scientific mindedness is a focus on interpreting information from the client and family; both characteristics facilitate culturally aware practice. For example, a behavior analyst consults to a family of a child with a sleep disorder, and learns that the mother sleeps in her five-year-old child's bed while the father sleeps in a larger room, alone. The practitioner may notice, and be able to covertly tact, that this is not the norm of the cultural majority nor congruent with his personal experience or values. The analyst may assume that the mother should not sleep in the child's bed or notice thoughts of judgment he feels. Lillis and Hayes ( 2007) recommend practitioners accept that such reactions may be normal, given our cultural systems and the human tendency to evaluate, but remain committed to acting positively based on our values. Through a process of assessment and covert verbal behavior, the practitioner might accept the co-sleeping arrangement to be culturally appropriate for and preferred by the family, and choose to develop an intervention that keeps the arrangement in place. A blend of both self-awareness and reliance on scientific knowledge is likely to produce the most culturally aware assessment and intervention.

Finally, there are several self-assessment tools that behavior analysts can use to become more aware of their own cultural identity. We recommend the use of assessment tools for measuring and reflecting on the clinician's own cultural biases, values, and understanding. One assessment tool, the "Diversity Self-Assessment," that can be utilized during the intake process allows team members to examine their understanding of diversity (Montgomery 2001); this tool asks users to reflect on their own assumptions and biases by answering 11 questions. Another assessment tool that may be useful is the self-test questionnaire entitled "How Do You Relate to Various Groups of People in Society?" (Randall-David 1989). This questionnaire asks respondents how they might respond to individuals of various cultural backgrounds-by greeting, by accepting, by obtaining help from, by having background knowledge about, and/or by advocating for the individuals. The 30 types of individuals in these questions are then organized into five categories: ethnic/racial, social issues/problems, religious, physically/mentally handicapped, and political, and a concentration of checks within a specific category of individuals or at specific levels of response may then indicate a conflict that could prevent the respondent from providing effective treatment. Behavior analysts can then consider how their biases might affect treatment and may consider other courses of action, such as making referrals to other behavior analysts. A final potentially useful measure is the Multicultural Sensitivity Scale (Jibaja et al. 2000), a 21-item self-assessment tool developed as a valid and reliable way to measure multicultural sensitivity. This tool was originally used to assess the multicultural sensitivity of teachers and was later adapted to be used by physician assistant students (Jibaja-Rusth et al. 1994). Altogether, the behavior analyst may find these assessments helpful in further developing their own cultural awareness in order to further develop culturally competent methods of service delivery.

Developing Cultural Awareness of Clients

The above section describes strategies for how a behavior analyst may learn about his or her own cultural system. Below, we describe how behavior analysts may learn more about their client's cultural system through assessment practices. Culturally aware assessment practices may allow behavior analysts to obtain important cultural information about clients in order to understand their worldviews. Culturally aware assessment may also allow behavior analysts to identify any potential cultural barriers such as modalities of communication and expression of emotions (see Garcia et al. 2003).

To increase the probability that assessment will identify cultural variables, Vandenberghe ( 2008) recommends focusing on functional relations and behavioral principles rather than topography. For example, Filipino families often live with extended family members, and the household situation can seem chaotic by Western living standards. If a child has difficulty sleeping, a behavior analyst may advise the parents that they should separate the sleeping room from the living room. People of Filipino descent may be shy about responding to someone in a position of authority, so they may say "yes" to the behavior analyst. However, during the following session, it might be revealed that the parents did not change anything and that the child is still sleep deprived. In this case, a natural reaction may be to become frustrated with the lack of parental follow through. However, lack of follow through may also be interpreted as an indicator that the intervention recommendation may not have been culturally appropriate.

Vandenberghe's ( 2008) description of functional analytic psychotherapy may also be a useful resource for determining how to provide culturally aware behavior analytic practices. Vandenberghe ( 2008) emphasizes the need for a behavior analyst to be aware of differences that may exist, including cultural differences, between the behavior analyst, client, and their families. Specifically, behavior analysts should be knowledgeable about the client's culture, differentiate between an unfamiliar cultural norm and a pathology, and take culture into consideration during the therapeutic process. Finally, Hymes ( 1962) noted that communicative competence is related to an individual's awareness of the laws of language structure and language use within a given culture. Therefore, behavior analysts should be skilled in sending and receiving cultural communications. Specific recommendations are described below.

Recommendations

Consider the Language of Assessment

Our first recommendation, which applies to all phases of assessment and treatment, is that behavior analysts should reflect on the spoken and written language he or she uses and how it will be perceived by the client. We recommend behavior analysts avoid the use of behavior analytic jargon, as it may confuse clients and their families, and possibly lead to their failure to implement interventions. This recommendation is consistent with the Professional and Ethical Compliance Code for Behavior Analysts (2015). For example when the phrase "functional analysis" is used, Japanese families assume that it is mathematical jargon rather than a reference to a behavior analytic assessment process. Avoidance of excessive or complex behavior analytic jargon may eliminate such problems.

It is important throughout assessment and treatment to communicate in a manner easily understood, culturally aware, and does not include terms that are culturally inappropriate or confusing (Rolider and Axelrod 2005). Furthermore, it may be important to consider who will be completing service related forms (e.g., intake paperwork) and whether the level of literacy and comprehension of the language used in the forms are similar. If a person lacks adequate language comprehension, completing paperwork may be difficult, embarrassing, or intimidating. In such a case, behavior analysts may consider giving the person the opportunity to complete the forms orally or have another person help with the form completion. They may also consider using an interpreter or providing forms in the person's native language. Additionally, we agree with Vandenberghe's ( 2008) recommendation that the language used to define problem behaviors should be carefully examined to ensure the behaviors are communicated in a positive manner using multiple forms of communication that are sensitive to potential cultural differences in eye contact, wait time, meanings of words, non-vocal body language, personal space, and quality of voice.

Understand Cultural Identity

Our second recommendation is to consider that the client, and the client's family and community, are important sources for acquiring an understanding the cultural identity of the individual. Therefore, we recommend conducting an analysis of cultural identity with stakeholders immediately after service initiation with the client and/or family. The cultural identity analysis should inform the assessment process and the designing of interventions. During intake, the behavior analyst may, with proper consent, gather input from key community members familiar with the client, in addition to those whose feedback is typically sought (e.g., teachers, professionals, administrators, and family). Additionally, the behavior analyst should seek recommendations from the family regarding additional parties (e.g., other community members) who should be involved. Family and community members may be able to provide the most valuable information regarding the client's culture, language, and sociocultural framework (Salend and Taylor 2002). These discussions will allow members of the team to acquire a mutual understanding of the client's cultural system, which may result in increased cultural awareness.

It is important to highlight that the client/family's language is an important cultural variable that should be understood in addition to collaboration with stakeholders. For example, behavioral patterns may be similar across cultures, while the language and concepts that are used can differ (Vandenberghe 2008). In Japan, parents and teachers may use the word "panic" to describe a child's behavior, and this may imply a "tantrum" or "meltdown." Because the word "tantrum" is often associated with baby colic behavior, parents and teachers may prefer to use "panic" to describe the aggressive behavior of older children. Without knowing this, a behavior analyst may initially misunderstand what the client's challenging behavior is. It is therefore important for behavior analysts to clarify what the client or family actually mean by the terms they use.

