# data[].attributes.body
1. The Napoleonic Code was put in effect on March 21, 1804, and still remains somewhat existent today, with many revisions.

2. The Napoleonic Code influenced the Civil codes of countries in Europe and Latin America.

3. This set of Civil Codes was the first time French laws were emended and changed since the Roman Era.

4. A group of writers, which included Jean-Jacques-Regis de Cambaceres, duke de Parme, and Jean-Ignace Jacqueminot wrote the Napoleonic Code.

5. The Napoleonic Code was drafted and was rejected four times before being approved because the National Convention believed that the Code was too wordy and complicated and would be hard for citizens to understand and follow.

6. The Code was split into three books. The first book explained the laws and rights of the people, which included the freedom of speech and the right to a fair trail. The second book explained laws, such as property rights. The third and final book explained the ways to gain rights. For example, by succession, donation, or marriage.

7. The Civil Code limited women’s rights. Women were forced to be obedient to their husbands, and could basically do nothing without their approval. The husband also controlled all of assets that the family might own.

8. The Code was first introduced abroad in Luxembourg, parts of Germany, and Belgium.

9. The Code would become the law in any country Napoleon would conquer.

10. The Napoleonic code is still used today in Monaco, Belgium, and Luxembourg.

Sources:

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Napoleonic-Code

https://www.crf-usa.org/bill-of-rights-in-action/bria-15-2-a-the-code-napoleon

# data[].attributes.body
- This time is called the 100 days because of the period from the return of Napoleon from exile to his final defeat at Waterloo which after king Louis XVII regained the throne
- this period affected later generations of presidents making introducing the term The first 100 days.
-the 4 great powers put 150,000 ,en in the battlefield just to end Napoleons rule
- it started on march 20 1815 and ended on july 8 1815
- The battle of Waterloo was in Belgium and that marked the final defeat of Napoleon
-Napoleon was then exiled after loosing the battle at Saint Helena and then died
-The 100 days was also known as the seventh coalition
-Napoleon;ean surrendered himself to the british after the allies met in paris
- although napoleon was a great leader and a smart person in general he struggled a lot after he got back from exile
- The duke of wellington defeated Napoleon at the battle of waterloo

# data[].attributes.body
1. The Peninsular War was fought in the Iberian Peninsula (The land containing Spain and Portugal) and lasted from 1808–1814.

2. The Peninsular War was a massive failure for Napoleon and contributed greatly to his downfall.

3. Arther Wellesley the future Duke of Wellington would play a large part in leading the British Army in driving out the French from Portugal and Spain.

4. When Napoleon made it clear that he was taking control of Spain (even putting his brother Joseph on the throne) the Spanish people started a revolt in Madrid on May 2, 1808.

5. Insurrections took place all over Spain.  In these insurrections the Spanish people proved proficient in guerrilla warfare.

6. In December 1808 the French counter attacked and took back Madrid.

7. In August 1, 1808, the British under Arther Wellesley  landed in Portugal and were easily able to conquer Lisbon.

8. Over the course of the Peninsular war many inconclusive Battles were fought.  These battles took a heavy toll on French recourses.

9. Arther Wellesley concluded the Peninsular war after defeating the French at the Battle of Vitoria on June 21, 1813.

10. Marshall Louis-Gabriel Suchet was the only French general to be successful in Spain.  He was able to annihilate the British army at Maria on June, 1809, and on April 22, 1810.  He was also able to capture the city of Valencia in 1812.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Peninsular War, (1808-14), that part of the Napoleonic Wars fought in the Iberian Peninsula, where the French were opposed by British, Spanish, and Portuguese forces. Napoleon's peninsula struggle contributed considerably to his eventual downfall; but until 1813 the conflict in Spain and Portugal, though costly, exercised only an indirect effect upon the progress of French affairs in central and eastern Europe. The war in the Peninsula did interest the British, because their army made no other important contribution to the war on the continent between 1793 and 1814; the war, too, made the fortunes of the British commander Arthur Wellesley, afterward duke of Wellington.

Napoleon's pact with Russia at Tilsit (July 7, 1807) left him free to turn his attention toward Britain and toward Sweden and Portugal, the two powers that remained allied or friendly to Britain. Russia, it was decided, would deal with Sweden, while Napoleon, allied to Spain since 1796, summoned (July 19) the Portuguese "to close their ports to the British and declare war on Britain." His intention was to complete the Continental System designed to make economic war against Britain, for there was no other means to bring it to seek peace than by striking at its trade. When the Portuguese proved dilatory, Napoleon ordered General Andoche Junot, with a force of 30,000, to march through Spain to Portugal (October-November 1807). The Portuguese royal family fled, sailing to Brazil, and Junot arrived in Lisbon on November 30. The French army that conquered Portugal, however, also occupied parts of northern Spain; and Napoleon, whose intentions were now becoming clear, claimed all of Portugal and certain provinces of northern Spain. Unable to organize government resistance, the Spanish minister Godoy persuaded his king, Charles IV, to imitate the Portuguese royal family and escape to South America. The journey from Madrid was halted at Aranjuez, where a revolt organized by the "Fernandista" faction (March 17, 1808) procured the dismissal of Godoy and the abdication of Charles IV in favour of his son Ferdinand VII. Napoleon, taking advantage of the situation, sent in General Joachim Murat to occupy Madrid and, by a mixture of threats and promises, induced both Charles and Ferdinand to proceed to Bayonne for conferences. There, on May 5, 1808, Napoleon forced Ferdinand to abdicate in favour of Charles and Charles in favour of himself. In exchange, Napoleon promised that Spain should remain Roman Catholic and independent, under a ruler whom he would name. He chose his brother Joseph Bonaparte. On May 2, however, the people of Madrid had already risen against the invader, and the war for Spanish independence had begun.

