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Although the citizens of the Ottoman Empire were permitted to practice their desired religions and experienced economic prosperity and stability under an efficient and centralized government, these benefits were surface level and prejudices existed within a rigid social hierarchy and various economic systems of the Ottoman Empire.

For non Muslims, the systemic discrimination they faced was present in the economic disparities between religious populations and in the overall quality of life enjoyed by both groups.

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Unlike the empires before them, the Ottoman sultans wholeheartedly believed in competency above social status. Therefore, it was of little consequence whether or not someone was born into a certain social class or religion, but rather their abilities and skills were prized. Those who converted to Islam and trained to be part of the sultan’s elite forces not only received a stable source of income, they could also rise to prominence within the government if they displayed the capacity to do so. This emphasis on capability over inherent status kept the Ottoman bureaucracy efficient and largely free of corruption. All citizens were provided with the opportunity to rise in social status, whether that was by means of the devshirme system, or by economic means, like succeeding in their business. Additionally, even enslaved people were able to gain appointments in high ranking posts if they displayed loyalty to the sultan. Military promotions were also merit based, as were most bureaucratic roles. While the Ottoman Empire was hierarchical, this social order was not rigid, and allowed for significant social mobility on the basis of merit, education, and loyalty to the state.

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The Ottoman Empire combined elements of Byzantine, Islamic, and Persian governmental systems with Turkish traditions to form a very practical bureaucracy. The Ottomans ruled through local officials appointed by the sultans which improved the lives of the peasants. Suleyman was given the name the ‘Lawgiver’ because he was seen to rule over the empire well, implementing a bureaucracy system that worked well. Suleyman’s law code included penalties for criminal acts and for bureaucratic and financial corruption. He introduced a balanced budget for governments. He created the devshirme system, which allowed everyday people to become janissaries, which were soldiers trained to be loyal to the sultan only. Eventually, these janissaries could potentially become powerful political figures. This allowed for social mobility because the most competent of the Janissaries could become government officials, which also created a meritocracy, a system where political and social structure is derived from skill, not inheritance. People with political power grew more able which made the empire more efficient overall. The Ottomans were able to conquer many areas because of their usage of guns and gunpowder. However, unlike many other states, the Ottomans treated the citizens very well in the places they conquered, especially the peasants. An example of competent ruling was during Mehmed’s rule, when tax concessions were established to restore trade with Istanbul by attracting merchants and artisans. A powerful army and navy made the Ottoman empire strong and a very safe place to live. This offered security to normal people which may not have been as prevalent in other areas.

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The average person was afforded a degree of job security and stability thanks to the protection that the Sultan provided. Though agrarian pursuits were the backbone of the Ottoman Empire, citizens enjoyed economic freedom, and were able to choose from a variety of successful careers. This being said, those who weren’t Muslim had significantly less opportunities in the economic sector than those who were. Certain court positions were reserved for Muslims, and non Muslims paid jizya, a tax for “non believers.” The Ottoman Empire, at least up until the 19th century, was a meritocracy, so competency was the main deciding factor of wealth and status. This allowed even peasants to accrue mass amounts of wealth, provided that they were competent, and also meant that the nobility could find themselves desolate if they failed to do their jobs correctly. In turn, this created an economy filled with people who were experts in their designated fields. Additionally, the Ottoman Empire amassed unimaginable amounts of wealth through trade in the Indian Ocean and in Northern Africa and the Middle East. These benefits extended to their citizens, leading to prosperity and stability within the Empire.

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The average person in the Ottoman Empire was allowed to practice their faith, even if they were part of a religious minority (anything but Islam, since the Ottoman Empire was an Islamic state). The millet system provided religious communities with remarkable independence and little regulation - seen in self-governance in many internal community affairs. One could openly practice their religion in said community, and people weren’t forced to adopt Islamic laws. The preservation of someone’s cultural traditions and languages was allowed, as well. Unlike many other empires at the time, the Ottoman approach after defeating a city/state was notably accommodating, as there was no forced conversion to Islam that the government upheld. On the surface level, it appeared that Christians, Jews, and Muslims could all religiously coexist in the Ottoman Empire without fear of persecution or oppression.

Moreover, Sultan Suleyman was a big patron of the arts, hiring talented artisans and architects from all over the world, regardless of culture or religion. The employment of artists from different regions led to an amalgamation of culture in the Ottoman Empire. They were able to integrate their cultures into their work - accommodation existed for these people. Moreover, Islamic law stated that tolerance and freedom of other religious communities were an obligation. This meant that people, regardless of their religion or ethnicity, were able to integrate into the Ottoman Empire relatively smoothly, with little regulation by the Ottoman government. In fact, artists, architects, and poets were encouraged to display their culture in their works, which contributed to a rich mixture of cultures.