The behavior analyst should also consider accounting for what treatments are appropriate, preferable, or considered norms within a culture. As illustrated by the example of the Filipino family at the beginning of this section, identifying cultural norms may be important for successful assessment and effective treatment. Information about what is acceptable within a person's culture is also ideally obtained beginning with the intake process (and later during the assessment process) by including stakeholders in the process and ensuring that background information includes input from multiple sources of information (assessments and interviews; Sugai et al. 2012). For example, the grandparents rather than the parents may be the primary caregivers in an Indian family. Therefore, it would be important to include the grandparents during intake in order to obtain information. During later phases of the intervention, it may also be beneficial to continue to involve the family in development of the data collection and to make changes in the intervention based on the family's interactional style. In designing the intervention, the team will then be able to include culturally appropriate reinforcers and skill building, again taking into account strategies that are appropriate to the client's culture and belief system.

It may also be important to define a client's behavior in positive terms and in relation to cultural norms to help ensure culturally aware behavioral definitions. For example, in examining table manners across cultures, French parents may believe that child table manners are the essence of their culture. In Japan, in contrast, many children will leave the table during a meal, and it is acceptable in certain settings for them to run around, even in restaurants. More specifically, during lunch with family friends, a Japanese child might imitate a peer and leave the table during lunch with a smile on his or her face. For Japanese parents, this is the cultural norm, but French parents often consider this behavior is inappropriate.

Use Readily Available Resources

Our third and final recommendation for this section is for behavior analysts to consider making use of the resources that are already available to help make their practice more culturally aware. Salend and Taylor ( 2002) describe guidelines for creating more culturally aware functional behavior assessments. These guidelines suggest behavior analysts should involve family, community members, and professionals to learn about the client's culture and examine possible sociocultural explanations of behavior. They also suggest behavior analysts attend trainings and engage in activities that allow them to reflect on how their culture might impact their belief system (Salend and Taylor 2002).

Another resource that can help behavior analysts enhance their culturally awareness is provided by Sugai et al. ( 2012). The authors discuss how applied behavior analytical terms can be understood within different cultural contexts. For example, in some cultures, the concept of reinforcement can be illustrated by describing the act of bowing to greet one another. In this exchange, a bow is more likely to be given if a person is first bowed to, thus the initial bowing behavior is reinforced. Like Salend and Taylor ( 2002), these authors describe how steps in interventions, such as school-wide positive behavior support, can be made more culturally aware-for example, by using activities that are considerate of learning histories and the norms and values of the culture, family, school, and community.

Tanaka-Matsumi et al. ( 1996) also provided another resource for increasing culturally aware behavior analytic services. Specifically, the authors provide guidelines for conducting a culturally informed functional assessment interview, in which increases in accurate case formulation, decreases in diagnostic errors, decreases in attrition, increases in the credibility of the therapy, and increases in the expectation of positive change, client compliance, and active participation in treatment might be a result. The authors emphasize the importance of examining the functional relationships between a client's behavior and culture, which may increase buy-in from all parties involved and help acquire an accurate description of the client's challenging behavior.

Moving from Assessment to Treatment

Once information has been obtained through reflection on and assessment of the client's culture as well as the behavior analyst's own culture, the behavior analyst can use the information to make informed decisions about next courses of action, such as accepting the client, referring the client elsewhere, seeking additional information about the client's culture, or securing supervision from a more experienced behavior analyst as needed. It should be noted that lack of a cultural match does not necessarily mean that the behavior analyst cannot provide adequate services to the client. A behavior analyst should rely on professional experience and knowledge to serve this client, given the behavior analyst's cultural context, but should also remember that within-group differences are greater than between-group differences (Sue 2003). For example, a client of the same race and socioeconomic background may not have cultural norms that are strongly similar to those of the behavior analyst. There are various domains of culture (e.g., family, geography, sexual orientation, and religion) that relate to the behavior of the individual. A behavior analyst who lacks experience and knowledge to serve a culturally different client should seek additional information about the client's cultural behaviors, values, and norms and should also seek direct exposure to culturally similar experiences and people, if possible (Sugai et al. 2012; Vandenberghe 2008). Finally, even when behavior analysts strive to be more culturally aware, provision of culturally aware services may not always go smoothly (Vandenberghe 2008), so behavior analysts should view skill development in this domain as a process and engage in ongoing assessment to continually improve their practice (see the " Cultural Awareness Training in Graduate and Professional Development Programs " section below).

Recommendations for Increasing Cultural Awareness within Clinical Organizations and Professional Development Programs

In order for behavior analysts to become aware of the cultural values of their clients, as well as their own cultural values, service delivery and training programs must also develop systems of support and encourage professional growth in this area. The following recommendations concern how cultural awareness training can be integrated into clinical organizations and graduate and professional development programs. These recommendations are not all inclusive; rather, they highlight examples of how behavior analysts can institutionalize cultural awareness within their professional and training systems.

Increasing Cultural Awareness within a Clinical Organization

One strategy to increase the likelihood of culturally aware behavior is to embed cultural awareness training and supervision at the institutional level within an organization. Implementing training and supervision systems may help an organization achieve the goal of institutionalizing the skill of cultural awareness (see Betancourt et al. 2003, for suggestions on cultural competency training for health care workers). The following three recommendations are based on Brodhead and Higbee's ( 2012) recommendations for using behavioral systems to teach and maintain ethical behavior in a human service organization.

The first recommendation is to identify an individual within the organization who can be charged with ensuring that cultural awareness is addressed. Because it is likely not to be reasonable or possible for all members of the organization to focus solely on developing cultural competency, it may be useful for an organization to identify one individual who can help guide the development of cultural awareness in other members of the organization. This individual's role would be similar to that of the ethics coordinator described by Brodhead and Higbee ( 2012). The identified individual who would focus on cultural competency would also be responsible for identifying points of discussion for individual and group supervision and would also serve as a reference within the organization to stay up-to-date on best practices for cultural competency.

The second recommendation is to incorporate cultural awareness training into individual supervision. During individual supervision, the supervisor can ask the supervisee to discuss any instances where conflicts between cultures might result in barriers to effective service delivery. For example, a supervisee may seek feedback on the appropriate way to respond when offered food during in-home consultation. The supervisee may also seek guidance on how the cultural values and contingencies of a specific family should be considered when designing a parent training, as parental values might lead to parenting styles that are culture specific (Akcinar and Baydar 2014). The purpose of discussing cultural awareness during supervision meetings is to provide multiple, continuous opportunities for feedback and discussion. It is recommended that fidelity checklists be developed and used in supervision include items that assess cultural awareness during assessment, intervention, and ongoing consultation.

The third recommendation is to incorporate cultural awareness training into group supervision and training. Similar to company-wide trainings on ethics, functional assessment, and skill acquisition, trainings on cultural competency can allow for group discussion and feedback on best practices for the cultures the organization is likely to serve. Difficult or important questions that arise during individual supervision can be addressed during group training, allowing for additional opportunities for discussion and feedback about the appropriate service delivery under a given set of cultural variables. Discussions can be facilitated by a company expert in cultural competency to ensure that topics are adequately addressed (see Wolfe and Durán 2013, for a review and suggestions for a similar training in a public school setting).

One strategy for behavior analysts to document the efficacy of their services may be to distribute social validity surveys to the clients they serve. Social validity surveys can ask whether clients are pleased with their interactions with the behavior analyst, whether the behavior analyst is respectful of cultural values, and whether the behavior analyst recommends culturally appropriate interventions. Such a survey could also be useful for evaluating the effectiveness of supervision and professional development programs in creating culturally aware behavior analysts.