The rebellion in Madrid began the movement that ultimately proved fatal to Napoleon's power. Although the Madrid revolt was ruthlessly suppressed by the French, provincial insurrections took place thoroughout Spain, and the Spaniards showed great capacity for guerrilla warfare. The French were repulsed from Valencia, and General Pierre Dupont, who had advanced into Andalusia, was compelled to retreat and ultimately to capitulate with all his army at Bailén (July 23). The Spaniards now advanced upon the capital and expelled Joseph Bonaparte (August).

The French counterattack, leading to the recapture of Madrid (December 1808), forced the junta to retreat southward to Sevilla (Seville). In January 1810 General Nicolas de Dieu Soult began the conquest of Andalusia, and, with the fall of Sevilla in the same month, the central junta fled to Càdiz. Only the obstinate resistance of Wellington in Portugal, the continuous activity of the guerrillas, and dissensions among the French saved the peninsula from final submission. Indeed, the British forces, which had first landed in Portugal on August 1, 1808, quickly achieved some successes, conquering Lisbon and forcing the evacuation of the French from Portugal (Convention of Cintra, August 30, 1808). In 1809 the French returned to Portugal, briefly holding Oporto and Lisbon; but Wellington, with some difficulties, was able to outflank them and lead a force toward Madrid. His victory at the Battle of Talavera (July 27-28, 1809) was short-lived, nevertheless, and he was compelled to retreat to central Portugal, where he fortified himself within the country around Lisbon, now again under British rule. His celebrated "lines of Torres Vedras" were defensive works designed to resist any army that Napoleon could send against them.

For the next two years the battles and campaigns in various parts of Spain and Portugal, though numerous, were inconclusive. They did, however, wear down the resources of the French, in both men (now numbering more than 200,000) and matériel; and, when Napoleon in 1811-12 directed his whole attention toward Russia, not only were the depleted peninsular armies not reinforced but as many as 30,000 men were withdrawn for the Grand Army marching east.

Thus, from his base in Portugal, which he had successfully defended, Wellington in 1812 began his gradual advance into Spain. His defeat of Marshal Jean-Baptiste Jourdan at the Battle of Vitoria on June 21, 1813, finally decided the issue in the peninsula. Joseph Bonaparte withdrew from Spain, and Wellington fought his way across the Pyrenees into France (August 1813). Napoleon, after his crushing defeat at Leipzig (October 16-19, 1813), recognized the impossibility of retaining his hold on Spain and released Ferdinand, who had been detained by the French at Valençay since his abdication in 1808. In March 1814 Ferdinand VII returned to Spain and the throne.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Peninsular War | Definition, Battles, Dates, Significance, & Facts

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Peninsular War (1808-14), that part of the Napoleonic Wars fought in the Iberian Peninsula, where the French were opposed by British, Spanish, and Portuguese forces. Napoleon's peninsula struggle contributed considerably to his eventual downfall. Learn more about the Peninsular War in this article.

# data[].attributes.headline
The Louisiana Purchase - Sayee Deshpande

# data[].attributes.subject
The Louisiana Purchase - Sayee Deshpande

# data[].attributes.body
Napoleon knew that creating an empire was incredibly expensive, and he also needed a lot of money in order to fight the British. So, he had to sell property to the United States of America.

He sells the Louisiana territory to the United States, which was about 828,000 square miles.

The Louisiana Territory was sold to USA for 15 million dollars in 1803.

USA has doubled because of this exchange- so the country becomes more of an economic competitor to France (even though they are still allies)

The Louisiana territory would be worth 309 million dollars today.

The president that signed an act to pay France for the Louisiana Purchase was Thomas Jefferson.

Louisiana territory contained 15 current US states

The Louisiana purchase was the largest territory the United Stated had ever gained, and it was about double the size of the previous USA land.

Napoleon’s brothers disagreed with the Louisiana purchase, and tried talking Napoleon out of it. However Napoleon was offended and said his brothers were being disrespectful.

America bought Louisiana with loan money— they borrowed the money from 2 European banks, because Napoleon needed the money IMMEDIATELY.

(Source: https://www.discoverwalks.com/blog/united-states/top-10-sensational-facts-about-louisiana-purchase-1803/ )

# data[].attributes.headline
Public Education System by Adhya Mukunda 

# data[].attributes.subject
Public Education System by Adhya Mukunda 

# data[].attributes.body
Napoleon's Structure of Boy's Education
1)It was divided into under age 12 and over age 12
2)The first 4 grades would be taught general topics
3)The second class was meant for kids pursuing a civil or military career. Education was separate for both career paths
***
4)This education system is still used in France today
5) Elementary schools were supposed to be the responsibility of the local municipalities
6)All of the secondary schools were controlled by the state
7)Napoleon believed education was important for girls to have, just not the same education as boys
8)Lycees provided education beyond secondary schools and were supported and controlled by the state
9)Lycees had a 6 year term of study that included languages, modern literature, science, and other topics
10)One of the reasons Napoleon developed the public schools was so that the middle-class would be more successful from the education, resulting in less revolutionary thoughts and ideas
Source: https://www.napoleon-series.org/research/society/c_education.html

# data[].attributes.body
Source Used: https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwiYid7Vstf7AhVIlIkEHUiVA2sQFnoECBUQAw&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FBank_of_France&usg=AOvVaw0N3fWV_6LXIs0MK_nELnzn

- After the severe recession of the revolutionary era, Napoleon Bonaparte established the Banque de France to promote economic growth.