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While non Muslims were granted some protections under the dhimmi system (non-Muslim subject living under Islamic rule who is granted protection and certain rights in exchange for paying a jizya and acknowledging the dominance of Islam), they were still excluded from lucrative businesses, legal endeavors, and were considered second class citizens. For instance, they were unable to testify against Muslims in court, and were confined to certain neighborhoods as a form of social segregation. This ensured that they were provided with less opportunities to rise beyond their religion and social class than other citizens. The Ottoman apathy towards progress meant that Ottoman citizens were at a disadvantage, as European powers introduced cheaper goods. They were left at a technological standstill, and any efforts to modernize alienated certain segments of the population who felt their traditions were being undermined.  Since non Muslims had traditionally been barred from profitable economic ventures like tax farming, they became more integrated into European markets, and as such were able to gain economic power. This fostered resentment within the Muslim classes, since the economic stagnation meant reduced social mobility for the Muslim classes. So as modernization progressed, ethno- religious tensions continued to mount, and society was further destabilized by this inability to unite the population under a common identity. Peasants also would have had to leave the countryside and move to the cities, causing overpopulation, overcrowding,  and poverty.

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In the Ottoman Empire, young Christian boys were kidnapped and forced to change religions and be loyal to the Sultan. This caused tensions between states because, although these people could become important political officials, they could also become lifelong slaves to the sultan. The Sultan had strict rules for the Janissaries including a ruling that prevented them from starting families. This eventually caused tensions that would cause revolts and ruin the security that was in place before. What furthered this disruption of security was the fighting over the position of Sultan. Because the Sultans also isolated their children, it made future Sultans more incompetent, which gradually weakened the Ottoman Empire. All of these factors made the Ottoman Empire weak and incompetent with external and internal pressures that were constantly threatening the security of the citizens.

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Although trade was viewed as being of less importance compared to agriculture, the Ottoman Empire was wholly dependent on trade. Trade relations served as important diplomatic and defensive tools in the later years, when the Empire began to weaken due to a series of weakened and incompetent sultans, a product of their own system, given that they would kill the sultan’s brothers in order to minimize the risk of a revolution. When these relations no longer provided protection from the changing economic landscape, the economic state of the Empire fell into ruins. For the average citizen, this meant increased taxes, lower wages and harassment from the military. The Ottoman economy, which had once been stabilized by the trade routes they had control over, was left without a steady source of revenue. The working class was unable to provide for their families, and as such weren’t even able to bolster the failing economy with their spendings. The Ottoman Empire became trapped in a vicious cycle of corruption and debt. The janissaries would loot the treasury, who would then be obligated to tax the citizens to cover the missing sum, and so on. This period of decline was further exacerbated by the Ottoman Empire’s unwillingness to modernize. As the European economies around them enjoyed technological innovation and the financial benefits they brought, the Ottoman Empire failed to capitalize on the novelty around them. As a result, the quality of life for ordinary citizens sharply decreased, detering those who might have had economic ambitions.

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Living in the Ottoman Empire as a non Muslim presented several challenges. A clear religious hierarchy existed within the Ottoman Empire, as Muslims enjoyed the highest status and privileges in society, while non Muslims were legally classified as subordinate to Muslims. An instance of this is with jizya, a special tax only imposed on non Muslims. This tax created unfair financial burdens for Christians and Jews living under Ottoman rule. Another economic disparity between the two religious communities was the timar system, which granted land and economic privileges to Muslim warrior-aristocrats. Moreover, non Muslims may experience setbacks and fewer opportunities based on this religious hierarchy. With these disadvantages inflicted on Christians and Jews, the Ottomans created pressures toward religious conversion. Christians often converted to Islam in order to achieve higher social status with tax exemptions. The transformation of Constantinople into a Muslim city shifted cultural power dynamics as well. Conversions of religious buildings, like the Hagia Sophia becoming a mosque, reinforced Muslim dominance and erased Christian representation in Constantinople. In some cases, religious conversion was forced upon people. The devshirme system forcibly took Christian children away from their families and converted them into Islam. They were then required to serve the Ottoman state (as a government bureaucrat or soldier). This system disrupted family structures of many Christian communities in the Ottoman Empire. Lastly, the imposition of Muslim Ottoman rule sparked several forms of resistance. Some Greek and Armenian populations actively rejected Ottoman rule and many chose to leave Ottoman territories. Some people sought to organize new European crusades against Ottoman power. This created religious tensions and potential instability for those who remained (still lived under Ottoman control).

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Social - Despite the Ottoman Empire being a meritocracy in name, social mobility for those who were not Muslim, no matter how competent, was limited, and the empire prioritized stability over individual freedoms, meaning that commoners were subjected to heavy taxation, and minority groups weren’t granted certain privileges.

Political - Although certain religious groups were underrepresented in the Ottoman bureaucracy, as a whole, it improved the lives of most citizens within the empire, and remained an efficient and effective system that allowed for just and structured governing.

Economic - In spite of the fact that towards the later years of the Ottoman rule, the economy was in a state of ruin after trade routes in the Middle East and Africa were disrupted, at the peak of the empire’s influence, the economy was stabilized by agriculture, and prospered under strong leadership.

Cultural - While religious tolerance was present in the Ottoman Empire, there were significant societal disadvantages imposed on religious minorities, where non Muslims had to convert to Islam to enjoy a better standard of life.