Cultural Awareness Training in Graduate and Professional Development Programs

Developing training programs for behavior analysts that teach cultural awareness could have a positive impact on the field of behavior analysis. This is especially important given the recent expansion of behavior analysis training programs as well as the application of behavior analysis outside of the United States. To address the need to develop cultural awareness skills, behavior analysts will need to develop coursework specific to cultural awareness, develop standards for practice and competency (Carey and Marques 2007; Diaz-Lazaro and Cohen 2001; Fong and Tanaka 2013; Westefeld and Rasmussen 2013), and develop continuing education opportunities to assure continued competency (Cross et al. 1989).

One strategy to ensure that the professional development of behavior analysts addresses cultural awareness is to include cultural awareness content in behavior analytic course sequences. The BACB Fourth Edition Task List does not explicitly cover cultural awareness or content related to cultural systems. However, other comparable fields such as psychology and medicine require specific training for cultural awareness (American Psychological Association [APA], 2015; Association of American Medical Colleges 2005). Specifically, medical students are required to have cultural competency training integrated into their curriculum in order to assure that cultural competency is established as an important and pervasive issue in the provision of care. Furthermore, there exist specific accreditation standards in psychology relating to cultural competency in the practice of psychologists that concern the various means by which cultural competency can impact the conduct of the behavior analyst (APA 2015). In addition to ethical standards regarding the practice of behavior analysis, we recommend that the field adopt appropriate cultural training standards. While it may be the case that effective assessment and intervention will likely include an analysis of relevant cultural variables, the absence of training standards related to conducting and developing culturally aware practice skills in our discipline's task list (BACB 2015) may lead to a failure to foster and develop the necessary skills. Specifically, these training targets would be of the greatest importance in " Recommendations for Increasing Culture of Awareness within Clinical Organizations and Professional Development Programs " Section of the task list, which focuses on the development of skills related to the client-centered responsibilities of aspiring behavior analysts.

Another strategy to increase cultural awareness may be to institutionalize standards of practice for serving clients from diverse cultural backgrounds. Representing the Multicultural Alliance of Behavior Analysis, a special interest group of the Association for Behavior Analysis International, Fong and Tanaka ( 2013) published a list of seven standards for cultural competence in behavior analysis. These standards include understanding one's own cultural biases and how these might conflict with the biases of those they serve, using culturally aware applications of behavior analysis, and advocating for diversity in the workplace. Fong and Tanaka ( 2013) also suggest that behavior analysts advocate for culturally appropriate language interventions, participate in continuing education and training related to cultural awareness, and make appropriate referrals if they are not qualified to work with diverse clients. We encourage organizations and training programs to review Fong and Tanaka's ( 2013) recommendations and consider integrating them into supervision and coursework.

Researchers, creators of training materials, and administrators of university programs can all contribute to developing cultural awareness skills in the field. We encourage more research on topics of diversity, cross-cultural implementation, and international dissemination of ABA. It has been recommended that when behaviorally oriented researchers publish articles, the "Participant" section include more information about cultural variables (Brodhead et al. 2014; Kaufman et al. 2008). We further suggest that authors of textbooks and training manuals, and designers of continuing education and online trainings increase the number and variety of topics related to culture and diversity. By adding more examples of scenarios involving issues of diversity, cultural awareness, and culturally aware assessment and intervention, behavior analysts may continue to lay the groundwork for pre-service behavior analysts to practice more effectively with a broader range of populations. Administrators and faculty in universities can set specific learning outcomes for teaching about diversity and cross-cultural implementation skills. Such initiatives can be adopted at the level of the university or within an academic department. Behavior analytic training programs can also develop student abroad experiences to introduce students to different cultures or program experiences involving different local cultures. Effectiveness with diverse populations can be specified as both a value and a learning outcome for students in our programs.

A final strategy for integrating cultural awareness into professional development is to encourage continuing education requirements for cultural awareness. In the field of behavior analysis, professional development with respect to cultural awareness receives no special attention. As a result, if behavior analysts in the field come into contact with issues related to culture in continuing education, they are likely to do so in the general category of ethics. Even if standards for cultural awareness are not established, we recommend that qualified behavior analysts consider conducting continuing education trainings on cultural awareness in order to increase the probability of behavior analysts coming into contact with important information related to cultural systems.

Discussion

Two decades ago, Hayes and Toarmino ( 1995) asked, "if behavioral principles are generally applicable, why is it necessary to understand cultural diversity?" Today, behavior analysts may remain unconvinced that specific training in cultural awareness is required. The BACB Fourth Edition Task List does not directly address cultural awareness in its own titled guideline, and most behavior analytic graduate and certificate programs are based in large part on the Task List (BACB 2012). We argue that few specific practice guidelines are available to behavior analysts. However, the Professional and Ethical Compliance Code for Behavior Analysts (BACB 2015) does touch on this topic, with the requirement that

Where differences of age, gender, race, culture, ethnicity, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language, or socioeconomic status significantly affect behavior analysts' work concerning particular individuals or groups, behavior analysts obtain the training, experience, consultation, and/or supervision necessary to ensure the competence of their services, or they make appropriate referrals. (p.5)

However, we suggest that such cultural differences always affect our work with individuals or groups. Therefore, it may be important for behavior analysts to continue to develop their cultural awareness skills by systematically ensuring ongoing training, experience, and supervision for cultural competence and awareness.

The above recommendations are meant to serve as a starting point for considering strategies to increase cultural awareness among behavior analysts. Although the recommendations may very well improve a behavior analyst's cultural awareness, there are several additional considerations and limitations to our recommendations. First, it is important for behavior analysts to not make gross generalizations about clients or their families based on the culture(s) they represent. Specifically, if an individual lives in the United States of America, is light skinned, attends a Christian denomination church and speaks English fluently, one should not assume that the individual is of European American descent. In fact, that individual might be of Hispanic descent, speak Portuguese fluently, come from Guatemala, and reside in the United States temporarily while competing higher education requirements. It is very possible that avoiding such generalization or stereotyping can be difficult when learning or teaching about cultural practices as part of a cultural awareness system. However, collecting information about different cultural systems should place behavior analysts in a better position to "infer the possible effects of the environment" in order to make effective treatment recommendations (Brodhead et al. 2014, p. 81). Therefore, we encourage behavior analysts consider our recommendations for increasing culturally awareness prior to the intake process.

Another limitation of this paper is that it does not provide systematic guidelines for how behavior analysts should work with culturally diverse clients. However, because there is a lack of resources in the area of cultural awareness and behavior analysis, we hope this paper serves as a starting point for future discussions and analyses. Systematic guidelines for practicing behavior analysts have been published in other areas, such as guidelines for identifying an appropriate function-based treatment for escape-maintained problem behavior (Geiger et al. 2010) and for maintaining professional relationships (Brodhead 2015). Therefore, it may be useful for future researchers or behavior analysts to develop systematic guidelines for working with culturally diverse clients in order to provide practicing behavior analysts with a systematic framework for their work.

Finally, it is important to note that the fidelity of the behavior analytic intervention should not be compromised in order to incorporate culturally aware practices. It is very possible that a culturally informed assessment may lead to a culturally informed intervention that may ultimately lead to implementation with high fidelity. Whereas, an assessment that is not culturally informed may lead to an intervention not matched to client culture which then can't implemented with fidelity. In some cases, however, multiple courses of treatment may be available to deliver the same treatment outcome. If this occurs, we recommend that behavior analysts consider identifying the most culturally appropriate treatment whenever possible. See Padilla Dalamau et al. ( 2011) for an example of identifying client preferences for functional communication training interventions.