- In exchange for discounting trade bills, this new institution was tasked with creating notes payable on sight.

- The Bank's activities were organized under its original statutes, although there were still other rival issuing institutions.
- The Bank acquired an issuing license for Paris in 1803, and eventually for the entire nation in 1848.

- The Banque de France printed two notes in June and July 1800.

- Napoleon granted the bankers authority over the new Bank of France, giving them a monopoly over French banking.

- Napoleon founded the Bank of France in 1800.

- When the shareholders' meeting approved the establishment of a Council of Regency, financial control over France was held by fifteen members of the bank.

# data[].attributes.body
-The Continental System was a blockade Napoleon planned to weaken Great Britain by destroying British trade.
- It was enforced on, November 21, 1806.
-The Luddite protest movement against unemployment in England was inspired by the Continental System, which also impacted English industry.

-The system hurt areas dependent on international trade.
-Because of the British Navy's greater strength, their blockade did not last very long.
-When British allies like Portugal and Sweden failed to cooperate, it led to destructive conflicts.
-By threatening to sink any ship that refused to dock in a British port or chose to cooperate with France, the British weakened the Continental system. For neutral countries like the US, this double threat made things tough.
-The Embargo Act of 1807 (against both Great Britain and France) and  Macon's Bill were taken by the American government.
-For three months, all embargoes against France and Britain were lifted by Macon's Bill.
-Many other businesses that depended on export markets also saw a collapse, including shipbuilding and its related trades.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/the-continental-system/

# data[].attributes.body
1. Napoleon was the person who first revolutionized the idea of primary schools available to every single person
2. In a regular school in France back in 1803 (after Napoleon created public schools), students would learn about reading, writing, arithmetic, practical geometry, French history, and also grammar.
3. Some people who decide not to go to primary school, go to secondary school. Secondary schools are arranged for every 300,000 people. Since there was around 30 million people in France back then, there were around 100 secondary schools.
4. Napoleon at first created public primary school to train officials, but instead has made millions of families happy and allowed their children to go to school.
5. Napoleon believed that school is the most efficacious social engine at the time, and would propel their society.
6. Unlike life right now, students beginning at a young age would learn about topics in school that would help them in their future.
7. Both girls and boys would learn about similar topics, but they both would learn about some extra topics that would be helpful due to their gender.
8. In the year of 1807, Napoleon stated his opinion on public education at a Council of State meeting. This event would lead to the creation of a university only a year later.
9.  Throughout this time, private schools were still a thing, but they would have to pay taxes to even keep them still. Private schools were kept because people that were considered a part of the 1st estate, want their kids to have a good education, not anywhere near the kids in the 2nd and 3rd estate. But not all people in the clergy were like this.
10. We can thank Napoleon for public education, or life would be very different as he provided France order, structure and a self replenishing teaching staff to make sure that the schools were up to standard.

Source:
https://www.studymode.com/essays/Napoleon's-Revolutionized-French-Education-System-75199.html

# data[].attributes.body
This battle is known as on of Napoleon’s most greatest victories

This battle was between France against Austria and Russia who lost miserably

The Battle of Austerlitz was the first battle of the War of the Third Coalition (1805-1806)

The French army consisted of 68,000 troops, and they were able to beat Austria and Russia’s (Allies) 90,000 troops

Allies were led by General M.I. Kutuzov who was given command by Russian Emperor Alexander I.

Emperor Alexander I ended up taking supreme control of the army, and made a bad decision: to fight the French while the Allies were weak.

Napoleon and his army fled the plateau to set a trap when the Allies attempted to capture it.

Russian and Austrians try to cut the French army off by having 40,000 men attack the south side. The 10,500 French troops resisted this attack.

At the end of the battle, the Allies had 15,000 troops wounded and dead, and 11,000 captured. France had 9,000 men dead

Austria had to sign the Treat of Pressburg to maintain peace between France, and to keep Prussia out of the anti-French alliance for the time being

Source: https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Austerlitz

# data[].attributes.headline
The Louisiana purchase by Ashley drobbin 

# data[].attributes.subject
The Louisiana purchase by Ashley drobbin 

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.monticello.org/thomas-jefferson/louisiana-lewis-clark/the-louisiana-purchase/

- The Louisiana purchase was a land deal between the USA and France.
-The United States got 827,000 miles of land west of the Mississippi River.
-The French army’s slaves had been taken over by yellow fever, and a war with Britain was breaking out.
-Frances finance minister told Napoleon that saint domingue wasn’t valuable and that they couldn’t afford forces to occupy the area, so they should sell it to the United States of America. -James Monroe and Livingston decided to purchase the land for 15 million.
- The treaty needed to be approved by the end of October, so they had time to discuss.
- The senate ratified it on October 20.
-It had votes of 24-7.
-Spain was very upset by this, but still returned it to France. - - France gave it to the United States, and they had formal possession by December 30th.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A look at Jefferson's role in the Louisiana Purchase, which doubled the size of the young American republic.

# data[].attributes.body
1) The Louisiana purchase consisted of 530,000,000 acres of land.

2) It consisted of 15 different states

2) The Territory was sold for 15 million dollars in 1803. It was lest than 3 cents an acre.

3) Napoleon was going to use the area that he had as the Louisiana Purchase to expand his empire further.