In summary, cultural variables matter even when implementing practices supported by research and based on the science of behavior analysis (Sugai et al. 2012). No behavior analyst can learn everything about every culture. However, we can develop skills to collect the right data and to understand ways in which culture may affect reinforcers, goals, teams, and interventions in general. We can cultivate awareness of diversity and willingness to honor what is right for our clients. Behavior analysts may not be even aware of how much our personal learning histories differ from the contingencies related to our clients' behaviors, their reinforcers, their behavioral patterns, and the effect of the societal systems in which they live. Continuing to cultivate openness to learning about these variables, along with an awareness of the limitations created by our personal learning histories, may lead us in new directions that will benefit diverse populations with behavior analysis. The growing diversity of our population expands the complexity and variety we can expect to encounter, and so we must continue to develop cultural competence skills through behaviors of awareness, collecting the right data, and honoring what is important to our clients.

Compliance with Ethical Standards

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Ethical Approval

This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.

Footnotes

Elizabeth Hughes Fong, Robyn M. Catagnus, and Matthew T. Brodhead shared first author

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Articles from Behavior Analysis in Practice are provided here courtesy of Association for Behavior Analysis International

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Developing the Cultural Awareness Skills of Behavior Analysts

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All individuals are a part of at least one culture. These cultural contingencies shape behavior, behavior that may or may not be acceptable or familiar to behavior analysts from another culture. To better serve individuals, assessments and interventions ...

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Behavior Intervention Plans Module from Autism Internet Modules

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Behavior Intervention Plans Module from Autism Internet Modules

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Behavior Intervention Plans | Autism Internet Modules

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Begin with building a stronger understanding of core concepts and process steps in behavior support

Behavior is a form of communication, and a child's undesirable behavior is often a way of communicating about something that that he or she needs. The illustration shows the back perspective of five young children of various ethnic backgrounds walking with arms over each other's shoulders. Two children are pointing upwards at the title and subtitle of the segment. The illustration is meant to highlight the topic of the segment and indicate pointing as a form of communication.

Welcome to the Making Access Happen Behavior Support learning community! Designed to support you in addressing behavior challenges with young children, each of the behavior support segments uses a video scenario of a challenging behavior to anchor the learning, discussion, and resources that follow. Feel free to personalize your experience by engaging with one or more segments as you consider what information to explore, how much information to engage with, and what tools and strategies to adopt in your experiences with young children.
Challenging behavior: What do we need to know?

A challenging behavior is any repeated pattern of behavior that
- interferes with learning or engagement in social interactions
- can be significantly disruptive or dangerous
- is often unresponsive to appropriate positive guidance strategies

What is challenging behavior? It is any repeated pattern of behavior that interferes with learning or engagement in social interactions. Specifically, challenging behavior interferes with engaging in positive relationships, forming friendships, playing with others, and learning expected skills. Challenging behavior can be significantly disruptive or dangerous to the child, other children, and/or adults. Also, challenging behavior is often unresponsive to appropriate positive guidance strategies.
Is the behavior you are concerned about truly a challenging behavior?

Behavior is a form of communication

It is important to understand and be aware that behavior is a form of communication. A child's undesirable behavior in particular often is a way of communicating about something that he or she needs. Behavior does not necessarily represent a deliberate or conscious act of communicating, but it certainly does convey a message. Our job as early care and education providers is to work to determine the reason for a child's challenging behavior, and ways to help the child to appropriately get his or her needs met.

It is important to note that challenging behaviors during the preschool years constitute one of the strongest predictors of later, more serious problem behaviors including delinquency, aggression, antisocial behavior, and substance abuse. [ Challenging Behaviors and the Role of Preschool Education by Lisa A. McCabe and Ellen C. Frede. Preschool Policy Brief, December 2007, Issue 16, National Institute for Early Education Research, Rutgers Graduate School of Education.]

The following roadmap describes the process in planning for behavior support. As you go through each Behavior Support segment, you will have the opportunity to practice gathering data, determining the functions of behavior, and building a hypothesis toward developing a behavior support plan and putting in place your personalized intervention strategies.

An important first step in the behavior support roadmap is in gathering information and collecting data.

When you're observing a child with challenging behavior, it is important to gather information and collect data to help you devise appropriate intervention strategies. Collecting data is necessary in order to verify the hypothesis about the purpose that the challenging behavior serves for the child.
ABC Chart
The ABC Chart is a recommended strategy for collecting data about behavior, where A represents Antecedent, B is for Behavior, and C stands for Consequence.

The ABC Chart is a recommended strategy for collecting data about behavior. The ABC Chart has three blocks: A - B - C, and is a visually helpful tool for both problem solving and developing a solution or intervention plan for the behavior. The three blocks in the chart represent the antecedent, behavior, and consequence.

Antecedent: what is happening before a behavior occurs

Behavior: description of the challenging behavior

Consequence: what happens after the behavior occurs

After all three blocks of the ABC Chart are completed for several occurrences of the behavior, the team supporting the child can determine whether their identified function for the behavior in the hypothesis was correct.
Background information
In order to determine the reason behind a child's challenging behavior, several steps in a process must be followed. Where do we begin? First, it is critical to start with gathering information about the child's background. Interviewing parents or family members is of equal importance. They know their children best, and are a wealth of information about child needs, strengths, challenges, successes, and behavior patterns. Our virtual coaches share some important points to think about when gathering background information:

Gather information from multiple resources

Use data to establish a baseline

Learn more about how to use the ABC Chart and collect background information:

Possible functions of challenging behavior can be categorized into 4 types:

1. Escape/avoidance: trying to get away from a particular setting, person, or activity.

2. Attention getting/seeking: trying to get attention from an adult or peer or particular person.

3. Gain an activity or object: trying to get a toy or something they are fixated on; or trying to get an activity such as center time.

4. Sensory: trying to gain some type of sensory stimulation or input; or a negative reaction to too much stimulation, such as in a gym or where acoustics are challenging. At times this function of behavior can be unrecognized or overlooked.

For each possible function of behavior, we need to collect and analyze data on the behavior to verify whether our hypothesis is true.

Use the following interactive to explore the potential reasons for a challenging behavior and what a child may be communicating with that behavior.

What is a behavioral hypothesis? It is really our best thoughtful guess about why a child behaves the way that he or she does. It is important for us to build a hypothesis about what might the child be trying to communicate through the behavior.
Identifying behavior: Looks like / doesn't look like
After gathering information about the child, write a description of the challenging behavior that is being observed. A description of challenging behavior should be written in objective terms. In other words, what exactly is the child doing and saying? Use of verbs, quotes, and descriptive words keeps the behavior description objective. In contrast, use of labels and judgment words does not help those who are working to support the child's success to get a clear picture of what the behavior looks like.
Hypothesis statements
Next, based on the behavior description and information gathered about the child, a hypothesis, or educated guess about why the challenging behavior is occurring can be determined. A behavioral hypothesis includes the behavior, its purpose, and the caregiver response or consequence as a result of the behavior.

According to Coach Mark, a hypothesis can help us determine why the child is behaving in a certain way:

Coach Shella reminds us to go back to the data collected to review the hypothesis developed:

Let's look at how we could begin developing hypothesis statements for challenging behavior:

The Plan should include strategies for prevention of the challenging behavior, replacement skills to teach the child as substitutes for the challenging behavior, and strategies to reinforce the child's use of the replacement skills instead of the challenging behavior. Also, the Plan should include steps for keeping track of the child's progress and determining whether it is working or needs to be adjusted - this involves deciding who will do what to carry out and keep track of the Plan.