4) Napoleon was not able to expand his empire into the new world because he sold it.

5) France discovered the New World by exploring the Mississippi River, and calming it was there’s.

6) In the French Revolution the French claimed the land west of the Mississippi River to Spain the other part to the British

7) As the US expanded to the west, they were getting closer and closer to the French’s territory. They were scared what Napoleon  would do with the Mississippi River.

8) At first the president at the time James Monroe was think of negotiating a price with French for New Orleans. Soon after the French came to the US asking them if they wanted to buy the whole piece of territory.

9) Lewis and Clark were sent on to explore the west that they have just bought from the France.

10) The first state that was made after the Purchase was Louisiana.

Sources:
- https://history.state.gov/milestones/1801-1829/louisiana-purchase
-https://www.history.com/topics/westward-expansion/louisiana-purchase

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Table of Contents

1. France in the New World

2. Louisiana Territory Changes Hands

3. Louisiana Purchase Negotiations

4. Legacy of the Louisiana Purchase

The Louisiana Purchase of 1803 brought into the United States about 828,000 square miles of territory from France, thereby doubling the size of the young republic. What was known at the time as the Louisiana Territory stretched from the Mississippi River in the east to the Rocky Mountains in the west and from the Gulf of Mexico in the south to the Canadian border in the north. Part or all of 15 states were eventually created from the land deal, which is considered one of the most important achievements of Thomas Jefferson's presidency.

France in the New World

Beginning in the 17th century, France explored the Mississippi River valley and established scattered settlements in the region.

By the middle of the 18th century, France controlled more of the present-day United States than any other European power: from New Orleans northeast to the Great Lakes and northwest to modern-day Montana.

In 1762, during the French and Indian War, France ceded French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to Spain and in 1763 transferred nearly all of its remaining North American holdings to Great Britain. Spain, no longer a dominant European power, did little to develop Louisiana during the next three decades.

Louisiana Territory Changes Hands

In 1796, Spain allied itself with France, leading Britain to use its powerful navy to cut off Spain from America. And in 1801, Spain signed a secret treaty with France to return the Louisiana Territory to France.

Reports of the retrocession caused considerable unease in the United States. Since the late 1780s, Americans had been moving westward into the Ohio River and Tennessee River valleys, and these settlers were highly dependent on free access to the Mississippi River and the strategic port of New Orleans.

U.S. officials feared that France, resurgent under the leadership of Napoleon Bonaparte, would soon seek to dominate the Mississippi River and access to the Gulf of Mexico. In a letter to U.S. minister to France Robert Livingston, President Thomas Jefferson stated, "The day that France takes possession of New Orleans...we must marry ourselves to the British fleet and nation."

Livingston was ordered to negotiate with French Finance Minister Barbé-Marbois for the purchase of New Orleans.

Louisiana Purchase Negotiations

France was slow in taking control of Louisiana, but in 1802 Spanish authorities, apparently acting under French orders, revoked a U.S.-Spanish treaty that granted Americans the right to store goods in New Orleans.

In response, Jefferson sent future U.S. president James Monroe to Paris to aid Livingston in the New Orleans purchase talks. In mid-April 1803, shortly before Monroe's arrival, the French asked a surprised Livingston if the United States was interested in purchasing all of Louisiana Territory.

It's believed that the failure of France to put down a slave revolution in Haiti, the impending war with Great Britain and probable British naval blockade of France - combined with French economic difficulties - may have prompted Napoleon to offer Louisiana for sale to the United States.

Negotiations moved swiftly, and at the end of April the U.S. envoys agreed to pay $11,250,000 and assume claims of American citizens against France in the amount of $3,750,000. In exchange, the United States acquired the vast domain of Louisiana Territory, some 828,000 square miles of land.

The treaty was dated April 30 and signed on May 2. In October, the U.S. Senate ratified the purchase, and in December 1803 France transferred authority over the region to the United States.

Legacy of the Louisiana Purchase

The acquisition of the Louisiana Territory for the bargain price of less than three cents an acre was among Jefferson's most notable achievements as president. American expansion westward into the new lands began immediately, and in 1804 a territorial government was established.

Jefferson soon commissioned the Lewis and Clark Expedition, led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, to explore the territory acquired in the Louisiana Purchase.

On April 30, 1812, exactly nine years after the Louisiana Purchase agreement was made, the first state to be carved from the territory - Louisiana - was admitted into the Union as the 18th U.S. state.
Access hundreds of hours of historical video, commercial free, with HISTORY Vault. Start your free trial today.

Fact Check

We strive for accuracy and fairness. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Louisiana Purchase - Definition, Facts & Importance | HISTORY

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Louisiana Purchase of 1803 introduced about 828,000,000 square miles of territory from France into the United States, thereby doubling the size of the young republic. Explore the facts about this important acquisition and its lasting legacy on Thomas Jefferson's presidency.

# data[].attributes.headline
The Napoleonic Code - Gokul Krishnaswamy

# data[].attributes.subject
The Napoleonic Code - Gokul Krishnaswamy

# data[].attributes.body
The Napoleonic Code was a civil code of France that was put into effect on March 21, 1804.

It was the main influencer of many civil codes created by most European countries.

The process for creating this civil code started in 1793 by the National Convention.

There were four drafts for this project, but they were all unsuccessful.

The last draft was created by Jean-Ignace Jacqueminot and was presented by a new commission that was created in 1799.

Another commission was chosen to work on the legislative piece after Napoleon became first consul.