When is a team approach appropriate? A team approach is important if:

You are in a center or a school and have access to other professionals who work with the child, administrators, mental health or behavior specialists, and/or other experts who could be helpful, and

The child's behavior is truly challenging, which means it is persistent and not responsive to positive behavior guidance strategies.

The Behavior Support Team works with the teacher or care provider and family to reflect and brainstorm about the behavior they are observing, background information available, a behavior hypothesis, possible prevention strategies, replacement skills to teach, and ways to reinforce and track the child's progress.

Everyone has important information and expertise to share, and ways in which they can play a role in the Behavior Support Plan. Here are some points to consider:

Look at how the behavior is affecting you as a teacher

Group reflection can help a team clarify roles and support

Check out some ideas and resources for putting together a Behavior Support Plan:

Ready to proceed? Let's practice applying the roadmap in a variety of behavior scenarios. Start with any one of the segments on the MAH Behavior Support page.

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Begin with building a stronger understanding of core concepts and process steps in behavior support Welcome to the Making Access Happen Behavior Support learning community! Designed to support you in addressing behavior challenges with young children, each of the behavior support segments uses a video scenario of a challenging behavior to anchor the learning, discussion, and resources that follow.

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Functional Behavior Assessment Summary Report - Colorado Department of Education

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Functional Behavior Assessment Summary Report - Colorado Department of Education

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National Center for Intensive Intervention

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National Center for Intensive Intervention

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Explore all

Educators

Find tools and resources to support general and special education teachers, interventionists, school psychologists, school counselors, and other school-based personnel working with students with intensive academic and behavioral needs.

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Explore all Find tools and resources to support general and special education teachers, interventionists, school psychologists, school counselors, and other school-based personnel working with students with intensive academic and behavioral needs.

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What is person-centered planning and how does it relate to functional assessment?

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What is person-centered planning and how does it relate to functional assessment?

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Teams who are supporting students who engage in moderate to severe levels of problem behavior should start the functional assessment process by conducting a person-centered plan. Person-centered planning (PCP) is an ongoing problem-solving process that is used by a group of people who are interested in helping a student build a lifestyle based upon his or her preferences, needs, and choices. The purpose of a PCP is to create a context in which a student can create a vision for how he or she wants to live and then to brainstorm, strategize, and plan to make that vision a reality. Person-centered planning builds on a student's natural skills, talents, and gifts in order to create a more satisfying life for the individual and increase community participation.

Person-centered planning is often implemented early in the functional assessment since it provides important quality of life information. Another reason implementing person-centered planning first is advantageous is because increasing a student's quality of life can have an impact on problem behavior. When positive lifestyle changes are implemented, the student's problem behavior may decrease, making more comprehensive positive behavior support plans unnecessary. On the other hand, significant lifestyle changes may be more complex and require some time to complete. A PBS plan may be necessary while larger lifestyle interventions are implemented.

There are many types of PCP processes. Some of the more familiar planning strategies include the Essential Lifestyle Plan, Personal Futures Planning, Group Action Planning, Planning Alternative Tomorrows with Hope, and McGill Action Planning Summary. These strategies can be used at any point in an individual's life, including important life transitions and during times of stress. Although initially developed to support individuals with disabilities, PCP processes can lead to valuable outcomes for persons with a wide variety of abilities and can be a useful tool for individuals of all ages. Some families have even used person-centered planning to build their lifestyle goals together.

Person-centered Planning Resources:

Anderson, C. M., Bahl, A. B., & Kincaid, D. (1999). A person-centered approach to

providing support to an adolescent with a history of parental abuse. In J. Scotti & L.
Meyer (Eds.), Behavioral intervention: Principles, models and practices (pp. 385-396).
Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

Holburn S., & Vietze, P. M. (Eds.). Person-centered planning: Research, practice, and

future directions. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

An Overview of Essential Life Style Planning A Resource List on Person-Centered Planning

Mount, B. & Zwernik, K. (1989). It's never too early, it's never too late: A booklet

about personal futures planning. St. Paul, MN: Metropolitan Council.

O'Brien, J. (1987). A guide to lifestyle planning: Using the Activities catalog to

integrate services and natural support systems. In B. Wilcox & G. T. Bellamy (Eds.),
The activities catalog: An alternative curriculum design for youth and adults with
severe disabilities (pp. 104-110). Baltimore: Brookes.

Turnbull, A. P., Blue-Banning, M. J., Logan Anderson, E., Turnbull, H. R., Seaton, K.

A., & Dinas, P. A. (1996). Enhancing self-determination through group action planning:
A holistic emphasis. In D. Sands & M. Wehmeyer (Eds.), Self-determination across the
life span: Independence and choice for people with disabilities (pp. 237-256).
Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

Turnbull, A. P., & Turnbull, H. R. (1996). Group action planning as a strategy for

providing comprehensive family support. In L. Kern-Koegel, R. Koegel, & G. Dunlap
(Eds.), Positive Behavioral Support: Including people with difficult behavior in the
community (pp. 99-114). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.

collecting functional assessment information,

identifying the hypothesis or hypotheses maintaining problem behavior,

confirming that the hypothesis or hypotheses are correct, and

creating a written summary of functional assessment findings.

Person-centered Planning Resources:

Person-Centered Planning Practice Guideline

What are the steps needed to complete a functional assessment?

Durand, V. M. (1990). Severe behavior problems: A functional communication training

approach. New York: Guilford Press.

Durand, V. M., & Crimmins, D. B. (1992). The Motivation Assessment Scale (MAS)

Administration Guide. Topeka KS: Monaco & Associates.

Baker, D. J., Sappington, G., Ard, W. R., Kelsch, R., & Horner, R. H. (1999). Self-

determination scale. Eugene, OR: Specialized Training Program, College of Education.

Keith, K. D., & Schalock, R. L. (1995). Quality of student life questionnaire.

Worthington, OH: IDS Publishing Corporation.

Schalock, R. (Ed.). (1996). Quality of life: Vol. I. Conceptualization and measurement.

Washington, DC: American Association on Mental Retardation.

Schalock, R. L. & Keith, K. D. (1993). Quality of life questionnaire. Worthington, OH:

IDS Publishing Corporation.

The functional assessment is not completed exactly the same way each time. Each student is unique and may require different tools and measurement strategies depending upon the level of severity of the problem behavior, the environmental setting, and physiological or mental health issues. However, the process for completing a functional assessment is essentially the same.

Four major steps involved in completing a functional assessment include:

How can I find functional assessment tools that are unique to my student?
National Center for Complementary & Alternative Medicine (NIH)
There are a number of different tools used to assess social skills, physiological setting events, quality of life, and other important areas of a student's life that can be used in a functional assessment. The following list is an example of the types of materials that are available.

Identifying the Function of Behavior

1. There is a clear description of the problem behavior.

2. Information about the occurrence and nonoccurrence of problem behavior has been documented.

3. The consequences that maintain the student's problem behavior are identified.

4. The team has developed one or more hypotheses regarding the function maintaining problem behavior.

5. Direct observation data have been collected confirming the function maintaining the problem behavior (O'Neill et al., 1997).

Quality of Life

Setting Events

Gardner, W. I., Cole, C. L., Davidson, D. P., & Karan, O. C. (1986). Reducing

aggression in individuals with developmental disabilities: An expanded stimulus
control, assessment, and intervention model. Education and Training of the Mentally
Retarded, 21, 7-21.