A draft was created, and with a lot of discussion and the support of Napoleon, it was finally converted into law.

It was initially 36 laws that were passed between 1801 and 1803, but on March 21, 1804, those laws were grouped together into a single piece of legislation.

Initially it was called the Code Civil des Francais, but it was later changed to Code Napoleon in 1807 to honor Napoleon as the person who managed to finish off the huge project.

These set of laws were first imposed on areas that were under French control before being imposed on regions conquered by Napoleon.

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Napoleonic-Code

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
This article was most recently revised and updated by

Napoleonic Code, French civil code enacted on March 21, 1804, and still extant, with revisions. It was the main influence on the 19th-century civil codes of most countries of continental Europe and Latin America.

Forces behind codification

The demand for codification and, indeed, codification itself preceded the Napoleonic era (1799-1815). Diversity of laws was the dominant characteristic of the prerevolutionary legal order. Roman law governed in the south of France, whereas in the northern provinces, including Paris, a customary law had developed, based largely on feudal Frankish and Germanic institutions. Marriage and family life were almost exclusively within the control of the Roman Catholic Church and governed by canon law. In addition, starting in the 16th century, a growing number of matters were governed by royal decrees and ordinances as well as by a case law developed by the parlements. The situation inspired Voltaire to observe that a traveler in France "changes his law almost as often as he changes his horses." Each area had its own collection of customs, and, despite efforts in the 16th and 17th centuries to organize and codify each of those local customary laws, there had been little success at national unification. Vested interests blocked efforts at codification, because reform would encroach upon their privileges.

After the French Revolution, codification became not only possible but almost necessary. Powerful groups such as the manors and the guilds had been destroyed; the secular power of the church had been suppressed; and the provinces had been transformed into subdivisions of the new national state. Political unification was paired with a growing national consciousness, which, in turn, demanded a new body of law that would be uniform for the entire state. The Napoleonic Code, therefore, was founded on the premise that, for the first time in history, a purely rational law should be created, free from all past prejudices and deriving its content from "sublimated common sense"; its moral justification was to be found not in ancient custom or monarchical paternalism but in its conformity to the dictates of reason.

Giving expression to those beliefs and to the needs of the revolutionary government, the National Assembly adopted a unanimous resolution on September 4, 1791, providing that "there shall be a code of civil laws common for the entire realm." Further steps toward the actual drafting of a civil code, however, were first taken by the National Convention in 1793, which established a special commission headed by Jean-Jacques-Régis de Cambacérès, duke de Parme, and charged it with the task of completing the project within a month. That commission prepared within six weeks of its creation a draft code consisting of 719 articles. Though truly revolutionary in both intent and content, the draft was rejected by the convention on the grounds that it was too technical and detailed to be easily understood by all citizens. A second, much-shorter, draft of 297 articles was offered in 1794, but it was little debated and had no success. Cambacérès's persistent efforts produced a third draft (1796), containing 500 articles, but it was equally ill-fated. Another commission, established in 1799, presented a fourth scheme prepared in part by Jean-Ignace Jacqueminot.

Finally, the consulate, with Napoleon Bonaparte as first consul, resumed the legislative work, and a new commission was nominated. A final draft was submitted first to the legislative section and then to the plenary assembly of the newly reorganized Conseil d'État ("Council of State"). There it was extensively discussed, and with the steadfast participation and vigorous support of Napoleon as chairman, it was enacted into law piecemeal, in the form of 36 statutes passed between 1801 and 1803. On March 21, 1804, those statutes were consolidated in a single body of law-the Code Civil des Français. That title was changed to Code Napoléon in 1807 to honour the emperor who, as first consul of the republic, had brought to completion the monumental legislative undertaking. With the fall of the Napoleonic regime, the original title was restored in 1816. Reference to Napoleon was reinstated in the title of the code in 1852 by a decree of Louis-Napoléon (later Napoleon III), then president of the Second Republic. Since September 4, 1870, however, statutes have referred to it simply as the "civil code."

Contents of the Napoleonic Code

Under the code all male citizens are equal: primogeniture, hereditary nobility, and class privileges are extinguished; civilian institutions are emancipated from ecclesiastical control; freedom of person, freedom of contract, and inviolability of private property are fundamental principles.

The first book of the code deals with the law of persons: the enjoyment of civil rights, the protection of personality, domicile, guardianship, tutorship, relations of parents and children, marriage, personal relations of spouses, and the dissolution of marriage by annulment or divorce. The code subordinated women to their fathers and husbands, who controlled all family property, determined the fate of children, and were favoured in divorce proceedings. Many of those provisions were reformed only in the second half of the 20th century. The second book deals with the law of things: the regulation of property rights- ownership, usufruct, and servitudes. The third book deals with the methods of acquiring rights: by succession, donation, marriage settlement, and obligations. In the last chapters, the code regulates a number of nominate contracts, legal and conventional mortgages, limitations of actions, and prescriptions of rights.

With regard to obligations, the law establishes the traditional Roman-law categories of contract, quasi-contract, delict, and quasi-delict. Freedom to contract is not spelled out explicitly but is an underlying principle in many provisions.

Dissemination of the Napoleonic Code and its influence

The code was originally introduced into areas under French control in 1804: Belgium, Luxembourg, parts of western Germany, northwestern Italy, Geneva, and Monaco. It was later introduced into territories conquered by Napoleon: Italy, the Netherlands, the Hanseatic lands, and much of the remainder of western Germany and Switzerland. The code is still in use in Belgium, Luxembourg, and Monaco.