Social Skills & Activity Patters

Gresham, F. M., & Elliott, S. N. (1990). Social skills rating system. Circle Pines, MN:

American Guidance Service.

Medical Resources

( MEDLINE Plus)

When is a functional assessment complete?

A functional assessment is complete when the team has accomplished the following steps:

The functional assessment is complete when the team feels confident in the hypotheses and the five steps are accomplished.

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Teams who are supporting students who engage in moderate to severe levels of problem behavior should start the functional assessment process by conducting a person-centered plan. Person-centered planning (PCP) is an ongoing problem-solving process that is used by a group of people who are interested in helping a student build a lifestyle based upon his or her preferences, needs, and choices.

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Why is it important to use a team process to conduct a functional assessment?

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Record reviews can provide important information about a student's medical background, past experiences, and behavioral and academic history. Old behavioral support plans may show the progression of a student's problem behavior and point to intervention strategies that were successful in the past. Behavior support plans that have been abandoned often provide information about the types of interventions that, although technically accurate, may not be a good fit for the people implementing the plan. The team also may discover historical information describing environmental settings where a student has experienced success and was less likely to engage in problem behavior.

Some students have many types of records that can be reviewed while others will have just a few documents available. Possible records to review include medical documents, old behavior support plans, psychological reports, individual education or family service plans, mental health information, laboratory results, and allied health provider assessments (e.g., occupational therapy, speech and language therapy, and nursing). Special permission is often required to obtain these records, and issues of confidentiality are associated with acquiring access to this information.

Use our simple tool to help organize your Record Review Notes

As noted above, record reviews can provide important information about a student's medical, behavioral, and academic history that may be helpful in the functional assessment process. In order to assist in the organization of the record review, we have created a simple tool that can be used in two ways. First, you may print out a pdf version of the form and fill it out by hand. Another way in which the tool can be used is by entering the review information into the online version and printing out a final copy.

Record reviews can be completed fairly quickly and can be easy to complete. Completing the record review early in the functional assessment can provide the team with clues to variables that are affecting the behavior but may not be immediately obvious.

A disadvantage of the record review is that the materials reviewed may not reflect the current status of the student. Behavioral support plans written in the past may be targeting entirely different types of problem behaviors that are maintained by environmental variables no longer present in the student's current environment. Record reviews are considered indirect assessment strategies which are not as objective as direct observation and functional analysis. However, conducting a record review in combination with other indirect assessments and direct observations will increase the quality of the functional assessment.

Record reviews are conducted early in the functional assessment process, often around the same time that functional assessment interviews are conducted.

Rehabilitation Research and Training Center Product (1999).

Facilitator's guide on positive behavior support. The Positive
Behavioral Support Project, Department of Child and Family Studies
of the Louis de la Parte Institute of the University of South
Florida.

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Record reviews can provide important information about a student's medical background, past experiences, and behavioral and academic history. Old behavioral support plans may show the progression of a student's problem behavior and point to intervention strategies that were successful in the past.

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Functional Assessment Checklist for Teachers and Staff (FACTS)

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Functional Assessment Checklist for Teachers and Staff (FACTS)

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The FACTS is a two-page interview used by school personnel who are building behavior support plans. The FACTS is intended to be an efficient strategy for initial functional behavioral assessment. The FACTS is completed by people (teachers, family, clinicians) who know the student best, and it is used to either build behavior support plans, or guide more complete functional assessment efforts. The FACTS can be completed in a short period of time (5-15 min). Efficiency and effectiveness in completing the forms increases with practice.

The FACTS is an indirect assessment tool that is used to interview school personnel who know the student best. The FACTS is usually completed early in the functional behavioral assessment process by someone on the student's team who is familiar with behavioral principles. Usually 2-3 FACTS interviews are completed with different people who know the student well in order to begin identifying the function maintaining the student's behaviors and the environmental settings where behaviors occur and do not occur.

The FACTS is a valuable tool which can be completed in a short period of time. When a student's behavior is more complex, a longer, more detailed functional assessment interview form may be also be used to collect functional assessment information. The interview process is often the first step in a functional assessment since it can help the student and his or her team identify the settings in which observations will be conducted.

It is really important to collect specific information about the problem behavior and the situations and settings that are most problematic. The FACTS interview helps gather more detailed information by asking the person being interviewed to first describe the problem behavior in a general way by placing a checkmark next to the behaviors that are occurring (tardy, disruptive, aggressive behavior). The next step is to identify routines and activities in which the student is involved, when they occur, the likelihood of problem behavior, and which behaviors are observed. The Part B section of the FACTS allows the team to choose one of the routines within the initial list to go into more detail.

This information will be combined with other indirect assessment strategies and direct observations to develop a hypothesis statement about the function maintaining a problem behavior. The functional assessment will help the team create an effective and efficient positive behavior support plan. Intervention strategies are more powerful when they address specific routines and activities, and the team will be able to use their time and energy more efficiently by targeting the most problematic routines.

Routines and activities that are associated with the nonoccurrence of problem behavior can also provide important information. Details about settings where a student is successful can be used to redesign problematic routines. Environmental variables associated with routines that are successful can be introduced to naturally reduce the likelihood of problem behavior. For instance, the team may discover that a student is less likely to be disruptive during independent seat work if she is given homework that includes a mixture of easy and more difficult tasks. When all the independent seatwork given to the student is challenging, more problem behaviors are likely to occur.

The following reference contains a number of important functional assessment tools that your team can use. They are described in an easy to understand format. This book contains a longer functional assessment interview form and a student interview as well.

O'Neill, R. E., Horner, R. H., Albin, R. W., Sprague, J. R., Storey, K., & Newton, J. S. (1997). Functional assessment and program development for problem behavior: A practical handbook (2nd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks.

Additional References

Durand, V. M. (1990). Severe behavior problems: A functional

communication training approach. New York: Guilford Press.

Horner, R. H. & Sugai, G. (Eds.). (1999-2000). Special issue: Functional

behavioral assessment. Exceptionality, 8(3), 145-230.

Kern, L., Dunlap, G., Clarke, S., & Childs, K.E. (1994).

Student-assisted functional assessment interview. Diagnostique,
19(2-3), 29-39.

Rehabilitation Research and Training Center Product (1999).

Facilitator's guide on positive behavior support. The Positive
Behavioral Support Project, Department of Child and Family Studies of
the Louis de la Parte Institute of the University of South Florida.

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Functional Assessment Checklist for Teachers and Staff (FACTS)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The FACTS is a two-page interview used by school personnel who are building behavior support plans. The FACTS is intended to be an efficient strategy for initial functional behavioral assessment. The FACTS is completed by people (teachers, family, clinicians) who know the student best, and it is used to either build behavior support plans, or guide more complete functional assessment efforts.

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What is a scatter plot and how do you use it?

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What is a scatter plot and how do you use it?

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The scatter plot is an interval recording method that can help you discover patterns related to a problem behavior and specific time periods. The scatter plot is a grid with time plotted on the vertical line divided into periods of time. For instance, the time listed on the grid might be divided into 15-minute periods. The first time on the grid could be listed as 9:00-9:15, the next as 9:15-9:30, and followed by 9:30-9:45. In another situation it may be more useful to use 30 minute or 1-hour periods depending upon the type of behavior and the length of time you are observing. The horizontal line on the scatter plot grid designates the date the observation occurs.

The scatter plot is a direct observation tool used in the functional assessment process to identify when problem behaviors are occurring.

One advantage of the scatter plot is that a number of measurement strategies can be used including frequency counts, duration, or latency recording. Another way to record the data is to indicate low rates of occurrence with one symbol and higher rates of responding with a different code. The exact number of behaviors can also be written into the cells to provide more detailed information.

A disadvantage is that the scatter plot does not provide a way to document what antecedents and consequences are observed during the sessions. Therefore, additional recording methods are needed to collect data such as the ABC Chart.

Alberto, P. C., & Troutman, A. C. (1999). Applied

behavior analysis for teachers (5th ed.).
Columbus, OH: Merrill.

Touchette, P. E., MacDonald, R. F., & Langer, S. N. (1985).

A scatter plot for identifying stimulus control of
problem behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
18, 343-351.

Rehabilitation Research and Training Center Product (1999).

Facilitator's guide on positive behavior support.
The Positive Behavioral Support Project, Department of
Child and Family Studies of the Louis de la Parte
Institute of the University of South Florida.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The scatter plot is an interval recording method that can help you discover patterns related to a problem behavior and specific time periods. The scatter plot is a grid with time plotted on the vertical line divided into periods of time. For instance, the time listed on the grid might be divided into 15-minute periods.

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An ABC Chart is a direct observation tool that can be used to collect information about the events that are occurring within a student's environment. "A" refers to the antecedent, or the event or activity that immediately precedes a problem behavior. The "B" refers to observed behavior, and "C" refers to the consequence, or the event that immediately follows a response.

For example, a student who is drawing pictures instead of working on his class assignment may react by cursing or throwing his pencil when his teacher tells him to finish the task. The teacher may discover verbal requests to work and other demands are antecedents that trigger problem behavior. Common antecedents include critical feedback from others, absence of attention, and specific tasks or activities. The consequence may be that the teacher sends the student to the office every time he curses and throws his pencil. Over several observation sessions, it may become clear that the student is engaging in problem behavior to escape from his class assignment.

An ABC Chart is used to organize information over several observation sessions by recording the types of behaviors observed and the events that precede and follow the behavior. Observing and recording ABC data assists the team in forming a hypothesis statement and gathering evidence that the function maintaining a problem behavior has been identified.

An ABC Chart can also be used to identify antecedent events that are associated with the nonoccurrence of problem behavior. Some intervention strategies involve modifying a student's environment by introducing antecedents and consequences that are associated with desirable behavior in other situations. For instance, a student may raise his hand and participate in class discussions when his teacher frequently reminds students to raise their hands and provides high levels of positive attention throughout the class (antecedent events). This teacher provides positive feedback for hand raising and participation (consequence).

However, in another setting, the teacher does not respond to the student when he raises his hand and provides low levels of positive attention to the student throughout the class period (antecedent events). In this class, the student does not raise his hand, yells his teacher's name out loud when he needs assistance, and wanders out of his seat, all of which attract the teacher's attention. He or she then reprimands the student for misbehaving (consequence). Understanding the antecedent events that are associated with both the occurrence and nonoccurrence of problem behavior can help you modify the characteristics of a difficult situation. The antecedent events that trigger positive behaviors can be introduced into another setting associated with disruptive behavior.

The ABC Chart is a direct observation tool that provides information about what is really happening in the student's environment. The information gathered in the functional assessment interviews are compared to information from observations occurring in the environment. Confidence in a hypothesis statement increases when evidence for the function maintaining a behavior shows up across a number of functional assessment tools. Direct observation is especially important since it is less subjective than interview strategies that rely on memory and a person's perceptions.

The ABC Chart allows an observer to record descriptive information about a student in a systematic and organized way. This recording format is easier to use than other observation forms that collect both scatter plot and ABC data such as the Functional Assessment Observation Tool included in this module. The data gathered provides a lot of descriptive information about the student's behavior and the environment.

A major disadvantage for using the ABC Chart is that it can be more difficult to see patterns quickly, and the data may need to be summarized to look for patterns related to antecedents and consequences. If a student engages in multiple problem behaviors, if there are several antecedents events, or if the student's behavior is being maintained by multiple functions, the ABC Chart may take more time to summarize compared to the Functional Assessment Observation Tool.

ABC Chart data is only correlational which means the causal relation cannot be confirmed. Strategies that systematically manipulate environmental antecedents and consequences, referred to as a functional analysis, are often used in research. However, in many cases, direct observations that include information about behavior, environmental events preceding and following the behavior, and time of occurrence are sufficient to provide confidence in the team's hypothesis statement.

The ABC Chart is often completed after initial interviews and record reviews are conducted, but these activities may occur concurrently. Functional assessment interviews can provide information about when and where observation sessions will be conducted.

Each functional assessment is different, just as each student is unique and engages in different types of behavior. Direct observational data should be collected until the team members are confident about the function or functions maintaining a student's behavior. In simple situations, this may occur within 3-5 sessions. In more complicated cases, direct observation data may be needed across a number of settings and for longer periods. If your team remains unsure that the hypothesis statement(s) are accurate, find a professional with a background in applied behavior analysis or positive behavior support who can assist with the functional assessment. This professional may recommend different data collection methods or could assist in conducting a functional analysis.v

Alberto, P. C., & Troutman, A. C. (1999). Applied behavior analysis for

teachers (5th ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill.

Bijou, S., Peterson, R. F., & Ault, M. H. (1968). A method to integrate

description and experimental field studies at the level of data and empirical
concepts. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 175-191.

Bambara, L. M., & Knoster, T. (1998). Designing positive behavior support

plans. Washington DC: American Association on Mental Retardation:
Research to Practice Series.

Rehabilitation Research and Training Center Product (1999). Facilitator's

guide on positive behavior support. The Positive Behavioral Support
Project, Department of Child and Family Studies of the Louis de la Parte
Institute of the University of South Florida.

Maag, J. W. (1995). Behavior management: Theoretical implications and

practical applications. Lincoln, NE.

O'Neill, R. E., Horner, R. H., Albin, R. W., Sprague, J. R., Storey, K., &

Newton, J. S. (1997). Functional assessment and program development for
problem behavior: A practical handbook (2nd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA:
Brooks.

Additional References

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An ABC Chart is a direct observation tool that can be used to collect information about the events that are occurring within a student's environment. "A" refers to the antecedent, or the event or activity that immediately precedes a problem behavior.

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TONS of Behavior Intervention Plan Resources from PBIS World linked here!

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TONS of Behavior Intervention Plan Resources from PBIS World linked here!

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Behavior Intervention Plan (BIP) | PBIS World

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Functional Assessment Direct Observation Tool

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Functional Assessment Direct Observation Tool

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The Functional Assessment Observation Tool is an adaptation of the form developed by O'Neill and his colleagues (1997) and combines elements of the scatter plot and ABC Chart. This form allows you to record the behavior(s), setting events, antecedents, and consequences observed during a session. This observation form allows you to keep track of possible functions as well as actual consequences observed during the session.

Like the scatter plot, you decide how long the intervals are depending upon how long your session is and the frequency of the behaviors. Each behavior may be counted and listed on the form during the time in which it occurs. If a student engages in a burst of behaviors that tend to occur together, refer to all of the behaviors as one "event." For instance, the functional assessment observation tool example documents that from 9:00-10:00 there were five events that occurred. During event "2," George engaged in humming, telling jokes, and throwing books.

Direct observation methods like the Functional Observation Assessment Tool, the scatter plot, and the ABC Chart help you validate information gathered using indirect assessment and evaluate the team's hypothesis about the function maintaining problem behavior. Including direct observation methods in the functional assessment helps confirm the relationship between the occurrence of problem behaviors and the environmental events with which they are associated.