During the 19th century, the Napoleonic Code was voluntarily adopted in a number of European and Latin American countries, either in the form of simple translation or with considerable modifications. The Italian Civil Code of 1865, enacted after the unification of Italy, had a close but indirect relationship with the Napoleonic Code. The new Italian code of 1942 departed to a large extent from that tradition. In the early 19th century, the code was introduced into Haiti and the Dominican Republic, and it is still in force there. Bolivia and Chile followed closely the arrangement of the code and borrowed much of its substance. The Chilean code was in turn copied by Ecuador and Colombia, closely followed by Uruguay and Argentina. In Louisiana, the only civil-law state in the United States (which is otherwise bound by common law), the civil code of 1825 (revised in 1870 and still in force) is closely connected with the Napoleonic Code.

The influence of the Napoleonic Code was diminished at the turn of the century by the introduction of the German Civil Code (1900) and the Swiss Civil Code (1912); the former was adopted by Japan and the latter by Turkey. In the 20th century, codes in Brazil, Mexico, Greece, and Peru were products of a comparative method, with ideas borrowed from the German, French, and Swiss traditions.

More than two centuries after its promulgation, the Napoleonic Code is still living law in a great part of the world. History has thus partly justified the melancholic words uttered by Napoleon in exile: "My real glory is not the forty battles I won, for Waterloo 's defeat will destroy the memory of as many victories....What nothing will destroy, what will live forever, is my Civil Code."

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica Amy Tikkanen.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Napoleonic Code | Definition, Facts, & Significance

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Napoleonic Code, French civil code enacted on March 21, 1804, and still extant, with revisions, that was the main influence on the 19th-century civil codes of most countries of continental Europe and Latin America. Learn more about the Napoleonic Code's development, contents, and influence in this article.

# data[].attributes.headline
Tanishhkaa Kumar - Napoleon and his treatment of Women

# data[].attributes.subject
Tanishhkaa Kumar - Napoleon and his treatment of Women

# data[].attributes.body
Napoleon although he fought for humans rights, didn’t do the same with women’s rights. Even though he showed decent respect for his mother, and put his two sisters in charge of small territories, he genuinely believed that women were less than men. He thought that women were to play a domestic role at home, being a good wife. He believed that women were powerful till the level where they could seduce men, but he did not think women were smart. He said that the true purpose of a woman’s life was to be a good wife and give birth to as many children. When a writer asked him who was the greatest woman on earth he replied saying the one who has borne the most children. He gave himself the freedom to bed any woman married or not. He made many advances at married women and women in the army. Once he made advances at Fanny Bertrand, and she said no. He accused her of being a whore and told her husband that he should sell his wife to a brothel. Maria Caroline was the Queen of Naples and the real power behind King Ferdinand IV, and Napoleon didn’t like the thought of that. He wrote her a letter “Cannot your Majesty, who is distinguished among women for your wit, divest yourself of the prejudices of your sex? How can you treat the affairs of your kingdom as love affairs?”. He then sent an army into Naples in 1806, “in order to punish the treason of the queen, and to hurl from the throne that criminal woman, who in such a shameless manner has violated all that is sacred among men”. Napoleon might have been advanced in the battle field and the current thought process, but his thinking on women was no different than other men in the time period.

# data[].attributes.headline
Lycée public school system by Riya Ramgopal

# data[].attributes.subject
Lycée public school system by Riya Ramgopal

# data[].attributes.body
-The first Lycée was established during around 1801 in France by Napoleon

-Napoleon created Lycées so that the education of future administrators, officers, and academics were under state control

-They were designed to provide for a middle class that was successful and therefore wouldn’t revolt against the government

-Unlike other schools enrollment was based on merit and skill not class

-Lycées built on the work of secondary schools and had a six to seven year term of study

-Teachers were provided a fixed salary but they were also provided bonuses and pension

-Napoleon chose the teachers from a list of recommendations provided by the institute

-Scholarships were provided by Lycées with about 2/3 of them going to the best students at secondary schools and the rest going to sons of military and government officials

-Each Lycée needed at least eight teachers, a head master, an academic dean, and a bursar

-The US based their public school system off of Lycées

Sources:
https://www.britannica.com/topic/lycee
https://www.napoleon-series.org/research/society/c_education.html

# data[].attributes.body
-From March 20, to July 8 of 1815, Napoleon returned from exile in Elba and regained power in Paris
-“Hundred Days” comes from the term used in Louis XVIII’s return speech
-Napoleon left Elba and landed in Cannes on March 1st, with 1500 men, starting to march on Paris
-Louis XVIII fled 12 days after Napoleon arrived in Cannes
-Napoleon entered Paris one week after Cannes, on March 20
-He began to make liberal changes to the Imperial Constitution, which would broaden his support by changing former enemies to allies
-Due to Napoleon’s return, Austria, Britain, Prussia, and Russia made an alliance against Napoleon on March 25
-This lead to the armies starting to mobilize, where Napoleon was planning to launch a campaign on Waterloo
-By the end of May, Napoleon had formed his “Army of the North” and started the campaign
-Napoleon left behind many armies to protect France from internal and external threats.
-Napoleon lost horribly at Waterloo, and abdicated 6 days after the battle of Waterloo (June 18th)
-2 Weeks after Napoleon boarded a British warship, Louis XVIII returned to Paris in the second Bourbon Restoration
-The war that was fought between Napoleon and the alliance against him is known as the War of the Seventh Coalition
Source:
https://www.britannica.com/event/Hundred-Days-French-history

# data[].attributes.body
The Battle of Trafalgar was a naval battle between a combined French and Spanish fleet and the British Royal Navy.