The Functional Assessment Observation Tool combines elements of the ABC Chart and the scatter plot to collect a large amount of information efficiently. The way the data is collected allow for a visual analysis to detect patterns between environmental events and behavior. Although it may seem confusing at first, with practice it often becomes a preferred data collection method.

The major disadvantage of the Functional Assessment Observation Tool is that it does take more time to learn to use it effectively. In addition, Functional Assessment Observational Tool data is only correlational, which means the causal relation cannot be confirmed. Strategies that systematically manipulate environmental antecedents and consequences, referred to as a functional analysis, are often used in research. However, in many cases, direct observations that include information about behavior, environmental events preceding and following the behavior, and time of occurrence are sufficient to provide confidence in the team's hypothesis statement.

Each functional assessment is different, just as each student is unique and engages in different types of behavior. Direct observational data should be collected until the team members are confident about the function or functions maintaining a student's behavior. In simple situations, this may occur within 3-5 sessions. In more complicated cases, direct observation data may be needed across a number of settings and for longer periods. If your team remains unsure that the hypothesis statement(s) are accurate, find a professional with a background in applied behavior analysis or positive behavior support who can assist with the functional assessment. This professional may recommend different data collection methods or could assist in conducting a functional analysis.

There are many different kinds of direct observational strategies you can use. Once you become familiar with the data collection process, you may decide to adapt a currently existing tool or develop your own. The purpose of direct observational strategies in the functional assessment process is to be able to provide support for the team's hypothesis statement describing the function maintaining a student's problem behavior.

The following reference contains a number of important functional assessment tools that your team can use which are described in detail and describe the process in an easy to understand format:

O'Neill, R. E., Horner, R. H., Albin, R. W., Sprague, J. R., Storey, K.,

& Newton, J. S. (1997). Functional assessment and program development
for problem behavior: A practical handbook (2nd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA:
Brooks.

Additional References

Bambara, L. M., & Knoster, T. (1998). Designing

positive behavior support plans. Washington
DC: American Association on Mental
Retardation: Research to Practice Series.

Rehabilitation Research and Training Center

Product (1999). Facilitator's guide on
positive behavior support. The Positive
Behavioral Support Project, Department of
Child and Family Studies of the Louis de
la Parte Institute of the University of
South Florida.

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Functional Assessment Direct Observation Tool

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Functional Assessment Observation Tool is an adaptation of the form developed by O'Neill and his colleagues (1997) and combines elements of the scatter plot and ABC Chart. This form allows you to record the behavior(s), setting events, antecedents, and consequences observed during a session.

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Colorado Department of Education Behavior Tools Wiki

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Colorado Department of Education Behavior Tools Wiki

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This wiki was created by the Colorado Department of Education (CDE) FBA/BIP Workgroup as a resource for behavior planning teams. The resources included in this wiki were reviewed by the 2015 Serious Emotional Disability (SED) Taskforce.

If you would like to see a resource included on this wiki, please contact Bill Brown, Affective Needs/Serious Emotional Disability Consultant, at Brown_W@cde.state.co.us.
A variety of screening/assessment tools, interventions, and resources are provided on this wikispace. These suggested resources do not represent an exhaustive list, nor are they required or endorsed by the Colorado Department of Education (CDE). The identification or description is for the purpose of providing an example and does not constitute CDE's endorsement. Every effort has been made to identify the citation for the resource; please maintain the citation and/or authorship when adapting or modifying these materials.
FBA = Functional Behavior Assessment

BIP = Behavior Intervention Plan
Downloads and descriptions of FBA/BIP tools and resources:
FBA Data Collection Tools:
FBA BIP Data Collection Tools and Resources FBA Structured Interview Tools FBA Record Review FBA Observation Tools Electronic Resources & Apps Interval and Time Sampling Forms BIP Self-Monitoring Tools BIP Instructional Resources BIP Goal Development
BIP Action Planning and Team Tools:
BIP Consultation with Parents and Families BIP Action Planning BIP Crisis Plan FBA BIP Fidelity and Technical Adequacy

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This wiki was created by the Colorado Department of Education (CDE) FBA/BIP Workgroup as a resource for behavior planning teams. The resources included in this wiki were reviewed by the 2015 Serious Emotional Disability (SED) Taskforce. If you would like to see a resource included on this wiki, please contact Bill Brown, Affective Needs/Serious Emotional Disability Consultant, at Brown_W@cde.state.co.us.

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Classroom Management Practices Observation Tool

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Classroom Management Practices Observation Tool

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Classroom Practices Observation Tool - All 6 Practices

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What role does the measurement of behavior play in functional assessment?

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What role does the measurement of behavior play in functional assessment?

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Data based decision making is a critical part of functional assessment and positive behavior support. The ability to define and measure behavior helps you to identify the function maintaining a problem behavior and to evaluate the success of a positive behavior support plan.

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Using MTSS as a Structure for Building School–Family Partnerships

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Using MTSS as a Structure for Building School–Family Partnerships

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Student Progress Monitoring Tool for Data Collection and Graphing - National Center on Intensive Intervention

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Student Progress Monitoring Tool for Data Collection and Graphing - National Center on Intensive Intervention

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This Excel tool is designed to help educators collect academic progress monitoring data across multiple measures as a part of the data-based individualization (DBI) process. This tool allows educators to store data for multiple students (across multiple measures), graph student progress, and set individualized goals for a student on specific measures.
Suggested reference:
Kearns, D. M., (August, 2016). Student progress monitoring tool for data collection and graphing [computer software] Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs, National Center on Intensive Intervention.
Student Progress Monitoring Tool for Data Collection and Graphing Instructions
The short video below provides an overview of how to use the tool.

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Data Collection & Graphing Tool: Data & Goal Setting | NCII

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A spreadsheet based tool to help educators collect academic progress monitoring data across multiple measures and set individualized student goals.

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Monitoring Student Progress for Behavioral Interventions

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Monitoring Student Progress for Behavioral Interventions

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This module focuses on behavioral progress monitoring within the context of the DBI process and addresses: (a) methods available for behavioral progress monitoring, including but not limited to Direct Behavior Rating (DBR), and (b) using progress monitoring data to make decisions about behavioral interventions.

The module is intended to be delivered by a trained, knowledgeable professional who has experience with behavioral progress monitoring. It includes a PowerPoint presentation with speaker notes and handouts. A coaching guide, intended for coaches supporting school or district implementation of DBI, is also included and provides suggested activities to facilitate planning and application of training content.
PowerPoint Slides (508 Compliant Version) PowerPoint Slides and Notes Handout 1: Student Qualification Sheet Handout 2: Target Behavior Questionnaire Handout 3: ABC Checklist Handout 4: Anecdotal Recording Form Handout 5: Target Behavior Definition Practice Handout 6: Direct Behavior Rating Individualization Form Case Sample 1 Case Sample 2 NCII DBR Graphing Template Coaching Guide V 1.3 DBR Standard Form - Fill-in Behaviors V 1.4 DBR Standard Form with 3 Standard Behaviors
Related Resources

Learn about progress monitoring and find additional professional development resources
DBI Professional Learning Series Progress Monitoring Behavioral Progress Monitoring Tools Chart

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Monitoring Student Progress for Behavioral Interventions (DBI Professional Learning Series Module 3)

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This module focuses on behavioral progress monitoring within the context of the DBI process and addresses: (a) methods available for behavioral progress monitoring, including but not limited to Direct Behavior Rating (DBR), and (b) using progress monitoring data to make decisions about behavioral interventions.