The leader of the French and Spanish fleet was attempting to avoid a naval battle, but were intercepted by the Royal Navy.

The battle took place in the seas west of Cape Trafalgar.

Admiral Nelson led the Royal Navy, while the Franco Spanish Fleet was led by Admiral Pierre de Villeneuve.

The British victory that had resulted from the Battle of Trafalgar had secured British naval supremacy for the next century.

The Battle of Trafalgar had been enough of a loss that it wiped away any chances of Napoleon being able to invade the British Isles for the rest of his reign.

No British naval assets were lost, but some crew and Nelson were killed during the battle, while the French and Spanish lost 20 ships, and their admiral was captured.

Traditional naval warfare was through broadside battle with cannons firing at ships from the sides, but instead, Nelson ordered the fleet to move straight into the flanks of the Napoleonic fleet at right angles.

The leading French and Spanish fleets were ignored and were able to attempt to aid the broken flanks, but were defeated and driven away.

Villeneuve had 18 French ships and 15 Spanish ships, creating a fleet of 33 ships, while Nelson’s fleet consisted of 27 ships.

https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Trafalgar-European-history

# data[].attributes.headline
Russian Tactics Against Napoleon by Pratham Saxena

# data[].attributes.subject
Russian Tactics Against Napoleon by Pratham Saxena

# data[].attributes.body
1. When Napoleon invaded Russia, the Russians ran away from Napoleon and tried not to fight a direct battle.

2. Napoleon went deeper and deeper into Russian territory but the Russians did not make contact.

3. Russia adopted the Scorched-Earth Policy in order to combat Napoleon and his army by burning resources.

4. The Russians burned their own capital city, Moscow, when Napoleon reached it.

5. The Russians used the retreating method because they knew when winter struck Napoleon would be decimated without resources.

6. The Russians eventually fought Napoleon but battle took huge losses on both sends and ended with a French victory

7. Napoleon retreated out of Moscow after some time due to the complete lack of resources.

8. When Napoleon retreated, winter had started which played into the Russians plan.

9. As Napoleon and his army fled, the Russian army chased them and constantly engaged them in battle completely decimating Napoleons force.

10. Napoleon, completely defeated, abandoned his army and fled back to Paris.

https://www.britannica.com/event/French-invasion-of-Russia

https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/napoleon-enters-moscow

# data[].attributes.body
- Napoleon was in Egypt when the invasion occurred. Without Napoleon’s talent in the battle field, the French quickly regressed.
- Napoleon was planning to invade Britain, until he got the word Austria was invading them.
- Great Britain gave BIG money to the countries that would go to war against France
- Turkey, England, Austria, Germany (land) , and Russia were all against France
- Russia backed out after it stalled in supplies
- Napoleon had two options, he could fight the Austrian force straight ahead, or he could go down to the alps, and fight the siege
- he decided to take his army and go down through the alps, and into the siege.
- the famous painting of Napoleon riding his beautiful white Stallion down the alps happened here
- The reason he moved south, through the alps, to attack the Austrians is to surprise attack them
- instead of breaking the austrian’s siege, he went to cut their supply line at Milan.
- at first, The battle of Marengo seemed like a victory for the Austrians, but when Napoleon came with a bigger army, the tables turned
- when the two forces met, Napoleon cut his army into two, and targeted one group at a time. Surrounding the Austrians in record speeds.
- The battle of Marengo was a victory for the French
- This battle was a major loss for the Austrians, and Napoleon captured around 55,000 Austrians
- The reason Napoleon won this battle was because of his speed.
- After the French’s victory at the Battle of Hohenlinden Austria’s capital, Vienna, was exposed.
- After Austria’s capital was exposed, they begged for peace.
- the second coalition was a French victory.

The picture included shows Napoleon on his White Stallion crossing the alps, on the way to fight the Austrians.
Sources:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zqllxbPWKNI
https://www.britannica.com/topic/War-of-the-Second-Coalition

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leonty-Leontyevich-Graf-von-Bennigsen

- This was one of the most bloodiest battles of the Russian Campaign.

- Napoleon had more than 130,000 troops with 500 guns, while the Russians had 120,000 troops with more than 600 guns.

- Napoleon didn’t want to flank the Russians, so he commenced a frontal attack.

- He barley used any strategic tactics.

- Napoleon didn’t want to send the 20,000 man strong Imperial Guard and 10,000 other units into battle.

- The French artillery helped tip the scales in the battle.

- Even though the attacks were successful, they were not strong enough to overwhelm the Russians.

- Even though Napoleon won, it was a very narrow victory.

- He lost around 30,000 men while the Russians lost 45,000.

- Napoleon badly hurt the Russian army, but they managed to survive.

- Because he won the battle, he was able to invade Moscow.

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.britannica.com/event/Napoleonic-Wars

This is a series of wars between Napoleonic France and other European countries who were mostly supportive of a monarch.

This period of series upon series of war lasted for 23 years.

France became a dominant power in Europe after a win over Austria in the Battle of Marengo.

Britain seemed to be the main competitor for Napoleon as Britain’s victory at the Battle of Trafalgar ended Napoleon’s threat to invade England.

France were holding strong and became very dominant in many war wins over an alliance of Russia, Austria, and Prussia.

Napoleon’s strategies in war and his tactics seemed to make many European countries fear them.

This left most of Europe from the English Channel to the Russian border as either part of France, controlled by France, or allied to it by treaty.

However, Napoleon pushed his luck to far because he was stranded out in a battle between Russian troops during a harsh winter, which caused them to retreat.

A Quadruple Alliance was formed to go against Napoleon and successfully worked as in the Battle of Waterloo he was defeated by an overwhelming amount of soldiers.

The Napoleonic Wars ended with his second abdication and exile.

# data[].attributes.headline
National Banking System of France by Raj Vora 

# data[].attributes.subject
National Banking System of France by Raj Vora 

# data[].attributes.body
- The system was established on January 18th, 1800
- Created to fix the economy and provide efficient tax collection.

- This decreased the amount of counterfeit money
- Helped fund military campaigns
- Napoleon created this system so he would have more financial control over France.
- He founded the bank with some of his own gold and silver which resulted in a thriving economy
- Inflation was suppressed because Napoleon had lots of control over the economic decisions
- His family helped contribute to funding the initial opening
- The bank restored order at home
- The state was closely connected with the bank

Sources:
1.
https://www.tourisme83.com/the-bank-of-france-established-by-napoleon-bonaparte/

2. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Banque-de-France

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
The shaded part of the map shows the amount of land France sold to the US - The Louisiana Territory

# data[].attributes.headline
The Louisiana Purchase by Saharsh Duddilla

# data[].attributes.subject
The Louisiana Purchase by Saharsh Duddilla

# data[].attributes.body
France owned a territory in North America that called the Mississippi River Valley, an area in present-day United States that extended from New Orleans, to northeast of the Great Lakes, to areas that are modern-day Montana now.  The entire area that was bought is around 828,000 square miles. In 1802, Spanish authorities under French commands, violated a US-Spanish treaty: allowing Americans to store goods in New Orleans. To confront this, Thomas Jefferson sent James Monroe in order to buy New Orleans. However, as a surprise, the French offered the entire Louisiana territory. This was due to the impending war with Great Britain, the impending British naval blockade, and the economic difficulties in France. The US made some negotiations with France and ended up paying $11,250,000 for the territory. France and the US signed a treaty on May 2nd stating this purchase of land. In October of 1803, the US senate ratified the purchase. Then in December of 1803, the US acquired authority to the Louisiana territory. That purchase allowed the US to gain double the land and resources they had previously owned.

https://www.history.com/topics/westward-expansion/louisiana-purchase

# data[].attributes.body
- The continental system was made a law made Napoleon
- The system was introduced November 21, 1806
- The purpose of the continental system was to regulate trade with the British and cripple them financially
- Many countries hated this law because it prevented them from capitalizing on trades
- To get around this law countries used organized crime
- The French did not enforce this laws
- Due to the superior power of the British Navy their blockade did not stand very long
- Portugal was one of the few countries that did not “follow” this law
- Any English citizen discovered would be made a Prisoner of war
- Any ships neutral, friendly, or allied with the British can be subject to search

Sources:
http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/continental.html

# data[].attributes.headline
Napoleon’s invasion on Russia by Allen Joseph

# data[].attributes.subject
Napoleon’s invasion on Russia by Allen Joseph

# data[].attributes.body
Its June 24, 1812. Napoleon currently has the largest known European military to this date. His army had soldiers from various different areas that french had conquered. His army’s speciality being able to strike and deliver the blows at an unmatched pace. But during the beginning of the invasion, Napoleons army managed keep up with the Russians quick and constant retreats. Unfortunately The Russian’s newly adopted scorched earth policy meant that they would burn anything they left behind if they thought it would be useful to french infantry, this made it especially difficult. The french eventually stopped the retreat under the command of a General Mikhail Kutuzov, Napoleon played it cautions and won but suffered a great loss. Still he leads the slowly dwindling army to Moscow hoping for a full surrender. Around 300,000 of the residents had left and napoleon decided to wait it out. A fire breaks out to which 2/3s of Moscow is burned. After this napoleon waited a whole month and was denied a negotiation and was forced out of Russia. He was constantly attacked and ambushed, his men were tired, hungry, and extremely cold. He kept on until he arrived at the border of French territory, to which he abandoned his army and fled back to Paris. Six days later less than 100,000 of the original had made their way back to Paris. This catastrophe meant a great deal to France, and its citizens. He was later exiled to the island of Elba.

https://www.history.com/news/napoleons-disastrous-invasion-of-russia

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
This shows the Path of Continental System and it also shoes the Parts where there could be trade and imports and exports.

# data[].attributes.body
- Economic warfare was attempted with the Continental System. However, the system ultimately did more harm to Napoleon than to Britain.
- The British embargo of Europe severely hindered its internal economy, and the unwise introduction of tariffs
- European nations reduced the volume of trade between them.
- Napoleon personally imposed duties on commodities entering France, no one else in his empire was permitted to impose tariffs on products leaving France.
- Even though this led to a growth in French manufacturing and industry, the Empire as a whole felt a great deal of anger as a result.
- Land transportation was so sluggish that it was extremely difficult for Eastern Europe to import commodities from Western Europe.
- This was a way of Napoleon to show his power and also to create better situations for himself and France.
- Britain compensated for the loss of European trade by stepping up its volume of trade with its colonies.
- The Continental System hurt English industries and helped spur the Luddite protest movement against unemployment in England.
- Because the British had an overwhelming superiority at sea, though, enforcing the system proved disastrous for Napoleon. His efforts to halt evasions of his blockade stretched French forces too thin, and ultimately provoked his calamitous invasion of Russia in 1812.
- Shreyas Mishra